Ore Geology Reviews 13 Ž1998.

345–380

Wallrock alteration associated with turbidite-hosted gold deposits.

Examples from the Palaeozoic Lachlan Fold Belt in central
Victoria, Australia
a,)
F.P. Bierlein , T. Fuller a , K. Stuwe
¨ b, D.C. Arne a, R.R. Keays c

a
Minerals Industry Research Institute, UniÕersity of Ballarat, Ballarat, Vic. 3353, Australia
b
Department of Earth Sciences, Monash UniÕersity, Clayton, Vic. 3168, Australia
c
Department of Earth Sciences, Laurentian UniÕersity, Sudbury, Ont., Canada P3E 2C6
Received 1 August 1996; accepted 1 January 1997

Abstract

The study of wallrock alteration phenomena around slate belt-hosted gold deposits can provide valuable information
regarding the physico-chemical conditions of the ore-bearing fluids and the timing relationships between deformation, peak
metamorphism, granitoid emplacement and mineralisation. Thus, studying the processes involved in the interaction of the
hydrothermal fluids with the host rock is critical in order to constrain genetic models and, ultimately, as a tool for
exploration. Largely due to the characteristics of the host rocks, turbidite-hosted mesothermal gold deposits were historically
believed to lack such diagnostic alteration haloes and their study has long been neglected. However, recent studies in the
Palaeozoic Lachlan Fold Belt in southeastern Australia and in similar tectonic settings elsewhere have demonstrated that
alteration around many of these deposits is more widespread and pervasive than previously thought. A review of existing
information and new data strongly support the viability of studying hydrothermal alteration as a guide to turbidite-hosted
mineralisation and as an indicator of the character of the solutions associated with ore deposition.
Characteristically, the auriferous reef structures are surrounded by broad bleached zones, while disseminations of
carbonate spots, pyrite and arsenopyrite porphyroblasts are the most obvious features of alteration. Depending on parameters
such as fault geometry, fluid pressure, and reactivity and permeability of the host rocks, these disseminations can occur up to
a kilometre away from the auriferous structures. Sericitisation and carbonatisation are commonly discernible within 3- to
10-m-wide haloes. Wallrock alteration chemistry of turbidite-hosted gold deposits in the Lachlan Fold Belt shows consistent
enrichments of K 2 O, CO 2 , S and As, and the anomalous values of these elements also provide the most useful dispersion
haloes for turbidite-hosted gold exploration due to both their regularity and extent. q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights
reserved.

Keywords: wallrock alteration; ore fluids; turbidite-hosted; gold mineralisation; Lachlan Fold Belt; Australia

)
Corresponding author.

0169-1368r98r$19.00 q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII S 0 1 6 9 - 1 3 6 8 Ž 9 7 . 0 0 0 2 6 - 7
346 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
1. Introduction
Turbidite-hosted gold deposits have a wide distri-
bution throughout the world and represent an impor-
tant class of lode gold resources Že.g. Bonnemaison
et al., 1986; Bow, 1986; Boyle, 1986; Padgham,
1986; Sandiford and Keays, 1986; Kontak et al.,
1992; Christie, 1996; Goldfarb et al., 1996.. Exam-
ples of these deposits, which occur in graded-bed
sediments ranging in age from Archaean to Tertiary,
include Yellowknife ŽNorthwest Territories, Canada.,
the Otago Goldfield ŽNew Zealand., Salsigne
ŽFrance., Cariboo district ŽBC, Canada., Muruntau
ŽUzbekistan., Sabie–Pilgrim’s Rest goldfield ŽTrans-
vaal, RSA., the Meguma terrane ŽNS, Canada. and
the Victorian goldfields in the Lachlan Fold Belt of
southeastern Australia. The deposits typically consist
of bedding-concordant and discordant quartz veins,
segregations, saddle reefs, disseminated gold in sedi-
ments andror replacement bodies and they are com-
monly associated with faults, fractures, brecciated
shear zones, drag folds and openings on anticlines.
Although some deposits are characterised by a com-
plex mineralogy, the mineral constitution of most
deposits is simple and comprises essentially quartz,
with subordinate amounts of carbonate, feldspar,
mica, pyrite, arsenopyrite, native gold, Cu-, Pb-, Zn-
and Sb-sulphides and tourmaline ŽBoyle, 1986..
It has long been considered a general rule that
diagnostic wallrock alteration is characteristically ab-
sent or weakly represented in turbidite-hosted gold
deposits ŽSiems, 1984; Boyle, 1986; Cox et al.,
1991a,b; Phillips, 1991.. If present, alteration ap-
pears selectively pervasive or vein-controlled ŽSiems,
1984.. Textural relationships such as sharp contacts
between quartz veins and the enclosing slate, argillite
or greywacke wallrocks seem to support this reason-
ing. Likewise, in many occurrences quartz masses
contain abundant fragments of seemingly unaltered
host rock material. A variety of hypotheses has been
proposed to account for the lack of significant alter-
ation in turbidite-hosted lode gold deposits. Phillips
and Powell Ž1993. argued that the precipitation of
quartz early in the development of channelways
would effectively ‘seal’ the vein-wallrock contact,
thus preventing the ore-bearing fluid to chemically
‘see’ the host rock. Likewise, relatively unrestricted
flow along major structures is likely to keep the fluid
out of contact with its immediate host rocks Ži.e.
waterrrock 4 1., compared to pervasive travel
through the rock mass as a result of retarded fluid
flow ŽPhillips and Powell, 1993.. By contrast, Gray
et al. Ž1991. interpreted d18 O nonequilibrium rela-
tionships between quartz veins and host rocks from a
large number of localities across the Lachlan Fold
Belt in terms of rock buffering under conditions of
low fluidrrock ratios Ži.e. waterrrock< 1; see also
Waldron and Sandiford, 1987.. This interpretation
contrasts with the findings of Cox et al. Ž1983. and
Binns and Eames Ž1989. who suggested that lack of
alteration in deposits within the Lachlan Fold Belt
implied that the ore-bearing fluids must have been in
chemical equilibrium with the host rocks. Based on
textural and isotopic constraints, Cox et al. Ž1983.
argued in favour of a metamorphic origin for the
ore-bearing fluids, as equilibrium conditions are
likely to be attained during peak metamorphism.
Nevertheless, both origin and absolute timing of gold
mineralisation in many turbidite-hosted deposits are
still controversial, due, in part, to the apparent ab-
sence of a diagnostic alteration halo.
Recent studies have demonstrated that alteration
around many turbidite-hosted mesothermal gold de-
posits is more widespread and pervasive than previ-
ously thought ŽCrouzet and Tollon, 1980; Stuwe ¨ et
al., 1988; Annels and Roberts, 1989; Kontak et al.,
1990; Miller et al., 1994; Phillips and Hughes, 1995;
Kwak and Li, 1996.. These studies strongly support
the viability of studying hydrothermal alteration as a
guide to turbidite-hosted mineralisation and as an
indicator of the character of the solutions associated
with ore deposition. Steed and Morris Ž1986. re-
ported that auriferous quartz–carbonate veins at the
Clontibret prospect, Ireland, were enveloped by
bleached, sericitic andror silicified greywackes. The
alteration assemblage consists of quartz, ferroan
dolomite, sericite, pyrite, arsenopyrite and Cr-mica.
This alteration halo, which extends from 5 to 10 m,
is in turn fringed by an irregular zone of propylitic
alteration ŽSteed and Morris, 1986.. Carbonate–
sericite alteration envelopes around auriferous quartz
veins in the Otago goldfield, New Zealand, have
been documented by Paterson Ž1986.. Alteration
haloes in the hosting meta-greywackes and -pelites
have widths of 0.9 to 3.5 m and consist of calcite,
sericite, pyrite, arsenopyrite and kaolinite. Kontak
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
and Smith Ž1987. described the extent and nature of
distinct alteration zones associated with numerous
gold deposits in the Meguma Terrane of Nova Sco-
tia. Although Kontak and Smith Ž1987. were able to
clearly identify variably developed types of alter-
ation Žsilicification, carbonitisation, phyllic, tourma-
linisation., the authors conceded that recognition of
alteration features in the field may be difficult, due
to the fine-grained nature and appearance of pelitic
and psammopelitic host sediments. Thus, geochemi-
cal analysis and interpretation is paramount to the
qualitative and quantitative study of alteration asso-
ciated with turbidite-hosted deposits. The usefulness
of geochemical methods is evident in the extensive
literature documenting the alteration chemistry asso-
ciated with a variety of hydrothermal ore deposits
Že.g. Studemeister, 1983; Siems, 1984; Lemiere et
al., 1986; Phillips, 1986; Robert and Brown, 1986;
Newberry and Brew, 1988; Stuwe ¨ et al., 1988; Bar-
ley et al., 1990; Eilu et al., 1995; Kwak and Li,
1996; Mikucki, 1998 - this issue..
A gross imbalance still exists regarding our cur-
rent understanding of the processes that lead to the
formation of slate belt-hosted gold mineralisation
Žincluding the role of wallrock alteration. when com-
pared with the wealth of knowledge for mesothermal
lode gold in other tectonic settings Že.g. Archaean in
Western Australia; Clark et al., 1989; Groves, 1993;
Phillips et al., 1996.. In this paper, we aim to
synthesise the available information concerning the
documentation of wallrock alteration associated with
turbidite-hosted gold deposits in central Victoria and
present new data from a number of key deposits in
the study area. The aim of this presentation is to
highlight the significance of wallrock alteration for
turbidite-hosted gold exploration and utilise petro-
graphic and geochemical information to constrain the
timing and origin of mineralisation.
2. Regional geology and mineralisation
The geology of Victoria is dominated by the
Lachlan Fold Belt system ŽLFB; Fig. 1., which
represents a part of the composite Palaeozoic Tas-
man orogenic belt of eastern Australia ŽGray et al.,
1991.. The LFB is characterised by a monotonous
succession of low-grade Žprehnite–pumpellyiter
347
lower greenschist facies. metamorphosed Ordovician
through Devonian quartz-rich turbidites with an esti-
mated thickness of over 10 km ŽGlasson and Keays,
1978; Gray, 1988.. Underlying the turbidites is a
Cambrian metavolcanic succession with lavas of
tholeiitic and andesitic affinities ŽCrawford, 1988.
and interflow metasediments Žtermed ‘greenstones’;
Sandiford and Keays, 1986.. On the basis of differ-
ences in sediments, igneous rocks and structural
styles, the LFB has been subdivided into eight tec-
tonic zones ŽFig. 1., which are bordered by major
thrusts ŽVandenBerg, 1978; Gray, 1988.. Slivers of
greenstones and Cambrian metavolcanics are struc-
turally emplaced along these bounding faults, indi-
cating vertical displacement of up to 10 km ŽGray
and Willman, 1991.. These bounding and major
internal, high-angle reverse thrust faults are thought
to have a listric geometry and flatten at depth ŽCox
et al., 1983; Fergusson et al., 1986; Gray et al.,
1991.. The three structural zones that define central
Victoria ŽStawell, Bendigo–Ballarat and Melbourne
zones. are separated by steep west-dipping reverse
faults, whereby displacement and overthrusting ex-
posed successively older parts of the sequence to the
west. The pre-Middle Devonian successions in Vic-
toria have been folded into upright, north-trending
folds and intruded by late to post-orogenic granites,
ranging in age from Early to Middle Devonian to
Early Carboniferous ŽRichards and Singleton, 1981..
Although endowed with some of the world’s richest
goldfields, the Palaeozoic of Victoria is still shrouded
in controversy. Folding and thrusting is generally
interpreted to have occurred during the Early to
Middle Devonian Tabberabberan Orogeny and there
is little evidence for more than a single pervasive
orogenic event ŽGray, 1988.. However, structural
investigations and recent Ar–Ar studies ŽFoster et
al., 1998 - this issue. strongly suggest that folding
across the LFB was diachronous and up to four
distinct phases of deformation have been proposed
for its structural development ŽRamsay and Vanden-
Berg, 1986; Cox et al., 1991a,b; Forde, 1991; Forde
and Bell, 1994; Ramsay et al., 1998 - this issue..
