Olympiad 2019 Geometry Notes

Mathematics Olympiad
Geometry
Narasimhan R. Chari
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References:
1) AoPS: Active Website for solutions to international math olympiad problems, https://artofproblemsolving.com,
(since 1993)
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2) Alexander Bogomolny, www.cut-the-knot.org, (1996-onwards)
3) Arthur Engel, Problem-Solving Srategies, Springer-Verlag, 1998
4) H. Eves, A Survey of Geometry, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1972
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5) H. S. M. Coxeter and S. L. Greitzer, Geometry Revisited, MAA, (Mathematical Association of
America, 1967 gm
5) R. Graham, D. Knuth, O. Patashnik, Concrete Mathematics, Addison-Wesley, 1994
6) Roger A. Johnson, Advanced Euclidean Geometry, Dover, 1929
7) S. L. Loney, Plane Trigonometry, Cambridge, 1915)
8) Mactutor History of Mathematics, www.history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk, Univ of St. Andrews, Scotland
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9) I. F. Sharygin, Problems in Plane Geometry, (1982), (free download available online):
Main references for number theory:

1) G. H. Hardy and E. M. Wright, An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, 1938, (Sixth Edition,
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D. R. Heath-Brown, J. H. Silverman, eds, OUP, 2008)

2) Ivan Niven, Herbert S. Zuckerman and Hugh L. Montgomery, An Introduction to the Theory of
Numbers, Wiley, 1960, (Fifth Edition, 1991)
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Euclid wrote for mature persons preparing for the study of philosophy. Geometry was the best intro-
duction to deductive reasoning.
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H. S. M. Coxeter
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2
All triangles and polygons are labelled with vertices in order in the anti-clockwise direction.
1 a) In a right-angled triangle ∆ ABC, ∠B = 90◦ . BD ⊥ AC.

Prove that the three triangles ABC, ADB, BDC are similar; deduce that
BD2 = AD . DC; AB2 = AD . AC; BC2 = CD .CA.

Deduce Pythagoras’ theorem, (Greek, 500 BC): AC2 = AB2 + BC2 .
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Hint: ∆ ADB ∼ ∆ ABC, since ∠ ADB = ∠ ABC = 90◦ and ∠ BAD = ∠CAB is the common angle.
AD AB
⇒ AD. AC = AB2
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Hence = (1)
AB AC
∆ BDC ∼ ∆ ABC, since ∠ BDC = ∠ ABC = 90◦ and ∠ BCD = ∠ ACB is the common angle.
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DC BC
Hence = ⇒ DC. AC = BC2 (2)
BC AC
Adding (1) and (2), we get AC(AD + DC) = AB2 + BC2 ; but AD + DC = AC
gm
⇒ AB2 + BC2 = AC2 . This is the Pythagoras’ theorem.
We have shown that both the triangles ∆ ADB and ∆ BDC are similar to ∆ ABC; hence their
corrseponding angles are equal; hence they are similar to each other.
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We will make this similarity explicit: ∆ ADB ∼ ∆ BDC, since
∠ + ∠ BAD = 90◦ = ∠
ABD + ∠ DBC ⇒ ∠ BAD = ∠ DBC and ∠ ADB = ∠ DBC = 90◦
ABD
AD DB
Hence = ⇒ BD2 = AD. DC (3)
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BD DC
b) AB and CD are parallel chords of a circle. If AB < CD is it true that the angle subtended by
AB at any point on the circumference is smaller than the angle subtended by CD at that point?
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Hint: If the centre of the circle and the point on the circumference are on the same side of both
the chords, then this is true.
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Proof: Let AB be the chord of the circle with centre O. Let P be a point on the circumference,
such that O and P are on the same side of AB. Let M be the midpoint of AB; let OA = OB = r.
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We know that ∠ APB = θ , is constant for all such points P. Hence ∠ AOB = 2 θ and
MB
∠ MOA = ∠ MOB = θ ; sin θ = ⇒ MB = r sin θ ⇒ AB = 2r sin θ
OB
But 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90◦ ; hence sin θ is a monotonic increasing function; hence
AB < CD ⇒ ∠ APB < ∠CPD
narasichari@gmail.com
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c) Prove the sine rule for a triangle:
a b c
= = = 2R, where R is the circumradius of the triangle.
sin A sin B sin C
Hint: Case 1, Acute-angled triangle: Let O be the centre of the circumcircle of ∆ ABC. Extend
AO to the point D on the circumference so that AOD is a diameter.
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AB = c, BC = a, CA = b, AD = 2R
The angle in a semi-circle is 90◦ . Hence ∠ ACD = ∠ ABD = 90◦ ; also angles in the same seg-
ment are equal. Hence ∠ B = ∠ ADC
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AC b
sin B = sin ADC = = ⇒ b = 2R sin B
AD 2R
AB c
sin C = sin ADB = = ⇒ c = 2R sin C
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AD 2R
BC
Similarly, let BOE be a diameter. ∠ BCE = 90◦ ; ∠ A = ∠ BEC ⇒ sin A = sin BEC =
gm =
BE
a
⇒ a = 2R sin A
2R
a b c
Hence we get the sine rule, = = = 2R (1)
sin A sin B sin C
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Case 2, Obtuse-angled triangle: If A > 90◦ , O lies outside the triangle; A and O are on
opposite sides of BC.
ABEC is a cyclic quadrilateral; ∠ A + ∠ BEC = 180