This controversy has significant implications about
the question of relative and absolute timing of gold
emplacement in central Victoria.
The development of better constrained genetic
models for gold deposits in central Victoria have
 348
F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of Victoria showing the extent of Palaeozoic basement sediments and metamorphic rocks of the western margin of the Lachlan Fold Belt
demarcated by the Moyston Fault. Structural zones after Gray Ž1988.: A sGlenelg Zone; BqC sStawell Zone; Ds Bendigo-Ballarat Zone; E s Melbourne Zone;
F s Tabberabbera Zone; G sOmeo Zone q Buchan Zone; H s Mallacoota Zone. Gold centresrmine locations mentioned in text: Av s Avoca; Cl sClunes; Bd s Bendigo;
Sa sSt. Arnaud; Dus Dunolly; Fo s Fosterville; Ma s Maldon; Ta s Tarnagulla; Wa sWalhalla; Br s Ballarat; Wg sWattle Gully.
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
been hindered by the paucity of precise dating of key
tectonic and mineralising events. Although styles of
gold mineralisation across central Victoria are known
to display distinct genetic attributes ŽRamsay and
VandenBerg, 1986; Ramsay and Willman, 1988;
Kwak and Gao, 1995; Hughes et al., 1996., the
origin of gold mineralisation is poorly understood.
Thus, the question still remains as to whether there
has been a single phase or multiple phases of gold
mineralisation and whether the auriferous fluids are
metamorphic or magmatic in origin. Likewise, the
source of gold remains a subject of controversy with
granite plutons, metasedimentary rocks and Cam-
brian volcanics having been suggested as possible
source rocks ŽGlasson and Keays, 1978; Hamlyn et
al., 1985; Keays, 1987; Broome et al., 1996..
3. The dilemma of recognising ‘true’ wallrock
alteration around turbidite-hosted gold deposits
Recognition of wallrock alteration associated with
turbidite-hosted gold deposits is anything but
straightforward for a number of reasons, all of which
might explain why it has been neglected for such a
long time. The most important problem is that any
sampling traverse perpendicular to auriferous reefs
will crosscut the generally steeply dipping lithologies
at varying angles. The bulk chemical differences
between, for example, aluminous shales and siliceous
sandstones will therefore affect the development of
wallrock alteration in mainly two ways: Ža. the de-
gree of reactivity of the metasediment will influence
the extent of any chemical reaction; and Žb. the
dilution of the reacting volume of rocks by quartz
will result in bulk changes of the alteration amount.
In addition, large variations in porosity and perme-
ability are responsible for diversions from the ideal
halo effects. Thus, visible wallrock alteration, though
extensive, may often appear to be absent or only
weakly developed. This is simply because the host
rock composition did not allow for the extensive
development of distinct alteration assemblages, such
as those which are recognised within extensive alter-
ation haloes in reactive ultramafic host rocks around
Archaean lode gold deposits in Western Australia
ŽMikucki, 1998 - this issue.. Therefore, macroscopi-
cally visible alteration around turbidite-hosted gold
349
deposits is often restricted to arsenopyrite andror
pyrite haloes. However, due to the widespread occur-
rence of pyrite in the host rock lithology, most pyrite
porphyroblasts in metasedimentary rocks are consid-
ered to represent recrystallised iron sulphide origi-
nally present in the rock. Both hydrothermally intro-
duced and extensively varying amounts of synsedi-
mentary pyrite commonly recrystallised after cleav-
age development and vein introduction, and it is
therefore difficult to establish the extent of a hy-
drothermal pyrite halo with any accuracy.
The geometry of the reefs, mine-specific prob-
lems Ži.e. common absence of extensive workings on
footwall side of thrust planes. and structural com-
plexities produce further difficulties. For example,
the contact between auriferous reefs and the country
rock is often unfocused, brecciated or irregular, due
to lateral and vertical convergence of layer-concor-
dant and thrust fault-related reefs and spurs.
An additional impediment for recognition of wall-
rock alteration, at least in Victoria, arises from a
prolonged history of postmineralisation weathering.
The exposure of Cambrian to Devonian country rock
to weathering possibly since the Mesozoic ŽJenkin,
1988. has had a pronounced effect on the chemical
composition of these rocks and resulted in their very
distinct appearance in outcrop. While extensive
bleaching, pervasive kaolinisation and sericitisation
can commonly be observed to depths of around 50
m, the generally subvertical orientation of axial
cleavage planes and shear zones allowed meteoric
water to descent to even greater depths in some areas
Že.g., Ballarat East; P. d’Auvergne, pers. commun.,
1996.. Although it cannot be ruled out that hy-
drothermal alteration during the Palaeozoic was partly
responsible for the metasomatism of metasedimen-
tary rocks in Victoria, there is certainly no spatial
relationship between gold mineralisation and the
practically ubiquitous occurrence of deeply weath-
ered, bleached and friable meta-turbidites.
4. Wallrock alteration in turbidite-hosted gold
deposits of central Victoria
Despite the inherent problems outlined in the
previous section, it is possible to delineate some
general characteristic features from the few system-
350 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
atic studies on alteration mineralogy around tur-
bidite-hosted gold deposits of central Victoria ŽTable
1; Fig. 1.. Commonly, the most striking type of
alteration consists of a combination of arsenopyrite
and pyrite porphyroblasts which occur as dissemina-
tions in wallrock haloes around these deposits ŽCox
et al., 1991a.. Aside from these sulphides, main
alteration phases are calcite, siderite, ankerite, mag-
nesite, chlorite, sericite, quartz and albite. Tourma-
line and stibnite are also common in some deposits
within the Melbourne zone ŽGao et al., 1995.. Alter-
ation styles represented include carbonatisation, Žde-.
silicification, sericitisation, chloritisation, tourmalini-
sation and albitisation. This wide range of alteration
styles directly reflects the lithological diversity of the
hosting composite turbidites. Variations in perme-
ability and porosity account for the irregular width of
alteration haloes from a few centimetres to several
hundreds of metres. The potential significance of
widespread development of carbonate porphyroblasts
within extensive zones around gold deposits, which
has recently been highlighted by Phillips and Powell
Ž1993. and Phillips and Hughes Ž1995., is addressed
in more detail later in this paper.
5. Clunes
Auriferous quartz veins at Clunes are surrounded
by conspicuous carbonate porphyroblasts within a
zone of bleached turbidites of Lower Ordovician age
ŽStephens et al., 1979.. Textural evidence at Clunes
suggests a geochemical contrast between this and
more remote country rocks ŽBinns and Eames, 1989..
The auriferous quartz reefs occur along the crest and
adjacent flanks of a major north-trending anticline
and overall resemble a typical saddle reef, although
Coldham Ž1953. argued that the veins occupied faults
transgressing the bedding at low angles Ži.e. flexural
slip.. Vein mineralogy is dominated by quartz, with
minor ankerite, chlorite and albite. The deposit is
characterised by a low abundance of sulphides, which
include arsenopyrite and pyrite, with trace amounts
of galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Binns and
Eames Ž1989. observed mm scale selvages rich in
chlorite and auriferous pyrite fringing the veins and
occurring beyond vein terminations. Emplacement of
the veins appears to postdate the pervasive folding
event and the veins also cross-cut a postcleavage
basalt dyke. Visible bleaching of the meta-grey-
wacke is most intense within a few tens of centime-
tres of veins, while the abundance of carbonate
porphyroblasts appears to be independent of distance
from veins ŽBinns and Eames, 1989.. Although
whole-rock geochemistry of the hosting meta-grey-
wackes revealed that mineralogical alteration had
occurred up to 80 m from the veins ŽBinns and
Eames, 1989., the main chemical effects noted by
these authors were only limited carbonation and
replacement of former silicate cations by arsenic Ž10
to 30 = background within unveined host rocks for
As.. Owing to the lower permeability of associated
pelites, the chemical effects Ži.e. introduction of CO 2
and As. were even less pronounced in these metased-
iments. An unexpected finding of the study by Binns
and Eames Ž1989. concerned the anomalously low
densities of the bleached wallrocks. Failing a miner-
alogical explanation, the deficiencies in bulk-rock
density were attributed by the authors to increased
micro-porosity, induced by more intense deformation
of the Clunes anticline and minor mobility of
lithophile elements during cleavage development.
6. Bendigo
The Bendigo goldfield covers an area of 125 km2
and has produced some 684 tonne of gold since 1851
ŽSharpe and McGeehan, 1990.. It remains Aus-
tralian’s second largest goldfield, exceeded only by
Kalgoorlie in Western Australia ŽWoodall, 1990..
Gold mineralisation occurs entirely within laminated
to massive quartz veins hosted by Lower to Middle
Ordovician turbidites and set in a major regional fold
culmination structure ŽCox et al., 1991b.. The sul-
phide content in the veins is commonly less than
2.5%, while the gold is typically free and coarse
grained Ž100 m m to 2 mm; Sharpe and McGeehan,
1990.. Kwak and Li Ž1996. documented the develop-
ment of alteration mineral haloes around and up to
150 m above reef structures in anticlines. These
haloes, which are developed in metasandstone units
but absent in pelitic units, tend to mirror the shape of
the anticline but do not extend up to the next anticli-
nal zone ŽKwak and Li, 1996.. Alteration assem-
blages consist of phengitic sericite, chlorite, calcite,
Table 1
Mineralisation style and type of hydrothermal alteration in representative turbidite-hosted gold deposits in Central Victoria
Name of de- Mineralisation style Host rock Hydrothermal alteration Carbonate Reference
positr goldfield spots a
Avoca qtz-Au Ž"py-ga-sp-cp . within fault Cambrian to Ordovician carbonatisation, pyritification extensive Sandiford and Keays Ž1986 .
zone turbidites
Clunes qtz-Au Ž"py-asp . within saddle Lower Ordovician carbonisation ŽCO 2 ., arsenifi- observed Binns and Eames Ž1989 .
reefs and possibly on fault planes turbidites cation; potassic alteration
Bendigo qtz-Au Ž"asp-py-po-ga-sp-cp-stb . Lower to Middle desilification, carbonatisation minor Cox et al. Ž1991b .;
within saddle reefs, bedding con- Ordovician sediments Kwak and Li Ž 1996.
cordant fault reefs, on bedding-dis-
cordant reverse faults, spurs and
within vein stockworks
St. Arnaud qtz-Au breccia veins Upper Cambrian to silification, chloritisation, car- not reported Forde and Bell Ž 1994.
Lower Ordovician bonatisation
turbidites
Dunolly qtz-Au reefs on limbs of anticlines Lower Ordovician silification, chloritisation, car- observed Forde and Bell Ž1994.
in folded turbidite sequence bonatisation
Fosterville Au-py-asp Žqtz F 2.0 wt% . in lithic Lower Ordovician silification, sericitisation, Ž fer- absent Roberts Ž 1995.
breccias and stockworks within ruginisation .
shear zones and thrust planes; also
associated with felsic porphyritic
dykes
Maldon a . qtz-Au-asp; b . py-asp-Au Ž"ga- Lower Ordovician contact metamorphosed minor Morgan and
sp-po-cp-stb, mt, Mo, Au 2 Bi.; Žquartz–illite–kaolin . Woodland Ž1990 .
reefs, veins and spurs within sandy
to shaly hornfels in aureole of
Hartcourt Granite
Tarnagulla qtz-Au-py-asp Ž"sp-po-ga-cp .; Lower Ordovician chloritisation, sericitisation observed Molloy et al. Ž1995 .
reefs, veins and stockwork within
turbidites near contact aureole of
Tarnagulla pluton
Woods Point Au-bearing quartz veins, reefs and mafic dykes ŽMiddle regional propylitic alteration; absent Green et al. Ž1982 .;
stockworks associated with inter- Devonian . cross-cutting silification, carbonatisation, Tomlinson et al. Ž1988 .
mediate to mafic dykes Lower Devonian clastic sericitisation
sediments
F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380