BC a
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sin A = sin (180 − BEC) = sin BEC = = ⇒ a = 2R sin A. We again get eq (1).
BE 2R
Second method: We can prove the equality of these ratios excluding 2R as follows:
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Drop AD perpendicular from A onto BC.

AD AD b c
Then sin B = ; sin C = ; c sin B = AD = b sin C ⇒ = (2)
AB AC sin B sin C
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a c
Similarly, consider the altitude BE ; we get c sin A = BE = a sin C ⇒ = (3)
sin A sin C
a b c
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From (2) and (3), we get = = (4)

sin A sin B sin C
For an obtuse-angled triangle, if A > 90◦ , the altitudes BE and CF will have their terminal
points E and F outside the triangle, (on CA extended and on BA extended, respectively).
BE BE CF
∠ BAE = ∠CAF = 180 − A; ∠ BEA = ∠CFA = 90◦ ; sin(180 − A) = = =
AB c b
BE
But sin(180 − A) = sin A ⇒ BE = c sin A; ∆ BEA gives sin C = ⇒ BE = a sin C
BC
Hence a sin C = c sin A; CF = AC sin(180 − A) = b sin A = BC sin B = a sin B
Again we get eq (4).
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2 a) Prove the projection formula and the cosine rule for a triangle:
a = b cosC + c cos B; a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
Hint: Case 1) Suppose angles B and C are acute angles. Let AD be drawn perpendicular from
A to BC.
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DC is the projection of AC on BC; BD is the projection of AB on BC;
DC BD
cos C = ⇒ DC = b cos C; similarly, cos B = ⇒ BD = c cos B (1)
AC AB
But BC = BD + DC ⇒ a = b cos C + c cos B (Projection Formula)
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Case 2) Suppose ∠ B > 90◦ ; then D falls outside BC
BD
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DC = b cos C ; cos (180 − B) = ⇒ BD = −c cos B
AB
We get BC = DC − DB = b cos C − (−c cos B) = b cos C + c cos B, as before.
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Cyclically, we get, b = c cos A + a cos C and c = a cos B + b cos C
To prove the cosine rule, i.e., a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

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Using Projection: Draw the altitude AD. If both B and C are acute angles, we use the Pythago-
ras theorem to get
Consider a2 + b2 − c2 = BC2 + AC2 − AB2 = (BD + DC)2 + (AD2 + DC2 ) − (AD2 + BD2 )
= 2 DC2 + 2 (BD) (DC)

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= 2 DC (DC + BD) = 2 (DC) (BC), use DC = b cos C; we get the cosine rule
a2 + b2 − c2 = 2ab cos C
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CD
In case ∠C > 90◦ , we get cos (ACD) = cos (180 −C) =⇒ CD = −b cos C
AC
BC = BD − DC ⇒ BC2 + AC2 − AB2 = (BD − DC)2 + (AD2 + DC2 ) − (AD2 + BD)2
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Hence a2 + b2 − c2 = 2 DC (DC − BD) = 2(−b cos C)(−BC) = 2ab cos C, as before.

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b2 + c2 − a2 c2 + a2 − b2 a2 + b2 − c2
cos A = ; cos B = ; cos C =
2bc 2ca 2ab
b) Verify the cosine rule using vectors.
−→ − → − → −→ −→ −→
Hint: BC = BA + AC ⇒ | BC |2 = | BA + AC |2
−→ − → −
→ − → −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ − →
= (BA + AC) · (BA + AC), since → −a ·→
−
a = | a |2 ⇒ | BC |2 = | BA |2 + | AC |2 + 2 BA · AC
−
→ − →
⇒ a2 = c2 + b2 + 2 | BA || AC | cos θ
−→ −→
But the angle required to turn anticlockwise from the vector BA to AC is θ = 180 + A
Use cos (180 + A) = − cos A to get a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
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c) Deduce that, a2 > b2 + c2 ⇔ ∠ A > 90◦

Hint: 90 < A < 180 ⇔ cos A < 0 ⇔ b2 + c2 < a2 ⇔ a2 > b2 + c2
d) ∠A = 60◦ if and only if a2 = b2 − bc + c2 .

1
Hint: ∠A = 60◦ if and only if cos A = ⇔ a2 = b2 − bc + c2 .
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e) ∠A = 120◦ if and only if a2 = b2 + bc + c2 .

1
Hint: ∠A = 120◦ if and only if cos A = − ⇔ a2 = b2 + bc + c2 .
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3 a) Vector areas, determinants
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Any triangle can be completed to a parallelogram (in three ways), with one side of the triangle
being a diagonal of the parallelogram. The diagonal of any parallelogram divides the parallelo-
gram into two congruent triangles, (since the three corresponding sides are equal). Hence these
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two triangles have equal areas, i.e., the area of a triangle is half the area of the corresponding
parallelogram.
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To show that the area of a parallelogram is base × height; area of a triangle is base × height
2
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To start with, define the area of a 1 × 1 square is 1, i.e., if the adjacent sides are î and jˆ then
|î × jˆ| = 1, i.e., the determinant of the identity matrix is defined as 1.
The second defining property of a determinant is: if one row or column of a matrix is multiplied
by k the determinant gets multiplied by k. This corresponds to stretching or contracting a side
k times.
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Hence the area of a k × 1 rectangle is k. Repeating the process, the area of a m × n rectangle
is mn = length × breadth.
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If we have a right-angled triangle, we can take the hypotenuse as a diagonal and complete the
1
triangle to a rectangle. Hence the area of a right-angled triangle is base × height
2
Next, assume ABCD is a parallelogram which is not a rectangle, with vertices in order, in the
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anti-clockwise direction; AB k CD and AD = BC, AB = CD.
∠ B + ∠C = 180◦ ; either ∠B < 90◦ or ∠C < 90◦ . Assume ∠ B < 90◦

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Drop DX ⊥ BC and BY ⊥ DA, (extended if necessary). Then Y B k DX; Y BXD is a rectangle.