Ballarat East qtz-Au-asp Ž"py-po-ga-sp-cp-stb- Lower Ordovician silification, arsenification, abundant d’Auvergne Ž1990 .
mc . on reverse faults, in bedding- turbidites sericitisation, carbonatisation
parallel subvertical breccias, spurs
and crosscourses
Ballarat West qtz-A u-asp Ž " py-ga-sp-cp-stb . Lower Ordovician carbonatisation, sericitisation; two generations, Fuller Ž 1995.;
veins on reverse and bedding-paral- turbidites potassic alteration Ždesilifica- abundant this study
lel faults; also associated with fel- tion .
sic dykes
Wattle Gully qtz-py-Au Ž"asp-sp-ga-cp-po. Lower Ordovician arsenification, tw o generations, Cox et al. Ž1995 .;
within bedding-conformable reef carbonatisation Ž CO 2 . abundant this study
and network of reverse faults

Abbreviations for mineral names: qtzs quartz; py s pyrite; po s pyrrhotite; asp s arsenopyrite; ga s galena; sp s sphalerite; cp s chalcopyrite; stb s stibnite; mc s marcasite; mt s
magnetite.
351

a
Carbonate spots are either ankeritic, dolomitic, sideritic or calcitic in composition; note that carbonate poikiloblasts have also been observed at Maryborough, Berringa and Daylesford.
352 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
sideroplesite, ankerite, siderite, arsenopyrite Žwithin
10 m of auriferous veins., pyrite Ž50 m., chalcopyrite
and sphalerite. Geothermometry of chlorite by Kwak
and Li Ž1996. suggests wallrock alteration developed
at temperatures of around 260 to 2908C. These au-
thors also reported elevated CO 2 values within the
alteration haloes as well as plum-shaped anomalies
of As and Pb above the mineralisation. Cox et al.
Ž1991b. observed the presence of carbonate spots
associated with alteration in the Bendigo goldfield.
Detailed examination and staining reveals that these
300-m m to 1-mm-wide spots have commonly an
ankeritic or, less commonly, a dolomitic or sideritic
composition. Kwak and Li Ž1996. noted that these
carbonate spots became deformed along chevron-
shaped, parasitic fold limbs indicative of a major
deformation postdating mineralisation. Based on pre-
liminary Sr–Rb dating of vein sericite and albite, the
authors ŽKwak and Li, 1996. argued in favour of a
Silurian mineralisation age, predating the Middle
Devonian Tabberabberan Orogeny.
7. Avoca–St. Arnaud
The Avoca–St. Arnaud goldfield is located west
of the Avoca Fault and occurs within the Stawell
zone ŽFig. 1.. Auriferous veins in the Avoca–St.
Arnaud goldfield are characterised by a greater pro-
portion of sulphides than in the Bendigo–Ballarat
zone whereby the sulphide assemblage is pyrite–
galena–sphalerite–chalcopyrite, in contrast to the
predominant pyrite–arsenopyrite assemblage to the
east of the up to 2-km-wide Avoca fault zone ŽSandi-
ford and Keays, 1986; Ramsay and Willman, 1988..
Gray Ž1988. and Morand et al. Ž1995. interpreted
this fault as a steep westerly dipping major Žlistric?.
thrust which separates simply deformed Ordovician
turbidites on the east from polydeformed Cambro–
Ordovician turbidites of similar character to the west.
In addition to the occurrence of extensive sinistral
strike–slip movement along the fault, the presence of
metabasite slivers within close proximity of the
poorly exposed fault implies a significant component
of vertical displacement, estimated by Sandiford and
Keays Ž1986. to be in the order of 5 km. Up to three
cleavages are recognisable within the fault zone,
although these may have developed during the same
deformation event ŽD. Taylor, pers. commun., 1996..
Recent 40Arr39Ar dating of metamorphic mica grown
in cleaved slates from within the Avoca fault zone
gave an age of 440 " 2 Ma ŽFoster et al., 1998.. This
age provides a maximum age for gold mineralisation
within the Avoca fault zone, since the numerous
auriferous structures are commonly associated with
brittle deformation and postdate cleavage develop-
ment, whereas first-order structures and ductile and
strongly deformed quartz veins are generally barren.
Laminated quartz–sulphide–gold Ž"carbon–
silver. reefs within the Avoca fault zone vary from
0.3 to 6.1 m in width and occur along westerly
dipping reverse-thrust fault planes which cut across
bedding ŽRamsay and Willman, 1988.. Wallrock al-
teration around the mineralised fault reefs at St.
Arnaud and Avoca is dominated by carbonate–chlo-
rite " graphite assemblages. Disseminated pyrite
porphyroblasts Žup to 3 cm across. are extensively
developed within 10 m of the reef structures Že.g., at
Fiddlers Reef, west of Avoca.. Green Ž1983. noted
that mineralisation at Avoca is accompanied by a
zone of intense development of carbonate porphyrob-
lasts which extends up to 1 km across strike from the
auriferous reefs. ‘‘However, recent work by the cur-
rent authors has shown that carbonate spotting is
generally limited to ; 50-m-wide haloes along
NNW-trending faults.’’ Sandiford and Keays Ž1986.
argued that the contrasting sulphide assemblages and
distinct halo development around gold deposits in
the Stawell zone may reflect higher fluid tempera-
tures and greater depths for ore formation than in the
Bendigo–Ballarat zone. This hypothesis is supported
by the presence of slightly higher Žto upper green-
schist facies. metamorphic grades in the up-thrown
hangingwall of the Avoca Fault ŽMorand et al.,
1995..
8. Dunolly
Mineralisation at Dunolly is confined to aurifer-
ous quartz reef structures along steep, westerly dip-
ping reverse thrust fault planes on both the eastern
and western limbs of anticlines in Lower Ordovician
turbidites ŽForde and Bell, 1994.. Highest grades
were reported from intersections between convergent
westerly and subvertically dipping fault pairs ŽQueens
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
birthday line., as well as from easterly dipping quartz
veins associated with a westerly dipping fault ŽCairns
Reef; Ramsay and Willman, 1988.. No detailed study
on wallrock alteration has been carried out at
Dunolly, but Forde and Bell Ž1994. recognised an
alteration paragenesis involving silicification of the
country rock followed by development of sparry
carbonate, carbonate poikiloblasts and chlorite. Ram-
say and Willman Ž1988. reported a close spatial
association between highly carbonaceous and poten-
tially auriferous slates and the reef structures, but
their genetic relationship and significance for miner-
alisation are as yet unresolved.
9. Fosterville
The Fosterville fault zone comprises a system of
NNW-trending, high-angle westerly dipping reverse
thrust faults developed in tightly-folded medium-
grained sandstones, siltstones and shales of Ordovi-
cian age. Horizontal slickensides on the sinistral
oblique Fosterville Fault, numerous crosscourses and
offsets along the 10-km-long fault zone and evidence
for backthrusting suggest repeated reactivation of the
fault system ŽMcConachy and Swensson, 1990; Wang
and White, 1993.. Within the fault zone, fine-grained
gold mineralisation Žusually - 1 m m large inclu-
sions contained within arsenopyrite and pyrite; Mc-
Conachy and Swensson, 1990. occurs predominantly
in lithic fault breccias comprising fragments of
crushed quartz and sediments, without quartz veining
and in quartzose vein stockworks which are exten-
sively developed within a 5- to 35-m-wide diffuse
zone to the east of the fault breccia. Logging of
diamond drill core ŽSP-5. intersecting the primary
zone of mineralisation revealed a dense system of
quartz-rich veinlets and stockworks within strongly
silicified siltstone and carbonaceous slates. The 1-mm
to 5-cm-thick veinlets are commonly laminated
Ž‘crack-seal’ textures., but are in places brecciated
and contain fragments of silicified country rock.
Small ankeritic carbonate selvages occur throughout
the veins which also host chlorite nests and minor
disseminated sulphides. No carbonate spotting has
been observed in the hosting sediments. Visible evi-
dence for wallrock alteration in drill core is thus
limited to inconspicuous discolouration, silicifica-
353
tion, minor sericitisation and abundant fine-grained
disseminated arsenopyrite and pyrite, both of which
occur within several metres of the auriferous quartz
veins. The hosting sediments have been pervasively
kaolinised and ferruginised within the oxidised zone
of the deposit, but it is as yet unclear whether the
metasomatism is related to hydrothermal alteration
or weathering. However, in a recent infrared study
on mineralogical variations within alteration zones at
Fosterville, Pontual et al. Ž1995. demonstrated that
there is a close correlation between gold grades and
an increase in the spectral response of illite.
Several mineralised quartz porphyry dykes occur
within the Fosterville fault zone and are closely
related to the NNW-trending faults ŽWang and White,
1993.. These auriferous dykes, which have also been
pervasively altered to kaolin and illite, contain abun-
dant disseminated sulphides and are crosscut by later
generations of quartz veins. On the basis of petro-
graphic evidence and preliminary U–Pb dating of
intrusive zircons, Arne et al. Ž1998 - this issue.
inferred hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation
at Fosterville to be Early to Middle Devonian age.
10. Maldon
The goldfield at Maldon, one of Victoria’s major
gold producer in the past, is set apart from other
turbidite-hosted gold deposits in central Victoria in
that it occurs within the contact aureole of an Upper
Devonian granodiorite known as the Harcourt
Batholith. The auriferous reefs occur within 3 km of
the intrusive contact and are developed within tightly
folded Lower Ordovician turbidites. Up to 2-m-wide
reef structures are commonly developed on over-
turned western limbs of anticlines and dip steeply
east but are thickest Žup to 15 m. where they cross
fold axes. Emplacement of the quartz reefs, which
are generally concordant with the strike of bedding
and roughly north–south aligned, was controlled by
oblique strike–slip shearing and horizontal dextral
movement ŽJ. deVickerod, pers. commun., 1996..
Gold commonly occurs as visible free grains associ-
ated with lumps of sulphide minerals Žin order of
decreasing abundance: pyrite, arsenopyrite, loellin-
gite, sphalerite, galena, pyrrhotite and marcasite. or
as inclusions within arsenopyrite ŽMorgan and
354 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
Woodland, 1990.. Contact metamorphism of the tur-
bidites produced a predominant cordierite- and an-
dalusite-bearing quartz – biotite hornfels. The
metasediments have a distinct purple tinge and are
spotted with up to 2-cm-wide andalusite and
cordierite porphyroblasts, but sedimentary textures
are commonly preserved, as are lensoidal calcsilicate
concretions. Based on variations in quartz textures,
grain size, mineral assemblages and field relation-
ships, Hughes et al. Ž1996. argued that gold mineral-
isation at Maldon predated the Upper Devonian gran-
ite intrusion. Contact metamorphism is thus likely to
have obscured any gold-related wallrock alteration
features and is probably responsible for the pervasive
silicification of the hosting metasediments. Neverthe-
less, up to 3 cm long pyrite and arsenopyrite porphy-
roblasts occur within several metres of auriferous
reef structures and point to conditions of mineralisa-
tion similar to those in other turbidite-hosted gold
deposits in central Victoria. Another similarity are
partially dissolved carbonate spots which are scat-
tered throughout drill core intersections of hornfels
associated with the Eaglehawk Reef, while Hughes
et al. Ž1996. reported a transition from biotite to
muscovite and ankerite rock alteration selvages away
from the intrusive contact. However, in the absence
of calcsilicate-rich haloes or notable carbonate-
bearing lithologies there is little evidence preserved
for pervasive wallrock alteration by CO 2-rich fluids
prior to the arrival of contact metamorphism.
11. Tarnagulla
The Tarnagulla goldfield is located in Lower Or-
dovician turbidites near the eastern margin of the
Tarnagulla granodiorite. The hosting metasediments
have been deformed into a train of tight to close
chevron folds with subvertical north-striking axial
surfaces and gently to moderately north or south
plunging fold axes ŽMolloy et al., 1995.. The pluton
intruded the metasediments at 391 " 5 Ma ŽRichards
and Singleton, 1981. but petrographic studies by
Molloy et al. Ž1995. have shown that the hosting
metapsammites and -pelites in the Tarnagulla gold-
field remained just outside the approximately
1.25-km-wide contact aureole and thus have not been
affected by a contact metamorphic overprint. On the
basis of structural and mineralogical data, Molloy et
al. Ž1995. further argued that gold mineralisation at
Tarnagulla predated the intrusion of the granodiorite.
The auriferous quartz reefs are emplaced within di-
latation zones along the north-striking Poverty Fault,
a westerly-dipping reverse thrust structure which has
been displaced by numerous east-striking dextral
cross-faults. Cuffley Ž1996. argued that later sinistral
strike–slip reactivation of the Poverty Fault caused
the development of steep pitching high-grade sub-
shoots within the mineralised zone, resulting in a
pinch and swell geometry. The mineralised veins
comprise a variety of laminated and fine-crystalline,
massive or coarse-grained and bucky quartz, inter-
spersed with subordinate amounts of alteration as-
semblages, sulphides and discrete gold grains. The
last are irregularly distributed and occur either as
isolated grains within quartz or intergrown with
pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite and
chalcopyrite. Like in many other turbidite-hosted
gold deposits in Victoria, visible evidence for wall-
rock alteration appears to be limited to the close
proximity of mineralised structures. Minor amounts
of disseminated arsenopyrite and pyrite porphyrob-
lasts occur throughout the associated metapsammites
and examination of drill core reveals the presence of
carbonate spotting in the somewhat bleached host
rocks. In places, these commonly ankeritic spots
contain fine-grained sulphides, magnetite and possi-
bly some organic matter. Alteration assemblages in
the auriferous veins and associated metasediments
consist of sparry to micritic carbonates and fine-
grained dark-green chlorite and sericite. Sericite
commonly defines the spaced cleavage, while de-
tailed examination and staining of carbonates indi-
cates calcite, dolomite, ankerite and siderite are pre-
sent in multiple generations of veinlets and through-
out the adjacent wallrock. No geochemical data are
available but detailed work Žby the authors. is in
progress to assess the extent of pervasive wallrock
alteration and the presence of a CO 2-rich halo around
the auriferous reefs at Tarnagulla.
12. Woods point–Walhalla
The development of a plethora of auriferous quartz
reefs is intimately associated with the emplacement
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
of an extensive array of ultramafic to felsic dykes
within a 15-km-wide and 150-km-long north-north-
west trending belt in the eastern portion of the
Melbourne zone, adjacent to the Mount Wellington
Fault zone ŽFig. 1.. Although gold mineralisation in
the Woods Point Dyke Swarm is set apart from other
turbidite-hosted gold deposits in the LFB of Victoria
in that highest-grade mineralisation commonly oc-
curs within dyke-hosted ‘ladder vein’ reefs, sedi-
ment-hosted auriferous reefs are far more numerous
than their dyke swarm-hosted counterparts ŽJackson,
1996.. The dykes intruded a sequence of strongly
folded and faulted Silurian to Lower Devonian tur-
bidites during the Middle or Upper Devonian, before
a second transpressional tectonic event produced
shearing and faulting of both dykes and metasedi-
ments ŽTomlinson et al., 1988.. Jackson Ž1996.
recognised three distinct fracture-related styles of
auriferous reef structures and argued that gold miner-
alisation only occurred within reef structures which
had formed as a consequence of the second period of
deformation. Dependent on the competence of sedi-
mentary rocks intersected by the fault structures,
stockwork veining and brecciated reefs Žbrittle frac-
turing due to significant displacement across faults.
or laminated Žductile deformation in pelitic units.
reefs would develop. In a detailed study on the
evolution of gold-bearing veins in dykes of the
Woods Point Dyke Swarm, Green et al. Ž1982.
showed that the dykes had been subjected to several
stages of alteration, from late-stage magmatic Žde-
uteric. through propylitic to vein-related carbonisa-
tion and sericitisation. Based on the occurrence of
alteration on offsetting faults within the dykes and in
surrounding country rock, Green et al. Ž1982. con-
cluded that the vein-related alteration must have
occurred after solidification of the intrusive dykes.
From mass balance calculations, Green et al.
Ž1982. suggested that the ore-bearing hydrothermal
solutions must have contained Ca2q, Fe 2q, Mg 2q,
Kq, Naq, SiO 2 , CO 2 , Hq, HSy and H 2 O. Gold
within the veins was deposited late in the paragenetic
sequence and is associated with quartz, ankerite,
sericite and minor sulphides Žarsenopyrite, pyrite,
sphalerite.. Green et al. Ž1982. and Ramsay and
Willman Ž1988. reported the presence of pyrite and
arsenopyrite in the associated host rocks and noted a
marked decrease of the sulphide minerals within the
355
up to 3 m wide wallrock alteration zone away from
the veins. Therefore, and like in most other
turbidite-hosted gold deposits in Victoria, the ob-
served wallrock alteration assemblages around aurif-
erous veins in the Woods Point Dyke Swarm indi-
cate that these minerals could have been produced by
the addition of Ca2q, Kq, As, CO 2 , Hq and H 2 O to
the wallrocks. Likewise, the physico-chemical char-
acteristics of the ore-bearing fluid are in very close
agreement with observations made in other deposits
in Victoria Že.g., Cox et al., 1995, Kwak and Gao,
1995.. That is, CO 2-rich and moderately saline Ž5 to
9 wt% NaCl eq. . fluids with trapping temperatures of
between 2008 and 3608C Žas determined by Green et
al., 1982.. If gold mineralisation in fact postdated the
emplacement of the dyke swarm and the two events
are genetically unrelated, one could argue that the
intrusive bodies simply acted as a particularly com-
petent and chemically reactive unit during subse-
quent deformation, thereby providing a focus for
fluid flow and mineralisation. Richards and Single-
ton Ž1981. obtained a K–Ar age of 387 " 14 Ma for
the dyke swarm, while Tomlinson et al. Ž1988. ar-
gued that post-dyke faulting and accompanying min-
eralisation preceded Late Devonian granitoid em-
placement. These parameters would place a con-
straint on the age of gold mineralisation in the
eastern Melbourne zone and date it as Middle Devo-
nian ŽSolomon and Groves, 1994..
13. Castlemaine–Chewton — existing informa-
tion and new data from the Wattle Gully Mine
13.1. Mine geology
The Wattle Gully Mine is located within the
Castlemaine–Chewton goldfield and represents one
of the typical and major turbidite-hosted gold de-
posits in the Bendigo–Ballarat zone. Extensive un-
derground exposure has made this mine one of the
best studied gold deposits in Victoria and the re-
gional geology in the Castlemaine–Chewton area, as
well as the mine history and its geology and struc-
tural setting are well documented in numerous publi-
cations in the recent literature Že.g., Cox et al., 1985,
1991a,b, 1995; Ramsay and Willman, 1988; Stuwe ¨
et al., 1988; Potter, 1990; Cox, 1995.. The Wattle
356 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380

Gully Mine also represents a classic example for the believed by Cox et al. Ž1991b. to represent one of
development of both bedding-concordant and -dis- several loci for crustal-scale, fault-controlled fluid
cordant fault-related reefs ŽFig. 2. within a region outflow in central Victoria. Cox et al. Ž1991b. ar-

Fig. 2. Shaft cross section through the Wattle Gully gold mine showing the geometry of folds and faults, major rock types, mineralisation
and sample locations Žmodified from Potter, 1990..
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
gued that fluid outflow, intense quartz veining and
subsequent gold mineralisation within these narrow
belts of rocks were associated with metamorphic
devolatilisation reactions in the middle to lower crust
late during regional crustal thickening.
The east-dipping, bedding-parallel Gibbers Reef
consists of a single, strongly laminated quartz vein
which rarely exceeds 15 cm in width. By contrast,
the discordant and reverse fault-related Main Reef
consists of a network of quartz veins and tension
gashes with different dip directions, pinching and
swelling up to 25 m in width and partly crosscutting
lithologies over the entire width of the approximately
130 m wide fault zone. The saddle hosting the upper
parts of Gibbers Reef forms the hinge of a near-iso-
clinal, upright anticline with a north-trending subhor-
izontal fold axis. The hinge of the related syncline
lies east of the reverse fault system hosting the Main
Reef, with fold axial surfaces subvertical to steeply
west dipping. The wavelength of these chevron folds
varies from 100 to 600 m ŽPotter, 1990.. The bed-
ding-parallel flanks of the north-trending fault sys-
tem dip steeply along the cores of the Žwestern.
anticline and Žeastern. syncline. Vein development
and displacement within these segments are usually
restricted to less than 1 m wide zones ŽCox, 1995..
Maximum dilatancy has occurred in the shallower
dipping discordant central part of the fault system
and therefore produced reef widths of up to 50 m
ŽCox et al., 1995.. Its reverse movement has led to
fault drag, local overturning of sediments and rock
displacement of up to 80 m ŽPotter, 1990.. Whereas
the footwall side of the fault system is relatively
sharply terminated by the main fault plane, quartz
veins and tension gashes extend tens of metres into
the country rock towards the hanging side of the
fault zone.
The country rock lithologies are characterised by
the Wattle Gully Slate and the underlying Wattle
Gully Sandstone. Both units are between 30 and 40
m wide and represent Lower Ordovician greenschist
facies metasediments typical of the Bendigo–Bal-
larat zone. Stratigraphically above and below the
named units, generally thin layers of shales and
fine-grained sandstones alternate over the entire mine
area. They consist of mainly detrital quartz, minor
muscovite and some feldspar, together with variable
abundances of metamorphic micas, chlorite and car-
357
bonate. Rare calcsilicate concretions and discontinu-
ous horizons of spessartine-rich strata also occur in
the sequence. The sulphide content of most rocks
ranges between 0.5 and 1.0 vol% Žup to 25% within
carbonaceous shale horizons. and abundant dissemi-
nated pyrite porphyroblasts occur within sandstone
even well distant from any mineralisation. Sulphides
within the hosting country rock are of three general
types: Ža. idioblastic pyrite and arsenopyrite porphy-
roblasts between 0.1 and 5 mm in size; Žb. micro-
scopic disseminated specks of pyrite, pyrrhotite,
cobaltite, gersdorffite, galena and sphalerite; Žc.
framboidal pyrite, whereby the framboid spheres are
made up of small recrystallised euhedra.
13.2. Vein mineralogy and chemistry
The growth of fault-related dilatant fracture zones
promoted the development of an intense array of
veins at Wattle Gully. Quartz commonly forms more
than 95% of veins. As noted by Cox et al. Ž1995.,
carbonate minerals are widespread throughout the
veins and display a wide range of compositions.
Micritic to coarse-grained ankerite Žin places man-
ganiferous. is the predominant carbonate phase
throughout vein growth and commonly occurs as
selvages around inclusions or wallrock segments of
carbonaceous slate. Less commonly, coarse aggre-
gates and fibres of magnesite–siderite Žin solid solu-
tion. occur as replacement phase within some veins
ŽCox et al., 1995.. Dolomitic carbonate appears to be
the last carbonate deposited. Other gangue minerals
are albite, pods of chlorite aggregates, nests of ver-
micular chlorite in vein quartz ŽFig. 3A and B.,
fine-grained sericite along wallrock-vein contacts,
and rare apatite and rutile. The presence of sericite in
the vein assemblage Žrather than kaolinite or K-
feldspar. indicates that the vein-forming fluids had a
near-neutral to slightly acidic pH Žbetween 4 and 5..
Based on the apparent stability of K mica in veins
and adjacent wallrocks, Cox et al. Ž1995. argued
that, with respect to pH, the hydrothermal fluid could
not have been substantially out of equilibrium with
the primary quartz–albite–K mica assemblage of the
host rocks not associated with mineralisation.
Sulphides generally make up less than 2% of the
vein volume. The dominant phases, pyrite and ar-
senopyrite, occur as extremely coarse-grained dis-
358 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380