We calculate areas. [ABCD] = [Y BXD] − [AY B] − [CXD]
But ∆ AY B ∼
= ∆CXD, (AAS), since AB = CD, ∠ XCD = 180−∠ DCB = 180−∠ DAB = ∠YAB
Hence [AY B] = [CXD] ⇒ [ABCD] = BX. BY − 2 [CXD]
1
= BX. BY − 2. CX. DX = BX. BY −CX. BY = BY. (BX −CX) = BY. BC
2
= BC. DX = (one side × distance between this side and its opposite parallel side)
−
→ − →
=base × height = BC.CD (sin DCX) = | BC × BA |. This is the magnitude of the cross-product
|→
−
u ×→−v | = u v sin θ , of two vectors along the adjacent sides BC and BA.
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b) Suppose we take co-ordinate axes so that the origin is a vertex A of the parallelogram; let
AB and AD be the adjacent sides; A(0, 0), B(a, b), C, D(c, d) are the vertices, in order, of the
parallelogram. Assume the rotation from AB to AD is in the anti-clockwise direction.
To prove: [ABCD] = ad − bc (4)
We have C ≡ (a + c, b + d), since the diagonals bisect each other, i.e., AC and BD have the
same mid-point.
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We need two area-preserving transformations.
Step 1: First, tilt the parallelogram ABCD to ABC0 D0 so that AB is fixed and one side AD0
is along the y−axis. From eq (4), we see that the area is invariant under this ‘shear’ trans-
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formation, i.e., these two parallelograms have the same bases AB and equal heights, since
dist(AB, CD) = dist(AB, C0 D0 ), ( i.e., C, C0 , D, D0 are collinear and DC k AB).
Step 2: Then, keeping D0 A fixed, tilt this parallelogram ABC0 D0 to a rectangle D0 AB0 E with
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adjacent sides AB0 and AD0 such that AB0 is along the x−axis.
b b
We get slope(CD) = slope(AB) = ; the equation of CD is y − d = (x − c); B0 ≡ (a, 0),
a
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bc
a
D0 is the intersection of CD with the y−axis, i.e., D0 ≡ 0, d − . (5)
a
E is the point of intersection of B0C0 with a line through D0 parallel to the x−axis.
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−
→ −→ → −−→
−
The first step says [ABCD] = [ABC0 D0 ], i.e., | AB × AD | = | AB × AD0 |
This is the third and final defining property of determinants: | R1 , R2 | = | R1 , R2 + k R1 |
→ −−→
− −→ −−→
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The second step says [ABC0 D0 ] = [AB0 ED0 ], i.e., | AB × AD0 | = | AB0 × AD0 |
Equivalently, the determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of its diagonal entries.
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To get eqs (4) and (5), consider

−
→ −→

a b

c a b
bc

| AB × AD | = ; R − R gives bc = a d − = ad − bc

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c d 2 a 1

0 d − a
a
The sign of the determinant gives the orientation, i.e., ad − bc > 0 if the rotation from AB to
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AD is anticlockwise;
ad − bc < 0 if the rotation from AB to AD is clockwise;
ad − bc = 0 if the area [ABCD] = 0, i.e., A, B, C, D are collinear.

c) Half-angle formulas
r r
A (s − b)(s − c) A s(s − a)
sin = ; cos =
2 bc 2 bc
A
Hint: 0 < A < 180 ⇒ 0 < < 90; hence all the trigonometric ratios
2
7

A A A
sin , cos , tan , etc., of all the angles in a triangle are positive.
2 2 2
θ
Use cos θ = 1 − 2 sin2 and the cosine rule to get
2
A b2 + c2 − a2 2bc − b2 − c2 + a2
2 sin2 = 1 − cos A = 1 − =
2 2bc 2bc
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a2 − (b − c)2 (a + b − c)(a − b + c)
= = ; but a + b + c = 2s
2bc 2bc
⇒ a + b − c = a + b + c − 2c = 2s − 2c = 2(s − c); a − b + c = a + b + c − 2b = 2(s − b)
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r
2 A 2(s − a) 2(s − b) A (s − b)(s − c)
2 sin = ⇒ sin = (1)
2 2bc 2 bc
r r
(s − b)(s − c)
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A A
cos = 1 − sin2 = 1 −
2 2 bc
r
−s2 + bs + cs
=
bc
gm
; but a + b + c = 2s ⇒ as + bs + cs = 2s2 ⇒ bs + cs = 2s2 − as
r r
A −s2 + 2s2 − as s(s − a)
cos = = (2)
2 bc bc
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A A
Use sin A = 2 sin cos , to get
2 2
r r p
(s − b)(s − c) s(s − a) 2 s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
sin A = 2 = (3)
bc bc bc
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1
Area of a triangle ∆ = (BC) (AD) where AD is the altitude;
2
AD 1 1
But sin B = ⇒ AD = c sin B; ∆ = ac sin B; by symmetry, ∆ = bc sin A
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AB 2 2
p
1 2 s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) p
= bc = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
2 bc
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(Heron’s formula, Alexandria, 60 AD)
1 b abc
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Also, ∆ = ac sin B and the sine rule gives sin B = ⇒∆=

2 2R 4R
4) Heron’s formula using the cosine rule, (without half-angle formulas):

1 1
∆= (BC)(AD) = ac sin B
2 2
1 √ a2 + c2 − b2
= ac 1 − cos2 B ; use the cosine rule, cos B =
2 2ac
s
1 (a2 + c2 − b2 )
∆ = ac 1 −
2 (2ac)2
r
1 4a2 c2 − (a2 + c2 − b2 )
= ac
2 4a2 c2
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1p
= (2ac + a2 + c2 − b2 )(2ac − a2 − c2 + b2 )
4
1p
= [(a + c)2 − b2 ][b2 − (a − c)2 ]
4
1p
= (a + c + b)(a + c − b)(b + a − c)(b − a + c)
4
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The perimeter of the triangle is denoted as a + b + c = 2s; s is the semi-perimeter.
b + c − a = (a + b + c) − 2a = 2s − 2a = 2(s − a); c + a − b = 2(s − b); a + b − c = 2(s − c)

1p
∆= (2s).2(s − a).2(s − b).2(s − c)
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4
p
∆ = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
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A s−a
5) a) i) Prove that cot =
2 r gm
Hint: Suppose the internal angle bisectors of ∠ B and ∠C intersect at I.
Drop IX, IY, IZ perpendicular from I on to the sides BC, CA, AB respectively.
= ∆ IBZ and ∆ ICX ∼
Then ∆ IBX ∼ = ∆ ICY , (AAS)
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Hence IX = IZ and IX = IY ; hence IY = IZ ⇒ ∆ IAY ∼

= ∆ IAZ, (hypotenuse and a side).
Hence ∠ IAY = ∠ IAZ; AI is the internal angle bisector of ∠ A. The three internal angle bisec-
tors are concurrent at the incentre I.
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IX = IY = IZ = r = the in-radius of the triangle. We can draw the in-circle with centre I and
radius r. This in-circle touches the sides BC, CA, AB at X, Y, Z respectively.
The lengths of the tangents from A to the in-circle are equal; let AY = AZ = u; similarly,
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BX = BZ = v and CX = CY = w.
Then v + w = BC = a, w + u = CA = b, u + v = AB = c; adding, we get,
2(u + v + w) = a + b + c = 2s ⇒ u + v + w = s
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but u + (v + w) = s and v + w = a ⇒ u + a = s ⇒ u = s − a; similarly, v = s − b; w = s − c

B B IX r B s−b
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∠ IBX = ⇒ tan = = ⇒ cot = ; similarly,