seminated porphyroblasts Žup to 1.5 cm wide.
throughout the veins, but can also form clusters,
aggregates or nests together with inclusions of, or
intergrown with, Žin order of decreasing abundance.
sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and gold.
Chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite grains occur mainly as
inclusion phases being at least partially replaced,
whereas free grains are relatively rare. Gold occurs
as inclusions or as fracture fillings in sulphides, as
coatings on grain surfaces or as isolated grains within
quartz. Where gold occurs together with sulphides
Že.g. in high-grade shoots., it seems to be genetically
related with sphalerite and galena. Based on the
distribution and paragenetic relationship of gold and
sulphides in the veins at Wattle Gully, Potter Ž1990.
and Cox et al. Ž1995. concluded that deposition of
both gold and sulphides must have occurred over an
extended interval during vein growth.
Analysis of fluid inclusions in vein quartz confirm
the earlier findings of Cox et al. Ž1995.. That is,
three types of inclusions are recognised: Ž1. abun-
dant aqueous inclusions with low salinity, low CO 2
and CH 4 contents and rare solid phases; Ž2. aqueous
and CO 2-rich inclusions; and Ž3. rare high-density
CO 2rCH 4-rich inclusions. Pressure-corrected trap-
ping temperatures for the vein-forming fluid range
between 280 and 3008C and are in agreement with
homogenisation temperatures of about 3008C as indi-
cated by sulphur isotope fractionation ŽCox et al.,
1995..
13.3. Visible wallrock alteration
Macroscopically visible alteration at the Wattle
Gully Mine extends well beyond the vein-wallrock
contact, as documented in some detail by Bowen
¨ et al. Ž1988., Gao and Kwak Ž1992.
Ž1972., Stuwe
and Cox et al. Ž1995..
The most obvious alteration effect in unweathered
material is the development of disseminated ar-
senopyrite and pyrite haloes up to 20 m away from
the Main Reef Žthe macroscopically visible halo
around Gibbers Reef is much less pronounced.. While
the development of sulphide porphyroblasts com-
monly clearly postdates the penetrative cleavage, the
growth of some porphyroblasts was followed by
fabric deformation around the crystals. The up to
1.5-cm-large euhedra acted as augen which are com-
monly fractured, elongated and bounded by fringes
of prograde minerals Žaligned with the deformational
fabric. and pressure shadows. These features suggest
growth within the stress field and imply deformation
during and after sulphide development, while else-
where in the deposit sulphides were either emplaced
or recrystallised after peak intensity deformation ŽFig.
3C and D..
Within close proximity to the reefs Ž0.5 to 1 m.,
hydrothermally introduced pyrite commonly occurs
within little veinlets and is characterised by its red-
dish colour. Further away from the reefs, the intro-
duced and synsedimentary pyrite are optically and
chemically very similar. Microprobe analysis of both
types yield arsenic contents between 0.1 and 0.5
wt%, but there is no relationship between arsenic
content and distance from the reef. Since arsenopy-
rite does not occur as a synsedimentary phase, the
presence of disseminated arsenopyrite porphyroblasts
in the hosting metasediments may give a good esti-
mate of the amount of sulphide introduced into the
country rock. Stuwe¨ et al. Ž1988. and Cox et al.
Ž1995. reported visible arsenopyrite haloes extending
up to 10 m away from the major vein systems, but
recognisable haloes vary between 1 and 10 m. Also,
there is a wide transitional zone between arsenopy-
rite-bearing and arsenopyrite-free metasediments.
Bowen Ž1972. showed that despite significant varia-
tions in arsenic abundance there is a decline in
arsenic as far as 100 m laterally away from the veins.

Fig. 3. Photomicrographs illustrating various alteration features from the Wattle Gully Mine. ŽA. Vermicular chlorite and sericite Žser.
replacing quartz in auriferous vein; cross polarised view, scale bar 1 mm. ŽB. Pervasively altered psammopelite Žser s sericite, defining
pervasive cleavage., cross-cut by quartz–feldspar vein; albite Žfldsp. and wallrock fractured and partially replaced by siderite Žsid.; plane
polarised view, scale bar 2 mm. ŽC. Pyrite Žpy. and arsenopyrite Žasp. porphyroblasts overgrowing cleavage in carbonaceous pelite; note
flame-like alteration haloes and pressure shadows fringing sulphides; cross polarised view, scale bar 2 mm. ŽD. Arsenopyrite Žasp.
porphyroblasts in carbon-rich psammopelite; note accumulation of carbon along edges of porphyroblasts and recrystallised quartz in
pressure shadows; plane polarised view, scale bar 3.5 mm.
F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380 359
360 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380

Because of the constant arsenic values in pyrite, it rite content and therefore a much wider halo Ži.e.
can be assumed that the whole-rock arsenic content 4 10 m. is implied. However, the data by Bowen
is almost stoichiometrically related to the arsenopy- Ž1972. indicate that a major drop in arsenic content

Fig. 4. Plot of the major elements, CO 2 and some selected trace elements from Table 2 against reef distance at Wattle Gully.
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
Žbelow 500 ppm. occurs over the first few metres
from the reefs.
Examination of drill core from Wattle Gully re-
veals that the reef structures are surrounded by up to
10-m-wide zones of discoloured and bleached
metasediments. In places, the contact between dis-
colouration and unaltered country rock is well de-
fined and surprisingly sharp. Chloritisation Žgreenish
coloration. and sericitisation Žfine-grained K mica
laths on cleavage planes, but also in form of large
blades overgrowing the deformation matrix. is
recognisable up to 25 m away from the reef struc-
tures. In addition, prolonged exposure of drill core
material to weathering has significantly enhanced the
distinctness of carbonate alteration. Quartz spurs are
commonly fringed by cm-wide ankerite selvages or
haloes Žaverage composition Mg:Fe:Cas 28:22:50..
Carbonate veining and spotting in metapsammites
and, to lesser degree, in slates is very abundant near
Fig. 5. Al 2 O 3 -normalised plots of some trace elements from Table 2 against reef distance at Wattle Gully.
361
the reef structures, whereby earlier dolomitic veinlets
Žcross-cutting and along bedding and cleavage. are
overprinted by ankerite and Mg-siderite rich veinlets
Žaverage composition Mg:Fe:Ca s 40:59:1.. Al-
though of variable distribution, 0.3- to 1.2-cm-wide
carbonate spots can be observed up to 50 m away
from the quartz veins and constitute the macro- and
microscopically most obvious indicator for wallrock
alteration. As they are of potential significance for
exploration, these intriguing carbonate spots are ex-
amined in more detail in a later section.
Cox et al. Ž1995. noted that white micas in wall-
rocks have compositions similar to those found in
veins. Since the chemistry of white mica is very
sensitive to changes in temperature, metamorphic
and detrital micas would be expected to re-equi-
librate in the presence of hydrothermal fluids. If not
optically visible, the chemical Fe:Mg:Na ratios and
the Fe:Mg:K ratios could thus be expected to trend
362 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
towards K-enrichment and Na-depletion with prox-
imity to the reef system. However, due to the overall
variation in composition of micas mainly as a result
of continuous re-equilibration with the host rock
during cooling, microprobe analysis did not reveal
any of the expected trends.
13.4. Geochemistry
Gao and Kwak Ž1992. reported decreases of SiO 2 ,
Na 2 O, FeO and MnO in black slates from the Wattle
Gully Mine, while concentrations of Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 ,
K 2 O, CO 2 , S, As, Ba, Rb, Sc, Cr and Au increased
where the slates were cut by auriferous veins. How-
ever, as no data were presented in the study by Gao
and Kwak Ž1992., the variations cannot be quanti-
fied. Furthermore, the composition of Palaeozoic
turbidites in Victoria is extremely variable due to
spatial and temporal differences in their mineralogy
ŽGlasson and Keays, 1978; Fenton, 1984.. Compar-
isons between hydrothermally influenced and aver-
age Ordovician metasediments are thus rendered dif-
ficult. Likewise, possible major-element variations
due to hydrothermal processes are likely to be ob-
scured by element variations between different
lithologies. A plot depicting reef distance versus
major and some trace element concentrations of 24
samples analysed in this study illustrates this by
showing the expected trends for most elements ŽFig.
4.. The inverse correlation of SiO 2 and Al 2 O 3 is the
result of a constant sum closure. Consequently, most
elements strongly correlate with Al 2 O 3 and are en-
riched in aluminous shales, while SiO 2 acts as a
dilutant resulting in generally lower element concen-
trations in siliceous sandstones. Only Na 2 O indicates
some correlation with SiO 2 confirming that Na-
feldspar Žbeing the main Na carrier. is more abun-
dant in siliceous sandstones. Hence, and because of
the strong correlation of most elements with Al 2 O 3 ,
alumina-normalised plots are generally more useful
to show hydrothermal alteration. The high variability
of the metalrAl 2 O 3 ratios in Fig. 5, coupled with
the apparent lack of enrichment of Cr, Cu, Ni, Co, S
and Zn near the reefs Žassuming a greenstone source
for the fluid; see below. may indicate one of two
processes: Ž1. the host rocks did not undergo signifi-
cant hydrothermal alteration during vein formation,
or Ž2. the host rocks underwent weak but pervasive
hydrothermal alteration which extends far beyond
the sampled traverse. The presence of distinct CO 2
and, to some extent, sulphur haloes which are appar-
ently independent of host rock lithology ŽFig. 4.
seem to favour the latter interpretation. Anomalously
high CO 2 contents of up to 8 vol% in rock samples
adjacent to the Main Reef have already been re-
¨ et al. Ž1988.. This CO 2 halo ex-
ported by Stuwe
tends to at least 35 m away from the quartz reefs and
is considered to reflect pervasive alteration of the
wallrocks by infiltration of CO 2-rich fluids. Like-
wise, when plotted on a ternary diagram of Al 2 O 3 –
ŽCaO q Na 2 O q K 2 O. – ŽFeO q MgO., analysed
samples from Wattle Gully and Ballarat West plot
outside the field of unaltered siliclastic protoliths and
define a trend characteristic of strong K-metasoma-
tism and thus fluids with high KqrHq ratios ŽFig.
6..
¨
Stuwe et al. Ž1988. demonstrated that the halo
effects of Au around the Wattle Gully Mine are
practically negligible. The gold contents of whole-
rock samples display a pronounced, but very narrow
halo around the mineralised veins with values ex-
Fig. 6. Ternary diagram of molecular Al 2 O 3 – ŽCaOqNa 2 Oq
K 2 O. – ŽFeOqMgO. showing compositional variations and meta-
somatism in the analysed samples. Arrow ‘A’ indicates K-
metasomatic transformation into muscovitersericite with fluids
characterised by high KqrHq ratios; the trend moves away from
the ŽCaOqNa 2 OqK 2 O. apex due to relative depletion in Na 2 O
with subsequent Al 2 O 3 and K 2 O enrichment. Modified from
Nesbitt and Young Ž1989. and Bierlein Ž1995..
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380 363

Table 2
Major- and trace-element analysis of samples from the Wattle Gully Mine
Sample number
44 41 39 37 35 98 123 118 50 69 68
Level 3 3 3 3 3 5 6 8 3 6 9
Reef distance Žm. a y9 y5 y1 y0.3 0 0 0 0 0.3 2 2
SiO 2 55.46 71.93 73.87 70.8 65.72 68.95 41.96
Al 2 O 3 19.7 10.09 9.75 10.93 16.81 12.7 27.54
Fe 2 O 3 Žtotal Fe. 6.82 4.77 4.14 5.07 3.94 4.28 8.03
MgO 3.26 2.03 1.63 1.96 1.32 1.88 3.08
MnO 0.05 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.08
CaO 0.17 0.82 1.17 0.31 0.21 1.22 0.09
Na 2 O 0.3 1.26 1.93 1.46 2.79 0.4 1.02
K 2O 5.28 1.98 1.92 2.39 3.51 3.66 7.05
TiO 2 0.52 0.32 0.59 0.65 0.81 0.68 0.64
P2 O5 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.06
S 0.34 0.22 0.4 0.38 0.3 0.44 0.16
L.O.I. 7.68 6.01 4.32 4.73 3.98 4.41 9.44

Total 99.68 99.61 99.88 98.86 99.59 98.84 99.15

As 58 38 34 70 3866 586 238

Cr 100 41 44 46 60 64 139
Ba 988 415 316 385 518 583 1374
Sc 14 8 5 7 9 9 26
Ce 83 55 92 59 187 103 153
Nd 35 20 7 32 6 41 43
Cu 40 28 21 18 22 43 66
Ga 33 12 9 16 21 16 44
V 124 60 57 65 92 65 177
Zr 111 111 194 142 232 288 133
Y n.d. 30 27 44 31 36 43
Sr 67 196 148 100 98 113 70
Rb 269 11 106 126 197 209 460
Zn 121 83 66 98 102 129 116
Ni 45 37 32 40 36 42 80
Co 19 10 10 56 16 13 22
Cl 55 99 109 41 165 22 94
Nb n.d. 11 11 n.d. 14 13 18
Au Žwhole-rock. 13.6 6.8 39.9 23 278.2 3436 48.3
Au Žsulphide 103 127 244 2769 4908 1266 838 520 733
separates.
Aur100% sulphide 104 142 257 2915 3.85 1808 863 650 917
FeO 6.14 4.29 3.73 4.57 3.55 4.9 7.23
CO 2 5.4 6.4 6 7.4 3.2 7

ceeding 10 ppb only within 5 m of the veins, but
dropping to less than 5 ppb at any greater distance
ŽTable 2; Fig. 7a.. Nevertheless, even gold values in
the order of 1 to 5 ppb in whole-rock samples have
to be considered anomalous and might be significant
for exploration. The close correlation of whole-rock
gold and arsenic contents suggests that the sulphide-
incorporated gold is mainly associated with ar-
senopyrite. However, gold contents in sulphide con-
centrates ŽTable 2. are extremely variable and range
364 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380