2 2 BX s−b 2 r
A s−a C s−c
cot = ; cot = (1)
2 r 2 r
r
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) A B C (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
ii) r = ; ∆ = r2 cot cot cot =
s 2 2 2 r
Hint:
1 a+b+c
[ABC] = [IBC] + [ICA] + [IAB] = (BC. IX +CA. IY + AB. IZ) = r = rs (2)
2 2
p
p s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
By Herons’ formula, ∆ = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) = rs ⇒ r =
s
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r
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
r= (3)
s
A B C
Using eq (1), we get s − a = r cot ; s − b = r cot ; s − c = r cot
2 2 2
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
Eq (3) gives s = 2
; ∆ = rs = r
r r2
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A B C
r cot r cot r cot
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) 2 2 2 A B C
∆= = = r2 cot cot cot
r r 2 2 2
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5 b) To get examples of triangles with integer sides and integer areas (‘Heron triangles’), take
the sides as a, b, c with other properties.
i) Pythagorean triples: a = u2 − v2 , b = 2uv, c = u2 + v2 ; ∆ = uv(u + v)(u − v)
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Hint: Suppose ∠C = 90◦ . Let BC = X, CA = Y, AB = Z, where X, Y, Z are integers.
Then X 2 +Y 2 = Z 2 . Let
X2 Y 2
+ =1
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Z2 Z2
X Y
Let = x and = y ⇒ x2 + y2 = 1 (1)
Z Z
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Pick one rational point P(−1, 0 on this unit circle and consider a general line with rational slope
m passing through P.
i.e., y = m(x + 1) (2)
Substitute in equation (1). We get x2 + m2 (x + 1)2 − 1 = 0; cancel the common factor x + 1
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1 − m2
⇒ (x + 1) (x − 1) + m2 (x + 1) = 0 ⇒ x(1 + m2 ) = 1 − m2 ; x =

1 + m2
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1 − m2

2m
Eq (2) gives y = m 2
+1 =
1+m 1 + m2
1 − m2 2m

Hence (x, y) = ,
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1 + m2 1 + m2
u
But m ∈ Q ⇒ m = , where u, v are coprime integers.
v
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2
v − u2 2uv

(x, y) = ,
u2 + v2 u2 + v2
2
v − u2 2uv

X Y
Hence , = ,
Z Z u2 + v2 u2 + v2
Hence, (X, Y, Z) = k(v2 − u2 ), 2kuv, k(u2 + v2 )

If we let k, u, v vary over all the integers, we get all Pythagorean triples.
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ii) Sides in arithmetic progression: a, b = a + d, c = a + 2d. The area is given by

(a + d) p
∆= 3(a + 3d)(a − d) , with the parametrisation
4
a = u2 + 9v2 , d = u2 − 3v2 > 0, b = 2(u2 + 3v2 ), c = 3(u2 + v2 ), ∆ = 6uv(u2 + 3v2 ).
If u > 3v, ∠C is obtuse.
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Examples: (a, b, c) = (3, 4, 5), (13, 14, 15), (61, 74, 87). Ref: R. H. Buchholz and J. A. Mac-
Dougall, Bulletin of the Australian Math. Soc., Vol.59, (1999), 263 − 269
iii) There are 5 triangles with integer sides, integer area and integer perimeter whose area equals
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the perimeter.
Hint: Consider the distances from the vertices to the points of contacts of the incircle with the
sides: solve 4(x + y + z) = xyz; we get
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(a, b, c) = (10, 8, 6), (13, 12, 5), (17, 10, 9), (20, 15, 7) and (29, 25, 6)
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Ref: www.jwilson.coe.uga.edu
6 In any triangle ABC show that the internal bisector of angle A intersects the perpendicular bi-
sector of the side BC at a point on the circumcircle of the triangle.
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Hint: Draw the correct diagram. Let the bisector of angle A intersect the circumcircle at X; draw
XD ⊥ BC; show that BD = DC
7 ‘Angle-chasing’
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a) Langley’s problem (1922): ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC.
∠ A = 20◦ ; D and E are points on AC and AB respectively;

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∠CBD = 50◦ ; ∠ ABD = 30◦ ; ∠ BCE = 60◦ ; ∠ ECD = 20◦ . Show that ∠CED = 30◦ .
Hint: Take F on AC such that ∠CBF = 60◦ ; then angle-chasing.
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b) In ∆ ABC, M and N are points on AB and AC respectively such that
∠ MCB = 55◦ ; ∠ NBC = 80◦ ; ∠ B = 100◦ ; ∠C = 65◦ .

Show that ∠NMC = 25◦ .
Hint: Let the bisector of ∠ MBN intersect CM at Y and AC at X.
∠ XBM = ∠ XCM = 10◦ ⇒ XMBC is a cyclic quadrilateral.
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∠XMY = ∠ XBC = 80 + 10 = 90◦ ; ∠Y BN = ∠YCN = 10◦ .
Y BCN is cyclic; hence XNY = ∠Y BC = 90◦ ; ∠ XMY = ∠ XNY = 90◦
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XMY N is cyclic; ∠ NMC = ∠ NXY = ∠ BXC = 180 − (90 + 65) = 25◦
c) ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC; ∠ A = 20◦ ;
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D and E are points on AC and AB respectively such that ∠CBD = 70◦ ;
∠ ABD = 10◦ ; ∠ BCE = 60◦ ; ∠ ECD = 20◦ .

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Show that ∠ BDE = 20◦ .
7 d) ∆ ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC; ∠ A = 24◦ ; D and E are points on AC and
AB respectively such that ∠CBD = 51◦ ; ∠ BCE = 24◦ . Find ∠ BDE.
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Ans: ∠ BDE = 12◦ .

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sic
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8 ABC is a right-angled triangle with ∠B = 90◦ . P and Q are points on AB and AC respectively such
that ∠AQP = 90◦ . AQ = 15, BC = 16, AP = 17. Using the Pythagoras’ theorem find CQ, CP
and BP.
√
[Ans: PQ = 8, CQ = 19, PC = 5 17, BP = 13].
9 ABC, is a right-angled triangle with ∠B = 90◦ . AB = 3, BC = 4 and AC = 5. C1 and C2 are
om
two touching circles of equal radius r drawn inside the triangle such that C1 touches AB, AC
and C2 ; C2 touches AC, BC and C1 . Find r.
5
Ans: Take a point P such that O1 P ⊥ BC; O2 P ⊥ AB; ∆ O1 PO2 is similar to ∆ ABC; r = .
7
l.c
10 Stewart’s theorem (Scottish, 1746), (Length of a Cevian AD ): Let D be a point on the side
(segment) BC of ∆ ABC. AB = c, BC = a, CA = b, BD = m, DC = n, AD = x. Then
ai
mb2 + nc2 = a(x2 + mn). gm
Hint: ∠ ADC = θ , ∠ ADB = π − θ . Use the cosine rule in the two triangles and eliminate θ .
BD m am DC n an
Details: We have = ⇒ BD = ; = ⇒ DC =
BC m + n m + n BC m + n m+n
ri@
The cosine rule in ∆ ABD gives AB2 = AD2 + BD2 − 2 AD. BD cos (180 − θ )
but cos (180 − θ ) = − cos θ ⇒ AB2 = AD2 + BD2 − 2 AD. BD cos θ
a2 m2 2amx cos θ
⇒ c2 = x2 + 2
+ (1)
(m + n) m+n
ha
The cosine rule in ∆ ADC gives AC2 = AD2 + DC2 − 2 AD. DC cos θ
a2 n2 2anx cos θ
⇒ b2 = x2 + − (2)
sic
(m + n)2 m+n
Eliminate cos θ , using eq (1) × n + eq (2) × m
a2 mn (m + n)
nc2 + mb2 = nx2 + mx2 + , but m + n = BC = a; hence
ra
(m + n)2
nc2 + mb2 = a x2 + mn

na
11 D is the midpoint of the side BC of ∆ ABC. ∠ADB = 45◦ ; ∠ACD = 30◦ . Find ∠B and ∠BAD.
[Ans: √Draw the correct diagram. Use the sine rule in ∆ ADC and Stewart’s theorem to get
AB = 2 BD; the sine rule in ∆ ABD gives ∠BAD = 30◦ and ∠B = 105◦ ].
√ √
3−1 √ 3+1 √
12 a) Show that tan(15◦ ) =√ ◦
= 2 − 3 ; tan(75 ) = √ = 2+ 3
3+1 3−1
A−B
tan
a−b 2
b) In any triangle ABC , using the sine rule, show that =
a+b A+B
tan
2
13
13 Brahmagupta’s cyclic quadrilateral, (Ujjain, India, 628 CE):