Table 2 Žcontinued.
Sample number
71 72 73 74 75 83 80r82 117 88 87 114
Level 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 9 9 9
Reef distance Žm. a 2.5 5 8 10 13 16 22 30 31 33 35
SiO 2 67.82 84.52 59.94 75.09 84.35 54.9 60.36 54.43 57.16
Al 2 O 3 13.57 6.3 18.23 10.48 6.29 21.33 18.73 21.77 20.15
Fe 2 O 3 Žtotal Fe. 4.77 2.37 5.54 4.13 2.08 7.52 6.91 7.35 7.72
MgO 2.04 0.93 2.61 1.53 0.8 3.25 3.03 3.38 3.39
MnO 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06
CaO 0.28 0.62 0.32 0.3 0.47 0.16 0.21 0.15 0.29
Na 2 O 1.55 1.67 0.64 1.8 1.84 0.87 0.63 0.63 0.87
K 2O 2.86 0.97 4.06 1.91 1.14 4.37 4.54 5.79 4.92
TiO 2 0.75 0.62 0.51 0.59 0.34 0.62 0.64 0.75 0.69
P2 O5 0.2 0.1 0.09 0.15 0.08 0.12 0.12 0.1 0.13
S 0.2 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.1 0.14 0.17 0.1 0.18
L.O.I. 5.49 2.29 7.02 4.32 3.45 5.85 3.87 4.67 3.78

Total 99.55 100.5 99.06 100.41 100.98 99.17 99.26 99.17 99.34

As 56 49 36 40 19 39 32 29 31
Cr 62 29 91 46 21 113 91 111 105
Ba 492 154 851 306 173 1174 948 937 914
Sc 9 5 27 12 1 18 22 22 18
Ce 136 57 115 101 80 166 94 131 69
Nd 48 7 21 48 21 43 55 50 57
Cu 23 14 37 26 11 62 46 43 83
Ga 16 3 28 13 5 31 27 33 30
V 77 29 115 60 32 133 122 134 129
Zr 307 281 136 305 257 140 139 145 135
Y 47 27 38 37 25 41 38 38 43
Sr 58 82 65 58 64 68 73 49 79
Rb 153 52 267 102 63 301 249 320 279
Zn 71 44 133 63 42 138 123 117 126
Ni 38 16 46 28 17 71 16 64 64
Co 12 7 15 8 8 22 16 17 18
Cl 327 220 119 87 175 853 126 66 90
Nb 15 7 15 12 8 15 13 17 15
Au Žwhole-rock. 5.6 1.4 5.6 1.8 2 2.5 2.4 2.7
Au Žsulphide 135 203 102 54 54 1563 7 5
separates.
Aur100% sulphide 175 270 136 68 136 1563 7 6
FeO 4.29 2.13 4.99 3.72 1.87 6.76 6.22 6.62 6.95
CO 2 6.9 5.5 6.9 4.4 2.5 1.9 1.2 1.1

from less than 1 to 5 ppm, confirming microscopic
observations that gold is present in form of inclu-
sions rather than in solid solution. Likewise, when
normalised against the total sulphide content of the
samples, the goldrtotal sulphide ratio varies widely
ŽTable 2; Fig. 7c.. This variation, which does not
appear to be related to reef distance, is best ex-
plained in terms of randomly distributed gold grains
in the hosting metasediments.
Sulphur isotope studies by Gulson et al. Ž1988.,
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380 365

Sample number
85 28 23 21 20i 20d 113 111 110 109 108
Level 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 surface
Reef distance Žm. a 41 56 60 64 65 66 103 150 185 200 210
SiO 2 55.55 82.95 79.7 82.68 79.85 61.73 56.31 74.84 77.69 59.61 67.84
Al 2 O 3 21.11 7.46 8.91 8.01 8.99 15.69 20.82 11.52 10.39 19.14 15.09
Fe 2 O 3 Žtotal Fe. 6.93 2.01 2.69 2.22 2.97 6.47 7.49 3.9 4.36 6.75 5.92
MgO 3.11 0.61 0.92 0.76 1.01 3.31 3.4 1.73 1.76 3.05 2.35
MnO 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.04
CaO 0.15 0.38 0.39 0.23 0.22 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.23 0.17 0.07
Na 2 O 0.64 1.49 1.86 2.04 2.52 0.92 0.78 1.95 1.76 1.01 1.05
K 2O 5.46 1.42 1.73 1.2 1.44 4.08 5.23 2.28 1.9 4.94 3.09
TiO 2 0.61 0.71 0.37 0.36 0.42 0.82 0.76 0.6 0.52 0.79 0.69
P2 O5 0.11 0.12 0.1 0.09 0.11 0.4 0.11 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.09
S 0.18 0.13 0.06 0.03 0.08 0.4 0.1 0.04 0.09 0.17 0
L.O.I. 5.17 2.08 2.98 1.79 2.7 4.81 4.14 2.05 2.18 3.6 3.56

Total 99.07 99.37 99.73 99.42 100.33 99.17 99.39 99.38 101.04 99.41 99.79

As 32 8 12 17 20 60
Cr 109 49 33 24 35 110 103 48 53 105 76
Ba 912 272 383 246 266 744 1086 394 316 899 711
Sc 18 8 5 4 6 13 18 9 9 18 13
Ce 130 172 81 55 85 104 122 95 80 105 116
Nd 43 65 20 24 19 42 44 42 1 36 29
Cu 57 16 18 9 14 104 54 28 55 64 55
Ga 32 6 9 6 8 24 31 17 11 28 22
V 135 36 36 30 44 148 122 67 51 116 93
Zr 120 1191 348 184 204 234 113 257 243 148 166
Y 39 56 34 27 25 46 36 35 30 42 39
Sr 65 66 75 78 66 96 71 69 52 45 62
Rb 305 78 94 61 75 222 297 123 102 272 171
Zn 121 29 44 38 49 128 113 59 90 124 89
Ni 66 17 20 11 24 63 63 37 40 71 40
Co 16 5 9 1 5 12 18 10 13 16 13
Cl 117 152 238 19 370 146 119 66 19 40 33
Nb 14 15 11 n.d. 9 16 15 13 10 15 14
Au Žwhole-rock. 2.4 0.9 1 2 12 2.7 1.3 1.6 3.1 n.d.
Au Žsulphide 168 136 44 11 104 13226
separates.
Aur100% sulphide 177 179 47 14 110 13922
FeO 6.23 1.8 2.42 1.99 2.67 5.82 6.74 3.51 3.92 6.08 5.33
CO 2 0.9 1.7 1.9 2.5 5.9 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7

L.O.I.s loss on ignition: n.d.s not detected; blank s not analysed.

Major elements in wt%, trace elements in ppm ŽAu in ppb.. Elements determined on ARL 8420 XRF analyser at the University of
Melbourne, Au by radiochemical neutron activation and CO 2 volumetrically determined.
a
From Main Reef.

¨ et al. Ž1988., Cox et al. Ž1995. and from this

Stuwe to 5‰ in base metal sulphides close to and within
study show the auriferous veins at Wattle Gully are the reef, but increase to values in excess of 15‰ for
surrounded by a comparably ‘smooth’ halo of iso- pyrite in rocks more than 50 m distant from mineral-
topically light sulphur. Values of d34 S range from 1 isation. As there is no relationship between the d34 S
366 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380

values and the proportions of arsenopyrite and pyrite,
similar fractionation factors for both sulphides can
be assumed. Diagenetic sulphides in Ordovician
metasediments in Victoria have signatures of around
20‰ or else vary greatly between positive and nega-
tive values Že.g., Green et al., 1982.. The smooth
shape of the halo curve and the relatively low maxi-
mum values of about 15‰ may therefore suggest
that none of the analysed samples is far enough
distant from the hydrothermal fluid focus to bear a
purely diagenetic d34 S signature.
14. Ballarat West
14.1. Geology of the Ballarat West Goldfield
Auriferous quartz reefs in the Ballarat West gold-
field occur within a thick sequence of Lower Ordovi-
cian graded-bed greywacke which is intercalated with
thin layers of quartzofeldspathic to highly carbona-
ceous shale. Within the goldfield, these sediments
are practically entirely covered by 150 m of Pliocene

Fig. 7. Ža q b. Gold Žin ppb. and sulphur Žin ppm. content of whole-rock samples against reef distance at Wattle Gully; Fig. 7c is a plot of
the ratio between gold in sulphide separates and the total sulphide content in the samples versus reef distance. See text for discussion.
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380 367

Fig. 8. Cross section through the Ballarat West goldfield showing the geometry of folds and the lode structure, porphyry dykes and the
position of drill holes Žmodified from a section provided by Ballarat Consolidated Gold..
368 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380 369

to Pleistocene basalt flows ŽFig. 8; Whiting and
Bowen, 1976.. The Ordovician sediments have un-
dergone lower greenschist facies metamorphism and
are folded about close to tight, north-trending axes.
The mesoscopically penetrative cleavage is strongly
developed in the shale units and is essentially paral-
lel to the fold axial surfaces. Cleavage in some areas
shows a strongly convergent fanning, indicative of
early cleavage formation during fold growth with
cleavage rotation accompanied by further limb rota-
tion and fold tightening ŽCox et al., 1991b.. The
sequence has been intruded by two felsic porphyritic
dykes ŽFig. 8., dated by Arne et al. Ž1998 - this
issue. at 368 " 4 Ma. The dykes are weakly miner-
alised and have been pervasively altered ŽFuller,
1995..
Reef structures and quartz veins in the Ballarat
West goldfield generally cut across folds and the
associated axial surface cleavage, implying their de-
velopment occurred late during, or after, fold growth.
Sets of cross-cutting veins suggest veins developed
during several phases. In places, folded quartz veins
indicate early quartz injection, whereas boudinage
structures in late-stage veins imply that localised
extensional regimes existed after quartz vein devel-
opment. The major reef structure, the Guiding Star
Lode ŽFig. 8., occupies a west dipping reverse thrust
geometrically similar to the Main Reef structure at
Wattle Gully. The bedding-parallel western flank of
the reef is confined to a steeply dipping pyritic black
slate unit on the western limb of the Albion anticline.
This segment of the reef is laminated and contains
graphitic fragments derived from the hosting black
slate along slippage planes ŽBaragwanath, 1953..
East of the anticline, the lode traverses across to the
Guiding Star syncline at a shallower angle and forms
a 20 to 30 m wide zone of distributed slip, dilatant
jogs and veining. The reef structure cuts across the
western limb of a pyritic slate unit, but links with the
more steeply dipping and bedding-concordant fault
segment within the same unit east of the Guiding
Star anticline.
14.2. Vein mineralogy and textures
Vein mineral assemblages are dominated by sev-
eral generations of quartz which commonly forms in
excess of 90 vol% of the reef structures. Vein quartz
forms either large massive interlocking crystals with
sutured grain boundaries or laminated aggregates
with slate partings. Crack-seal and mortar textures,
serrated grain boundaries, the presence of polygonal
subgrains with distinct undulose extinction arrays
and deformation lamellae suggest later deformation
and incomplete recrystallisation. Commonly, vein
quartz is intergrown with nests of dark green chlorite
aggregates and partially replaced by vermicular chlo-
rite and sericite. Partially altered and seriticised al-
bite crystals are abundant within spurs and small
stringer veins. The interlocking striated albite crys-
tals are commonly fractured and show effects of
deformation. Bladed to sparry dolomite grains with
undulose extinction occur in dilatant structures, while
micritic siderite and ankerite form 1 to 20 mm wide
vein selvages or occur in late-stage veinlets Žtermed
‘stylolites’ by Cox et al., 1995. and fracture fillings.
Flakes of graphite commonly occur along vein sel-
vages, while both apatite and rutile form minor
accessories in some veins.
Arsenopyrite and pyrite are the dominant sulphide
phases, but minor galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite
and stibnite are also present throughout the reefs.
Coarse-grained and massive aggregates of arsenopy-
rite are more common in nonlaminated quartz veins
and appear to be concentrated along vein margins,
whereas pyrite tends to occur along slaty laminae
within laminated veins almost to the total exclusion
of other sulphides. Gold is commonly associated
with, or occurs as inclusions, within sulphides. Gold
can also occur as isolated grains in quartz, within

Fig. 9. Macroscopic alteration features in drill core from Ballarat. ŽA. Visible discolouration in hanging wall of auriferous vein system. ŽB.
Cut section of core displaying arsenopyrite porphyroblasts and abundant Fe-carbonate spots in psammopelite proximal to quartz reef. ŽC.
Arsenopyrite porphyroblasts in graded psammopelite Žbedding running NE–SW. close to quartz reef Žcontact in lower right hand corner of
photograph.; rectangles on scale bar 1 cm across. ŽD. Arsenopyrite porphyroblast with pressure shadow Žindicating dextral rotation.,
cross-cut by crack-seal quartz vein;.; rectangles on scale bar 1 cm across.
370 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380

microcracks or spatially associated with the carbon-
ate-bearing stylolites.
14.3. Visible wallrock alteration
The interaction of hydrothermal fluids with the
hosting sediments during quartz reef formation is
clearly indicated by the presence of a distinctively
bleached zone on both sides of the reef structure.
This zone of pronounced bleaching extends from the
Guiding Star Lode outwards for approximately 8 m
and is characterised by a discolouration of the com-
monly dark-grey siltstones to pale-mauve ŽFig. 9a..
Visible haloes of disseminated pyrite and arsenopy-
rite extend for 15 m from the mineralised zone and
both phases are commonly deformed and accompa-
nied by quartz pressure shadows ŽFig. 9b–d..
Whereas pyrite appears to be the dominant sulphide
phase with up to 8 mm large subeuhedral crystals
scattered throughout the host rock, arsenopyrite
blades Ž1 to 10 mm long. tend to be restricted to the
discoloured zones and are most abundant directly
adjacent to the lode structure. In addition, these
mineralised structures are commonly associated with
discontinuous horizons, lenses and flakes of graphitic
carbon andror bitumen.

Table 3
Major- and trace-element data for samples from Ballarat West
Sample number
WB-1 WB-2 WB-3 WB-4 WB-5 WB-6 WB-7 WB-8 WB-9 WB-10
Distance from reef Žm. 0.0 1.7 3.2 4.2 6 7.6 8.4 10.0 13.8 19.7
SiO 2 49.2 70.9 71.7 68.9 74.7 68.8 73 75 74.6 71
Al 2 O 3 20.6 10.6 10.9 12 9.6 12 11.8 10.6 10 12.1
Fe 2 O 3 2.24 1.02 0.79 0 0.15 1.16 0.71 0.15 0.86 0.69
FeO 4.6 2.7 3.2 4.6 3.2 3.3 2.8 3.4 2.8 3.6
CaO 2.09 1.85 1.74 1.35 1.62 1.66 1.1 0.98 0.96 1.28
MgO 3.04 1.66 1.84 2.15 1.62 2.04 1.67 1.71 2.01 2.13
Na 2 O 1.63 1.51 1.66 1.54 1.66 1.42 1.83 1.87 1.84 1.67
K 2O 5.44 2.56 2.43 2.73 1.94 2.76 2.47 2.16 2.05 2.55
H 2O 7.37 0.52 1.27 1.95 1.64 1.82 1.85 1.68 1.7 1.92
CO 2 1.6 4.5 4.1 4.05 3.35 4.45 2.15 1.5 1.35 1.6
TiO 2 1.14 0.6 0.59 0.64 0.5 0.62 0.55 0.52 0.48 0.64
P2 O5 0.21 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.15
MnO 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06
S 0.35 0.3 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05
Total 99.63 99 100.5 100.1 100.2 100.3 100.15 99.77 98.85 99.44

Cu 37 10.5 11.5 17.5 12 30 4.5 12 6 16

Ag - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 0.1 0.1 - 0.05
Zn 63 46 48 56 48 61 40.5 45 50 61
Cd -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
Pb 3 4.5 7 5 7.5 4.5 2 4 38 9
As 1300 50 28.5 32.5 23.5 33.5 77 30.5 16 12
Sb 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 - 0.1 0.2 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1
Bi 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 0.6 0.2
V 9 6 6 7 6 7 8 7 10 12
Cr 9 7 7 7 7 7 28 31 36 19
Mo - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1
Co 23 42 19 22 31 26 37 23 27 31
Ni 42 19 20 25 17 26 43 34 34 25
P 860 600 660 660 560 600 720 640 600 660
Au Žppb. 28 53 15 2 -1 2 2 -1 -1 -1

All analyses obtained by OES Žmajors. and ICP-MS Žtraces. at AMDEL, Adelaide; Au by AAS; CO 2 and H 2 O volumetrically determined;
major elements in wt%, trace elements in ppm.
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380 371

Fig. 10. Plot of SiO 2 , H 2 O, CO 2 and CaO concentrations Žwt%.

in whole-rock samples Žfrom Table 3; Ballarat West. versus
Fig. 11. Plot of K 2 O and Na 2 O concentrations Žwt%. in whole-
distance from the Guiding Star Lode.
rock samples Žfrom Table 3; Ballarat West. versus distance from
the Guiding Star Lode.
Abundant carbonate aggregates and pervasive
sericitic alteration appear to be strongly associated
CO 2 , S, Au and As into the wallrocks. Relative
with the zone of bleaching and their abundance
depletion from the wallrocks is evident for SiO 2 ,
correlates directly with distance from the lode.
Na 2 O, MgO and FeO, while only negligible varia-
Dolomitic Žwith minor calcite. carbonate occurs as
tions of Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , P2 O5 and MnO exist
either elongated porphyroblasts or as wisps along
within the altered zone.
cleavage planes. These dolomitic carbonates are
Although desilification has clearly occurred within
commonly overprinted, rimmed or crosscut by ran-
several tens of centimetres directly adjacent to the
domly oriented siderite and ankerite-rich carbonate
vein, the extraction of SiO 2 from the host rock could
aggregates. Pervasive sericitisation extends from the
not account for the amount of silica contained within
quartz veins outwards for up to several metres,
whereby sericite laths commonly define the penetra-
tive cleavage. A later phase of sericite is associated
with Fe-rich carbonates developed along evenly
spaced cleavage planes. The distribution of sec-
ondary sericite along these cleavage planes suggests
that pervasive infiltration of the host rock by hy-
drothermal fluids was facilitated by increased perme-
ability along the already existing penetrative fabric.
14.4. Chemical Õariations within alteration haloes
— Implications for ore deposition
To investigate possible chemical changes arising
from reactions between hydrothermal fluids and
wallrocks during the formation of the Guiding Star
Lode, ten samples of homogeneous siltstone within
20 m of the mineralised structure were analysed
ŽDDH 6b.. Table 3 and Figs. 6 and 10–12 illustrate
several chemical trends which seem to correlate
closely with the visible zone of discolouration. Meta- Fig. 12. Plot of P, S, Cr, As Žin ppm. and Au Žin ppb. concentra-
somatism between the hydrothermal fluid and the tion in whole-rock samples Žfrom Table 3; Ballarat West. versus
host rocks involved diffusion of CaO, K 2 O, H 2 O, distance from the Guiding Star Lode.
372 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
the 20- to 30-m-wide lode structure. Therefore, the
majority of SiO 2 in the reef structures must have
been introduced by the hydrothermal fluids from
deeper levels ŽPaterson, 1986.. While substitution of
Al 2 O 3 , derived from feldspars, into sericite accounts
for the small diffusion volume of alumina, pervasive
sericitic alteration in wallrocks directly adjacent to
the veins and less intense sericite development along
cleavage planes up to 8 m from the mineralised
structures resulted in the observed variations in the
K 2 O and Na 2 O propotions ŽFig. 11..
With correlating arsenic and sulphur enrichment
dominantly attributed to arsenopyrite development, it
appears that the influx of gold may have been closely
associated with the arsenopyrite-forming event ŽFig.
12.. Textural observations in the Ballarat West gold-
field and elsewhere in Victoria Že.g. Ballarat East,
Maldon, Stawell. also suggest a strong correlation
between the deposition of arsenopyrite and the pre-
cipitation of gold shortly thereafter. The d34 S isotope
compositions of arsenopyrite and pyrite from wall-
rocks adjacent to auriferous veins in the Ballarat
West goldfield range between 0.1 and 0.7‰ ŽFuller,
1995.. Because of the mineral assemblages, common
late recrystallisation and textural equilibrium be-
tween sulphides, it can be assumed that d34 S sulphide is
equivalent to d34 S fluid . The invariant sulphur isotope
composition of hydrothermal fluids at Ballarat West
is thus very similar to those obtained for fluids in
other turbidite-hosted gold deposits in Victoria ŽGul-
son et al., 1988, 1990..
The total iron contents of the analysed samples
lack a distinct relationship with the intensity of
alteration or sulphide abundance. This independence
implies that most of the iron contained in the sul-
phides was derived locally from the metasediments.
Studying the hydrothermal processes associated with
gold mineralisation in meta-greywacke at Clontibret,
Steed and Morris Ž1986. argued that most of the iron
was liberated in reduced form by the breakdown of
chlorite andror biotite and reprecipitated directly
with the sulphide components introduced by the
hydrothermal fluids. Chlorite is notably absent from
the altered zone at Ballarat West and its breakdown
would have liberated iron and magnesium for both
sulphide and ankeritic carbonate development. Ele-
vated concentrations of H 2 O and CO 2 in the samples
correlate closely with the extent of the bleached
zone. In addition, CO 2 correlates with CaO and the
presence of carbonate spots in the vicinity of the reef
structure. According to Cox et al. Ž1995., carbonate
precipitation can substantially decrease the XCO 2 in
the fluids so that they therefore become more re-
duced, following the reaction:
CO 2 q 2H 2 s C q 2H 2 O.
Variations in f O 2 and XCO 2 during the wallrock-
fluid interaction can thus account for the antithetic
correlation between CO 2 and H 2 O shown in Fig. 10,
while the above reaction would also explain the
abundance of graphite near auriferous veins. As de-
tailed in a model by Cox et al. Ž1995. for Wattle
Gully, the spatial association of mineralisation with
carbonaceous slates suggests that gold deposition at
Ballarat West was also controlled largely by repeated
episodes of fluid-pressure fluctuations, reaction with
carbonaceous slates, decreases in f O 2 and fluid mix-
ing in a dynamic fault-valve system. In this model,
which is also supported by the exhibited composi-
tional variations in fluid inclusions, prefailure hy-
drothermal fluid migrates out from the fault and into
the wallrocks, where it reacts with carbonaceous
slates, thereby evolving to more reduced, less CO 2-
rich compositions. Sudden reduction in fluid pressure
in the fault zone due to fault failure drives the
reacted fluids back into the fault zone, where they
mix with less evolved, CO 2-rich fluids resulting in
destabilisation of gold complexes and precipitation
of gold in the reef structures Žrather than in the
alteration zones..
15. Carbonate spotting
The presence of 0.1 to 2.5-mm-wide carbonate
‘spots’, ‘porphyroblasts’ or ‘poikiloblasts’ in
metasediments associated with turbidite-hosted gold
mineralisation in central Victoria seems to be an
almost ubiquitous feature. However, the intensity
and extent of carbonate spotting varies considerably
and ranges from several metres at Maldon to kilome-
tre wide haloes at Avoca ŽSandiford and Keays,
1986.. Although referred to in numerous publications
Že.g. Sandiford and Keays, 1986; Binns and Eames,
1989; Cox et al., 1991b, 1995; Forde, 1991; Phillips
and Hughes, 1995; Molloy et al., 1995., to date no
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
detailed study has been carried out into the nature of
these carbonate spots. Considering their potential
significance as an indicator for mineralisation and
pervasive wallrock alteration, a closer look at these
enigmatic spots is warranted.
In their study on wallrock alteration around gold
mineralisation at Clunes, Binns and Eames Ž1989.
identified an earlier generation of elongated, poly-
crystalline carbonate aggregates subparallel to the
foliation cleavage, as well as a later generation of
ankerite and siderite porphyroblasts which cut across
the cleavage. Similarly, two generations of carbonate
porphyroblasts can also be identified at Wattle Gully
ŽFig. 13.. In psammopelites, early carbonate spots
occur enriched along phyllitic cleavage layers which
define the penetrative foliation. In slaty units, they
occur as greenish and up to 1 cm long coarse-grained
stringers which have been separated into micro-
boudins by the penetrative foliation. While syn- or
postdeformation cleavage porphyroblasts clearly
overgrow the earlier foliation, fine-grained porphy-
roblasts in slates rarely grow along an oblique direc-
tion which is possibly an expression of the second,
nonpenetrative cleavage. At least two distinct genera-
tions of carbonate spots can also be observed at
Avoca, Bendigo, Dunolly, Maldon, Tarnagulla and
in the Ballarat West goldfield, but the composition of
these spots varies considerably between deposits. On
the basis of their petrographic characteristics, how-
ever, these spots may be grouped into four general
types:
Ž1. ‘Genuine’ carbonate porphyroblasts, which are
composed almost entirely of micritic carbonate, to-
gether with minor inclusions of silicates, sulphides
and carbon. These porphyroblasts can further be
subdivided Žin order of decreasing abundance. into
zoned and unzoned ankerite, dolomite, siderite and
calcite spots.
Ž2. Quartz–carbonate aggregates, which comprise
a core made up by quartz grains, mica and opaques,
surrounded by a rim of ankerite and siderite. Rarely,
a ring of calcite occurs in between the silica-rich
core and the ankerite rim. These aggregates form
possibly due to partial dissolution and replacement
of calcitic andror dolomitic cores.
Ž3. Mica–carbonate porphyroblasts, whereby ran-
domly oriented laths of white mica are embedded in
373
a matrix of micritic ankerite andror siderite Žsug-
gesting synchronous deposition..
Ž4. Pyrite–carbonate porphyroblasts, which are
composed of dolomitic or ankeritic rims surrounding
pyrite crystals. Pyrite commonly replaces and pseu-
domorphs the carbonate porphyroblasts.
Although deformed Žpre-foliation cleavage. por-
phyroblasts are less abundant and partial redistribu-
tion of carbonate has obviously taken place, their
presence suggests that quantitative remobilisation and
recrystallisation of carbonates has not occurred. The
late carbonates are thus considered to have grown
from hydrothermally introduced CO 2 Ž"Ca2q .
sources and the breakdown of metamorphic chlorite
during pervasive wallrock alteration. The rimming of
siderite porphyroblasts with ankerite Žwhich is the
carbonate most common in auriferous veins. at Wat-
tle Gully may suggest introduction of ankerite by the
hydrothermal fluids and superimposition upon car-
bonates already present in the metasediments. How-
ever, carbonate porphyroblasts in rocks relatively
distal to mineralisation have the same siderite
corerankerite rim ratio as zoned porphyroblasts
proximal to the reef structures. It is therefore more
likely that the zoning in these instances reflects a
syn- or postgrowth fractionation effect of calcium
and magnesium and that a change actually occurs in
the total carbonate content of the fluids, which is
determined by variations in pH, f O 2 and XCO 2 .
Oxygen fugacity and pH fluctuations in the hy-
drothermal fluids during vein development are also
indicated by variations in the stability of pyrite,
pyrrhotite, albite, chlorite, sericite and siderite in the
veins Žas inferred from textural evidence and the
relative abundance of these phases..
16. Implications of wallrock alteration for timing
and origin of mineralisation
Textural and structural studies at Ballarat West,
Wattle Gully and elsewhere in Victoria strongly
suggest that vein development and mineralisation
took place during episodic, possibly fault-valve re-
lated pulses which occurred during and after regional
fold growth. Depending on the parameters control-
ling fluid pressure built-up prior to fault failure,
374 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380 375

hydrothermal fluids migrating out of the fault zone
might have infiltrated extensive alteration zones, be-
fore rapid migration of the fluids back into the fault
zone occurred immediately after failure ŽCox, 1995..
Thus, variations in the extent of wallrock alteration
zones around gold deposits in Victoria are also a
function of fault geometry and kinematics, local
stress regime and fluidrrock ratios. Deposits in close
proximity of first-order faults such as the Avoca
Fault might therefore be expected to be associated
with more extensive alteration zones along faults, as
is suggested by the occurrence of carbonate spots up
to a kilometre away from auriferous reefs at Avoca.
Alternatively, the extensive halo at Avoca may be
related to variations in the lithostatic fluid pressure
regime around the regional-scale faults. Cox et al.
Ž1991b. argued that the first-order faults which sepa-
rate the LFB into tectonic zones extend below the
base of the hydrostatic fluid pressure regime, where
fluids would drain into the metamorphic pile without
significant circulation through hydrofracture net-
works. Consequently, fluid mixing within these faults
is less efficient and this might explain why signifi-
cant gold mineralisation in Victoria is commonly not
associated with first-order faults.
The cyclicity of pressure build-up, fluid migra-
tion, fault failure and hydrothermal sealing would
suggest multiple superimposition of assemblages re-
sulting in indistinguishable alteration sequences.
Nevertheless, the overall inconspicuous character of
alteration and subtle changes in the physico-chemical
characteristics of the hydrothermal fluids can assist
in establishing a paragenetic sequence of wallrock
alteration and vein development. An example for
relative timing constraints are textural relationships
between alteration assemblages in the Ballarat West
goldfield which are summarised in the following:
Ø Pervasive sericitic alteration initially occurs
during deformation and fold growth Žpossibly during
prograde metamorphism.. The sericite laths define
the penetrative cleavage and are aligned parallel to
fold axial surfaces. Possibly associated with the same
intense hydrothermal event are early porphyroblasts
of arsenopyrite and pyrite which show deformation
characteristics, as well as the development of
dolomitic and calcitic carbonate spots in the wall-
rocks. Rare graphite flakes grow along cleavage
planes.
Ø Assemblages in veins which formed immedi-
ately after initial fault failure display evidence for
later deformation, overprint and alteration. Quartz is
sutured, interlocking dolomite grains in carbonate
veins show undulose extinction, albite crystals are
kinked. Chlorite replaces quartz ŽpH increase.. De-
formational alignment of chlorite vermicules.
Ø Second-stage replacement carbonates ŽFe-rich.
occur as porphyroblasts and in the form of anasto-
mosing wisps along cleavage planes. In places, chlo-
rite breaks down to kaolinite and magnesiosiderite.
Sericite partially replaces albite in veins and wall-
rock ŽpH decrease.. This carbonate cleavage offsets
earlier veins and crosscuts pre-existing alteration as-
semblages. Deposition of sulphides and gold contin-
ues in newly formed dilatant veins, together with
Fe-rich carbonates and minor graphite.
Ø Late-stage ankeritic and sideritic porphyrob-
lasts develop, together with euhedral arsenopyrite
and pyrite porphyroblasts.
Porphyritic dykes which intruded the sequence at
Ballarat West are considered to be Late Devonian in
age ŽArne et al., 1998 - this issue.. Considering that
these dykes have been intensively sericitised and
carbonatised, and are weakly mineralised ŽFuller,
1995; Arne et al., 1998 - this issue., it seems con-
ceivable that their emplacement occurred prior to, or
during, the last consequential phase of mineralisation
in the Ballarat West goldfield. Although more dates
are needed, findings described here support work by
Cox et al. Ž1995., Foster et al. Ž1998. and Arne et al.
Ž1998 - this issue. which suggest that gold emplace-

Fig. 13. Photomicrographs illustrating distinct generations of carbonate porphyroblasts in metasediments from Wattle Gully. ŽA. Early
micritic carbonate spots developed in phyllitic pelite; spots are clearly deformed and elongated along cleavage planes defining the
orientation of the penetrative cleavage ŽS.; plane polarised view, scale bar 1 mm. ŽB. Early micritic carbonate spots aligned with penetrative
cleavage ŽS. in psammopelite; plane polarised view, scale bar 2.5 mm. ŽC. Late carbonate spots overgrowing cleavage ŽS. in psammopelite;
plane polarised view, scale bar 1 mm. ŽD. Late micritic ankerite spot with quartz inclusions and siderite rim Ždark. in psammopelite; plane
polarised view, scale bar 0.5 mm.
376 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
ment across the LFB in Victoria was of a progres-
sive, diachronous nature and that mineralisation was
the result of periodic hydrothermal activity associ-
ated with transient tectonic pulses.
Pervasive infiltration of wallrocks by hydrother-
mal fluids has led to the development of extensive
alteration zones around most turbidite-hosted gold
deposits in Victoria. These wallrock alteration haloes,
structural information and differences in C, O, S and
Pb isotope compositions between veins and host
rocks ŽGulson et al., 1988, 1990; Stuwe¨ et al., 1988;
Gray et al., 1991; Cox et al., 1995; Gao et al., 1995.
point to the external derivation of the hydrothermal
fluids from a deep-seated reservoir. While Gray et al.
Ž1991. suggested that the isotopically remarkably
uniform fluids derived from Ordovician upper crustal
rocks, Carr et al. Ž1995. argued in favour of a
Middle Proterozoic mafic source. Cox et al. Ž1995.
proposed that large-scale homogenisation of the
fluids occurred by means of their equilibration in the
lower crust under rock-buffered conditions prior to
fluid migration into shallower levels. Notwithstand-
ing, the fluid characteristics, as deduced from the
observed wallrock assemblages, are remarkably simi-
lar to those that deposited gold in, for example, the
Archaean in Western Australia ŽEilu et al., 1995;
Mikucki, 1998 - this issue. and point to a greenstone
terrain source, which is known to underlie the Or-
dovician–Devonian turbidite succession in Victoria
ŽCrawford, 1988..
As demonstrated by Powell et al. Ž1991., meta-
morphic devolatilisation reactions at depth during
crustal thickening are likely to produce the character-
istically low-salinity, mesothermal and H 2 O–CO 2 –
CH 4-bearing fluids typically associated with the Vic-
torian gold deposits. And although the late Ži.e.
postpeak metamorphism. emplacement of these au-
riferous veins into brittle–ductile structures and their
spatial relationship with granites in the LFB might
suggest a magmatic origin for the gold-bearing flu-
¨ et al. Ž1993. illustrated that in internally-
ids, Stuwe
heated terrains, time gaps of the order of 40 Ma
commonly separated peak metamorphism at shallow
levels from its occurrence at greater depths. This
time gap between metamorphism and fluid infiltra-
tion, as well as granitoid emplacement at shallow
crustal levels, depends largely on the duration of the
thermal perturbation and the rates and onset of ero-
sion. In a model for the tectonic development of the
LFB, Cox et al. Ž1991b. proposed that the occur-
rence of prograde metamorphism and associated fluid
production at lower levels of the crust was controlled
by the onset of thinning of the mantle lithosphere
either by convective erosion or delamination as a
result of gravitational instability after thickening of
the entire lithosphere during crustal shortening. As
demonstrated in Stuwe ¨ et al. Ž1993., the resulting
slow crustal thickening-erosion cycle occurring si-
multaneously with a prolonged thinning–thickening
cycle of the subcrustal lithosphere is likely to pro-
duce a scenario whereby a wide time gap separates
greenschist facies metamorphism in the lower crust
from fluid infiltration and associated gold mineralisa-
tion in the upper crust late during crustal thickening.
The nature and extent of wallrock alteration haloes
around turbidite-hosted gold deposits in central Vic-
toria support these genetic models for progressive
gold mineralisation involving regional convergent
deformation, initial fluid evolution during metamor-
phism and devolatilisation reactions at depth, subse-
quent metamorphic fluid infiltration into upper crustal
levels late during crustal thickening and fluid fo-
cussing into a system of episodically active conduits
Ži.e. reverse faults. during crustal shortening. The
development of alteration haloes was thereby con-
trolled by repeated pervasive migration of hydrother-
mal fluid into adjacent wallrocks until dilatation and
fault slip occurred, resulting in reverse fluid migra-
tion and focussing back into the fault zones.
17. Implications for turbidite-hosted gold explo-
ration
Clearly, the physico-chemical characteristics of
the prevalent hydrothermal fluids Žsee previous sec-
tion. combined with the stability of quartz–
feldspar–chlorite–muscovite assemblages in the host
rocks do not favour the development of strongly
discernible alteration haloes around most turbidite-
hosted gold deposits. Nevertheless, this review illus-
trates that detailed petrographic and geochemical
studies are capable of detecting and delineating wall-
rock alteration zones around this deposit style which
was long thought to be characterised by the absence
of such zones. The recognition of wallrock alteration
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
has implications for turbidite-hosted gold explo-
ration, which is — due to the nature of the minerali-
sation style — commonly a high-risk affair and
often based solely on structural interpretation. Al-
though structural information is fundamental, the
recognition of broad bleached zones characterised by
carbonate spotting, sulphide porphyroblasts and
sericitic alteration can provide an target of signifi-
cantly increased magnitude for the advanced stages
of exploration. For example, if an approximately 4 m
wide mineralised vein system is surrounded by
bleached and altered zones extending 8 m on both
sides of the lode, the exploration target effectively is
increased by a factor of 5. In addition, inexpensive
whole-rock analyses can be used efficiently to con-
sider specific elemental abundances in drill core,
where visible alteration is poorly developed. Geo-
chemical indicators considered significant include
CO 2 concentrations greater than 3 wt% Žas a general
rule of thumb within 10 to 20 m from the target.,
H 2 O ) 2 wt%, and CaO ) 1.7 wt%, as well as ele-
vated values of K 2 O coupled with decreases in
Na 2 O, resulting in variations of the relative Al 2 O 3 –
ŽCaO q Na 2 O q K 2 O. – ŽFeO q MgO. concentra-
tions. Within closer proximity to mineralised sys-
tems, additional indicators are S ) 0.3 wt%, As ) 50
ppm and Au concentrations greater than 5 ppb. The
model discussed by Cox et al. Ž1995. postulated that
fluid mixing occurred predominantly within the fault
zones and gold deposition was therefore restricted to
the reef structures. If this model is correct, gold
would not be expected to form a distinct halo signa-
ture around the auriferous veins. Findings by Stuwe ¨
et al. Ž1988. and in this study confirm the absence of
significant anomalies for gold within the wallrocks.
Nevertheless, in view of an average gold content of 1
to 5 ppt in clastic sediments ŽKrauskopf, 1979. and
assuming an external source for both fluids and gold,
values in excess of several ppb in metaturbidites
from, for instance, Ballarat West and Wattle Gully
have to be considered anomalously high. Finally,
from the available data it seems that d34 S isotope
compositions of sulphides may also be used to delin-
eate hydrothermal alteration zones, whereby other-
wise highly variable d34 S values of pyrite and
pyrrhotite approach a narrow range Ž0 to 3‰. close
to auriferous vein structures.
377
Acknowledgements
We wish to acknowledge the support of Alliance
Gold Mines, Ballarat Consolidated Gold, Newmont
Australia, Perseverance Corporation and Reef Min-
ing for providing access to mine sites, sample mate-
rial and financial assistance. Dr. P.R.L. Browne and
Dr. D. Kontak are thanked for detailed reviews and
valuable suggestions for improvements of the
manuscript. We also express our gratitude to L.
Gentle, G. Ebsworth, B. Ryan, D. Groves, R. Ram-
say, V. Morand, S. McKnight, S. Carey, J. Besanko
and M. Hughes for stimulating discussions and assis-
tance. C. Henderson-Drife is thanked for thin section
preparation.
References
Annels, A.E., Roberts, D.E., 1989. Turbidite-hosted gold minerali-
sation at the Dolaucothi Gold Mines, Dyfed, Wales, United
Kingdom. Econ. Geol. 84, 1293–1314.
Arne, D.C., Bierlein, F.P., McNaughton, N., Morand, V., Ramsay,
W.R.H., Wilson, C.J.L., 1998. Absolute timing of gold miner-
alisation in central and western Victoria: New constraints from
SHRIMP II analysis of zircon grains from felsic intrusive
rocks. Ore Geol. Rev. 13, this issue.
Baragwanath, W., 1953. The Ballarat goldfield. In: Edwards, A.B.
ŽEd.., Geology of Australian Ore Deposits, vol. 1. Australas.
Inst. Min. Metall., pp. 986-1002.
Barley, M.E., Cassidy, K.F., Golding, S.D., Groves, D.I., Mc-
Naughton, N.J., 1990. Assessment of mineralised zones: Alter-
ation haloes. In: Ho, S.E., Groves, D.I., Bennett, J.M. ŽEds..,
Gold Deposits of the Archaean Yilgarn Block, Western Aus-
tralia: Nature, Genesis and Exploration Guides. Geol. Dep.
ŽKey Centre. Univ. Ext., Univ. West. Aust. Publ. 20, 317–327.
Bierlein, F.P., 1995. Rare earth element geochemistry of clastic
and chemical metasedimentary rocks associated with hy-
drothermal sulphide mineralisation in the Olary Block, South
Australia. Chem. Geol. 122, 77–98.
Binns, R.A., Eames, J.C., 1989. Geochemistry of wall rocks at
Clunes gold deposit, Victoria. Econ. Geol. 84, 310–319.
Bonnemaison, M., Crouzet, J., Thiercelin, F. Tollon, F., 1986.
Controls on exhalative gold deposits hosted by volcaniclastic
sediments in the ‘Schists X’, Salsigne gold district, Montagne
Noire, southern France. In: McDonald, A.J. ŽEd.., Gold ’86
Proceedings, pp. 457–469.
Bow, C.S., 1986. Structural and lithologic controls on Archean
greywacke-hosted gold mineralisation within the Sweetwater
District, Wyoming, USA. In: Keppie, J.D., Boyle, R.W.,
Haynes, S.J. ŽEds.., Turbidite-Hosted Gold Deposits. Geol.
Assoc. Can. Spec. Pap. 32, 107–118.
Bowen, K.G., 1972. Arsenic as a guide to gold mineralisation at
378 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
the Wattle Gully and Sambras mines. Min. Geol. J. Victoria 7,
5–15.
Boyle, R.W., 1986. Gold deposits in turbidite sequences: Their
geology, geochemistry and history of the theories of their
origin. In: Keppie, J.D., Boyle, R.W., Haynes, S.J. ŽEds..,
Turbidite-Hosted Gold Deposits. Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec. Pap.
32, 1–13.
Broome, J.M.N., Ramsay, W.R.H., Keays, R., Hughes, M., Arne,
D., Reeves, S., 1996. Cambrian volcanics and interflow sedi-
ments at Colinabbin, Victoria: their stratigraphy, petrology,
geochemistry, and potential as a source for turbidite-hosted
gold deposits of central Victoria. Geol. Soc. Aust. Abstr. 41,
59.
Carr, G.R., Dean, J.A., Suppel, D.W., Heithersay, P.S., 1995.
Precise lead isotope fingerprinting of hydrothermal activity
associated with Ordovician to Carboniferous metallogenic
events in the Lachlan Fold Belt of New South Wales. Econ.
Geol. 90, 1467–1505.
Christie, A.B., 1996. Mesothermal gold deposits in New Zealand.
In: Mesothermal Gold Deposits: A Global Overview. Geol.
Depart. ŽKey Centre. Univ. Ext., Univ. West. Aust. Publ. 27,
66–69.
Clark, M.E., Carmichael, D.M., Hodgson, C.J., Fu, M., 1989.
Wallrock alteration, Victory gold mine, Kambalda, Western
Australia: processes and P – T –XCO 2 conditions of metaso-
matism. Econ. Geol. Monogr. 6, 445–459.
Coldham, J.C., 1953. Clunes goldfield. In: Edwards, A.B. ŽEd..,
Geology of Australian Ore Deposits, vol. 1. Australas. Inst.
Min. Metall., pp. 1003–1010.
Cox, S.F., 1995. Faulting processes at high fluid pressures: an
example of fault valve behavior from the Wattle Gully Fault,
Victoria, Australia. J. Geophys. Res. 100, B12841–B12859.
Cox, S.F., Ceplecha, J., Wall, V.J., Etheridge, M.A., Cas, R.A.F.,
Hammond, R., Willman, C., 1983. Lower Ordovician Bendigo
Trough sequence, Castlemaine area, Victoria: deformational
style and implications for the evolution of the Lachlan Fold
Belt. Geol. Soc. Aust. Abstr. 9, 41–42.
Cox, S.F., Etheridge, M.A., Wall, V.J., Potter, T.F., 1985. Hydro-
fracture dilatancy and the development of quartz vein arrays in
the Wattle Gully Fault zone, Victoria. J. Struct. Geol. 7
Žabstr.., 491.
Cox, S.F., Etheridge, M.A., Cas, R.A.F., Clifford, B.A., 1991a.
Deformational style of the Castlemaine area, Bendigo–Ballarat
zone: Implications for evolution of crustal structure in central
Victoria. Aust. J. Earth Sci. 38, 151–170.
Cox, S.F., Wall, V.J., Etheridge, M.A., Potter, T.F., 1991b.
Deformational and metamorphic processes in the formation of
mesothermal vein-hosted gold deposits — examples from the
Lachlan Fold Belt in central Victoria, Australia. Ore Geol.
Rev. 6, 391–423.
Cox, S.F., Sun, S.-S., Etheridge, M.A., Wall, V.J., Potter, T.F.,
1995. Structural and geochemical controls on the development
of turbidite-hosted gold quartz vein deposits, Wattle Gully
Mine, central Victoria. Econ. Geol. 90, 1722–1746.
Crawford, A.J., 1988, Cambrian. In: Douglas, J.G., Ferguson, J.A.
ŽEds.., Geology of Victoria, pp. 36–62.
Crouzet, J., Tollon, F., 1980. Le gisment stratiforme et filonien de
Salsigne, Aude, Au, As ŽAg, Cu, Bi.. Part E8, French De-
posits, 26th Int. Geol. Congr., Paris, 54 pp.
Cuffley, B.W., 1996. Reconciliation of exploration methods,
Poverty Reef, Tarnagulla. Abstracts to Coarse Gold in Victo-
ria, VCMrMIRI Seminar at University of Ballarat, pp. 3–4.
d’Auvergne, P.B., 1990. Ballarat East gold deposits. In: Hughes,
F.E. ŽEd.., Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and
Papua New Guinea. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall. 1, 1277–
1278.
Eilu, P., Groves, D.I., Mikucki, E.J., McNaughton, N.J., Ridley,
J.R., 1995. Alteration indices and pathfinder elements in wall-
rock alteration zones around Archaean lode–gold deposits. In:
Pasava, J., Kribek, Zak K. ŽEds.., Mineral Deposits: From
their Origin to their Environmental Impacts. Balkema, Rotter-
dam, pp. 113–116.
Fenton, M.W., 1984. Geochemical characterisation of siliclastic
sedimentary rocks with examples from the lower Paleozoic of
Victoria. Geol. Soc. Aust. Abstr. 12, 53–55.
Fergusson, C.L., Gray, D.R., Cas, R.A.F., 1986. Overthrust ter-
ranes in the Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern Australia. Geol-
ogy 14, 519–522.
Forde, A., 1991. The late orogenic timing of mineralisation in
some slate belt gold deposits, Victoria, Australia. Mineral.
Deposita 26, 257–266.
Forde, A., Bell, T.H., 1994. Late structural control of mesother-
mal vein-hosted gold deposits in central Victoria, Australia:
Mineralization mechanisms and exploration potential. Ore
Geol. Rev. 9, 33–59.
Foster, D.A., Gray, D.R., Bucher, M., Kwak, T.A.P., 1998.
Chronology and tectonic framework of turbidite-hosted gold
deposits in the western Lachlan Fold Belt, Victoria: 40Ar- 39Ar
results. Ore Geol. Rev. 13, 229–250 Žthis issue..
Fuller, T., 1995. The geology and geochemistry of the Ballarat
West goldfield. Unpublished B.Sc. Žhns. thesis, University of
Ballarat.
Gao, Z.L., Kwak, T.A.P., 1992. Geochemistry of black slates and
its relationship with gold mineralisation in Chewton, Victoria,
Australia. Geol. Soc. Aust. Abstr. 32, 91.
Gao, Z.L., Kwak, T.A.P., Changkrakoti, A., Hussein, E., Gray, J.,
1995. Supergene ore and hypogene nonore mineralisation at
the Nagambie sediment-hosted gold deposit, Victoria, Aus-
tralia. Econ. Geol. 90, 1747–1763.
Glasson, M.J., Keays, R.R., 1978. Gold mobilization during cleav-
age development in sedimentary rocks from the auriferous
slate belt of central Victoria: some important boundary condi-
tions. Econ. Geol. 73, 496–511.
Goldfarb, R.J., Landefeld, L.A., Hart, C.J.R., 1996. Overview of
the goldfields in metamorphic rocks of the North American
Cordillera. In: Mesothermal Gold Deposits: A Global
Overview. Geol. Dep. ŽKey Centre. Univ. Ext., Univ. West.
Aust. Publ. 27, 58–65.
Gray, D.R., 1988. Structure and tectonics. In: Douglas, J.G.,
Ferguson, J.A. ŽEds.., Geology of Victoria, pp. 1–36.
Gray, D.R., Willman, C.E., 1991. Deformation in the Ballarat
Slate Belt, central Victoria, and implications for the crustal
structure across southeast Australia. Aust. J. Earth Sci. 38,
171–201.
 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
Gray, D.R., Gregory, R.T., Durney, D.W., 1991. Rock-buffered
fluid–rock interaction in deformed quartz-rich turbidite se-
quences, eastern Australia. J. Geophys. Res. 96 ŽB12., 19681–
19704.
Green, N., 1983. Geology and geochemistry at Fiddlers Creek.
Unpublished B.Sc. Žhns. thesis, University of Melbourne.
Green, A.H., Donnelly, T.H., Jahnke, F.M., Keays, R.R., 1982.
Evolution of gold-bearing veins in dykes of the Woods Point
Dyke Swarm, Victoria. Mineral. Deposita 17, 175–192.
Groves, D.I., 1993. The crustal continuum model for late Archean
lode gold deposits of the Yilgarn Block, Western Australia.
Mineral. Deposita 28, 366–374.
Gulson, B.L., Andrew, A.S., Mizon, K.J., Keays, R.R., Stuewe,
K., 1988. Source of gold in Ballarat Slate Belt deposits and
potential exploration applications. Geol. Soc. Aust. Abstr. 23,
331–337.
Gulson, B.L, Andrew, A.S., Mizon, K.J., Keays, R.R., Stuewe,
K., 1990. Source of gold in Victorian deposits. I. Deposits in
Palaeozoic sediments and exploration applications. Centre for
Isotope Studies Research Report 1989–90, pp. 22–23.
Hamlyn, P.R., Keays, R.R., Cameron, W.E., Crawford, A.J.,
Waldron, H.M., 1985. Precious metals in magnesian low-Ti
lavas: implications for metallogenesis and sulfur saturation in
primary magmas. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 49, 1797–1811.
Hughes, M.J., Phillips, G.N., Gregory, L.M., 1996. Victorian
gold. II. Large gold deposits and granites. Geol. Soc. Aust.
Abstracts 41, 204.
Jackson, P., 1996. The effects of interaction between structure and
lithology on gold mineralisation in the Woods Point Walhalla
gold province. Int. Symp. on Mesothermal Gold Deposits,
Ballarat, pp. 30–31.
Jenkin, J.J., 1988. Geomorphology. In: Douglas, J.G., Ferguson,
J.A. ŽEds.., Geology of Victoria, pp. 403–419.
Keays, R.R., 1987. Principles of mobilization Ždissolution. of
metals in mafic and ultramafic rocks — the role of immiscible
magmatic sulphides in the generation of hydrothermal gold
and volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits. Ore Geol. Rev. 2,
47–63.
Kontak, D.J., Smith, P.K., 1987. Alteration haloes and their
implications for gold mineralisation in the Meguma Group of
Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia Dep. Nat. Resour., Report 87-1, pp.
281–290.
Kontak, D.J., Smith, P.K., Kerrich, R., Williams, P.F., 1990. An
integrated model for the Meguma Group lode–gold deposits,
Nova Scotia. Geology 18, 238–242.
Kontak, D.J., Smith, P.K., Chatterjee, A.K., Corey, M.C., 1992.
An overview of metaturbidite-hosted lode–gold deposits of the
Meguma Group, Nova Scotia: Products of pre-, syn- or post-
metamorphic processes related to meguma Terrane accretion
Ž?.. Geological Association of Canada Annual Meeting,
Wolfville, pp. 88.
Krauskopf, K.B., 1979. Introduction to Geochemistry, 2nd ed.
McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd., Tokyo, 617 pp.
Kwak, T.A.P., Gao, Z., 1995. The characteristics of the Mel-
bourne Trough versus Bendigo–Ballarat gold mineralisation,
central Victoria: Guides to exploration. Gold in central Victo-
ria 125th Anniversary Symp., Ballarat, pp. 39–42.
379
Kwak, T.A.P., Li, X., 1996. Wallrock alteration, structure and
fluid dynamics of the Bendigo gold field, Victoria, Australia.
In: Mesothermal Gold Deposits: A Global Overview. Geol.
Dep. ŽKey Centre. Univ. Ext., Univ. West. Aust. Publ. 27,
80–81.
Lemiere, B., Deflour, J., Moine, B., Piboule, M., Ploquin, A.,
Isnard, P., Tegyey, M., 1986. Hydrothermal alteration and the
formation of aluminous haloes around sulphide deposits. Min-
eral. Deposita 21, 147–155.
McConachy, G.W., Swensson, C.G., 1990. Fosterville gold field.
In: Hughes, F.E. ŽEd.., Geology of the Mineral Deposits of
Australia and Papua New Guinea. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall.,
1, 1297–1298.
Mikucki, E.J., 1998. Hydrothermal transport and depositional
processes in Archaean lode–gold systems: a review. Ore Geol.
Rev. 13, 307–321 Žthis issue..
Miller, L.D., Goldfarb, R.J., Gehrels, G.E., Snee, L.W., 1994.
Genetic links among fluid cycling, vein formation, regional
deformation, and plutonism in the Juneau gold belt, southeast-
ern Alaska. Geology 22, 203–206.
Molloy, R.M., Morand, V.J., Ramsay, W.R.H., 1995. Structural
controls in the Tarnagulla Goldfields, central Victoria. Impli-
cations for metamorphically derived auriferous fluids. In:
Mauk, J.L., St. George, J.D. ŽEds.., Pacrim Congress ’95, pp.
383–388.
Morand, V.J., Ramsay, W.R.H., Hughes, M., Stanley, J.M., 1995.
The southern Avoca Fault zone: site of a newly identified
‘greenstone’ belt in western Victoria. Aust. J. Earth Sci. 42,
133–144.
Morgan, B.D., Woodland, J.G., 1990. Union Hill gold deposit,
Maldon. In: Hughes, F.E. ŽEd.., Geology of the Mineral
Deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea, vol. 1. Aus-
tralas. Inst. Min. Metall., pp. 1279–1280.
Nesbitt, H.W., Young, G.M., 1989. Formation and diagenesis of
weathering profiles. J. Geol. 97, 129–147.
Newberry, R.J., Brew, D.A., 1988. Alteration zoning and origin of
the Alaska–Juneau gold deposit. US Geol. Surv. Circular
1016, pp. 174–178.
Padgham, W.A., 1986. Turbidite-hosted gold–quartz veins in the
Slave Structural Province, NWT. In: Keppie, J.D., Boyle,
R.W., Haynes, S.J. ŽEds.., Turbidite-Hosted Gold Deposits.
Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec. Pap. 32, 119–134.
Paterson, C.L., 1986. Controls on gold and tungsten mineralisa-
tion in metamorphic-hydrothermal systems, Otago, New
Zealand. In: Keppie, J.D., Boyle, R.W., Haynes, S.J. ŽEds..,
Turbidite-Hosted Gold Deposits. Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec. Pap.
32, 25–39.
Phillips, G.N., 1986. Geology and alteration in the Golden Mile,
Kalgoorlie. Econ. Geol. 81, 779–808.
Phillips, G.N., 1991. Gold deposits of Victoria: A major province
within a Palaeozoic sedimentary succession. World Gold ’91,
Cairns, pp. 237–245.
Phillips, G.N., Powell, R., 1993. Link between gold provinces.
Econ. Geol. 88, 1084–1098.
Phillips, G.N., Hughes, M.J., 1995. Victorian gold: A sleeping
giant. Soc. Econ. Geol. Newslett. 21, 9–13.
Phillips, G.N., Groves, D.I., Kerrich, R., 1996. Factors in the
380 F.P. Bierlein et al.r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 345–380
formation of the giant Kalgoorlie gold deposit. Ore Geol. Rev.
10, 295–317.
Pontual, S., Merry, N., Cocks, T, 1995. Field-based alteration
mapping using the PIMA. In: Mauk, J.L., St. George, J.D.
ŽEds.., Pacrim Congress ’95, pp. 479–484.
Potter, T.F., 1990. Wattle Gully gold deposits. In: Hughes, F.E.
ŽEd.., Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua
New Guinea, vol. 1. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall., vol 1. pp.
1281–1285.
Powell, R., Will, T.M., Phillips, G.N., 1991. Metamorphism in
Archaean greenstone belts: Calculated fluid compositions and
implications for gold mineralisation. J. Metamorph. Geol. 9,
141–150.
Ramsay, W.R.H., VandenBerg, A.H.M., 1986. Metallogeny and
tectonic development of the Tasman Fold Belt system in
Victoria. Ore Geol. Rev. 1, 213–257.
Ramsay, W.R.H., Willman, C.E., 1988. Gold. In: Douglas, J.G.,
Ferguson, J.A. ŽEds.., Geology of Victoria, pp. 454–481.
Richards, J.R., Singleton, O.P., 1981. Palaeozoic Victoria, Aus-
tralia: igneous rocks, ages and their interpretation. Geol. Soc.
Aust. J. 28, 395–421.
Robert, F., Brown, A.C., 1986. Archaean gold-bearing quartz
veins at the Sigma mine, Abitibi greenstone belt, Quebec. II.
Vein paragenesis and hydrothermal alteration. Econ. Geol. 81,
593–616.
Roberts, C., 1995. The Fosterville Project — Perseverance Explo-
ration Pty., Gold in central Victoria. 125th Anniversary Sym-
posium, Ballarat, pp. 49–51.
Sandiford, M., Keays, R.R., 1986. Structural and tectonic con-
straints on the origin of gold deposits in the Ballarat Slate
Belt, Victoria. In: Keppie, J.D., Boyle, R.W., Haynes, S.J.
ŽEds.., Turbidite-Hosted Gold Deposits. Geol. Assoc. Can.
Spec. Pap. 32, 15–24.
Siems, P.L., 1984. Hydrothermal alteration for mineral explo-
ration workshop. Lecture manual, University of Idaho, 489 pp.
Sharpe, E.N., McGeehan, P.J., 1990. Bendigo goldfield. In:
Hughes, F.E. ŽEd.., Geology of the Mineral Deposits of
Australia and Papua New Guinea, vol. 1. Australas. Inst. Min.
Metall., pp. 1287–1296.
Solomon, M., Groves, D.I., 1994. The Geology and Origin of
Australia’s Mineral Deposits. Oxford Monogr. Geol. Geophys.
24. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 951 pp.
Steed, G.M., Morris, J.H., 1986. Gold mineralisation in Ordovi-
cian Greywackes at Clontibret, Ireland. In: Keppie, J.D., Boyle,
R.W., Haynes, S.J. ŽEds.., Turbidite-Hosted Gold Deposits.
Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec. Pap. 32, 67–86.
Stephens, M.B., Glasson, M.J., Keays, R.R., 1979. Structural and
chemical aspects of metamorphic layering development in
metasediments from Clunes, Australia. Am. J. Sci. 279, 129–
160.
Studemeister, P.A., 1983. The redox state of iron: a powerful
indicator of hydrothermal alteration. Geosci. Can. 10, 189–194.
¨
Stuwe, K., Keays, R.R., Andrew, A., 1988. Wall rock alteration
around gold quartz reefs at the Wattle Gully Mine, Ballarat
Slate Belt, central Victoria. Geol. Soc. Aust. Abstr. 23, 478–
480.
¨
Stuwe, K., Will, T.M., Zhou, S., 1993. On the timing relationship
between fluid production and metamorphism in metamorphic
piles: some implications for the origin of postmetamorphic
gold mineralisation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 114, 417–430.
Tomlinson, K.M., Wilson, C.J.L., Hazeldene, R., Lohe, E.M.,
1988. Structural control on gold mineralisation at Walhalla,
Victoria. Aust. J. Earth Sci. 35, 421–444.
VandenBerg, A.H.M., 1978. The Tasman Fold Belt system in
Victoria. Tectonophysics 48, 267–297.
Waldron, H.M., Sandiford, M., 1987. Deformation volume and
cleavage development in metasedimentary rocks from the
Ballarat slate belt. J. Struct. Geol. 10, 53–62.
Wang, G.M., White, S.H., 1993. Gold mineralisation in shear
zones within a turbidite terrane, examples from central Victo-
ria, S.E. Australia. Ore Geol. Rev. 8, 163–188.
Whiting, R.G., Bowen, K.G., 1976. Gold. In: Douglas, J.G.,
Ferguson, J.A. ŽEds.., Geology of Victoria, pp. 434–441.
Woodall, R., 1990. Gold in Australia. In: Hughes, F.E. ŽEd..,
Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua New
Guinea. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall., 1, 45–67.