Consider two Pythagorean triples (a, b, c) and (x, y, z) such that a2 + b2 = c2 and x2 + y2 = z2 .
Construct a quadrilateral ABCD with P as the point of intersection of the diagonals AC and
BD, such that AB = bz, BC = cy, CD = az, DA = cx, AP = bx, BP = by, CP = ay, DP = ax.
In other words, the triangles ∆ APD and ∆ BPC are obtained by magnifying (or contracting, if
x < 1 or y < 1 ) the (a, b, c) triangle x times and y times respectively; similarly the triangles
∆CPD and ∆ APB are obtained by magnifying the (x, y, z) triangle a times and b times re-
om
spectively.
Show that sin BAC = sin BDC; ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
Example: (Brahmagupta’s cyclic quadrilateral): AB = 39, BC = 60, CD = 52, DA = 25,
l.c
65
AP = 15 BP = 36, CP = 48, DP = 20, R =
2
ai
gm
ri@
ha
sic
ra
na
14
Brahmagupta’s formula: Area of a cyclic quadrilateral

p 1
a) [ ABCD] = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) , where semi-perimeter = s = (a + b + c + d)
2
p
(ab + cd)(ac + bd)(ad + bc)
b) [ ABCD] =
4R
Let P be the point of intersection of the diagonals. Then
c) PA2 + PB2 + PC2 + PD2 = AB2 +CD2 = AD2 + BC2 = 4R2 .
om
[Hint: Let O be the circumcentre; let OE ⊥ BD; OF ⊥ AC.
BP2 + PD2 = (BE + EP)2 + (DE − EP)2 = 2(BE 2 + PE 2 );CP2 + PA2 = 2(CF 2 + PF 2 );
l.c
adding, we get 2(CF 2 + OF 2 ) + 2(BE 2 + OE 2 ) = 2(OB2 + OC2 ) = 4R2 ].
d) Verify Ptolemy’s theorem, AB.CD + AD.BC = AC.BD
ai
e) If AB = a; BC = b; CD = c; DA = d; AC = e; BD = f , then
e=
r
(ac + bd)(ad + bc)
; f=
r
gm
(ac + bd)(ab + cd)
.
ab + cd ad + bc
ade bc f f (ad + bc)
Hint: [ABCD] = [ABD] + [BCD] = + = ;
4R 4R 4R
ri@
e(ab + cd)
Similarly, [ABCD] = ; multiplying, we get,
4R
p
e f (ab + cd)(ad + bc)
[ABCD] = ; now use Ptolemy’s theorem
4R
ha
p
(ac + bd)(ab + cd)(ad + bc)
[ABCD] =
4R
sic
f) Bretschneider’s theorem, (German, 1842), generalisation of Ptolemy’s theorem

Let a, b, c, d be the lengths of the sides AB, BC, CD, DA (in order), of a quadrilateral ABCD.
Let m and n be the lengths of the diagonals. Show that
ra
m2 n2 = a2 c2 + b2 d 2 − 2 abcd cos(A +C).

Hint: Take points K and M outside the quadrilateral such that
na
∠ ABK = ∠CAD, ∠ BAK = ∠ ACD, ∠ BCA = ∠ DAM and ∠CAB = ∠ ADM.

ac ad
Let AB = a, BC = b, CD = c, DA = d . Then ∆ ACD ∼ ∆ BAK; AK = , BK = ;
m m
ad bd
∆ ADM ∼ ∆CAB; DM = ; AM = . Also ∠ KBD + ∠ MDB = A + B + D = 180◦ .
m m
⇒ KBDM is a paralleogram. Use the cosine rule in ∆ AMK with MK = n,
∠MAK = ∠A + ∠C etc.
g) If ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, use A +C = 90◦ in part a) to deduce Ptolemy’s theorem.
15
h) Bretschneider’s formula for the area of a quadrilateral
The area K of any quadrilateral is given by

s
A +C
K= (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos2
2

A +C
om
In particular, if the quadrilateral is cyclic, we have A+C = 180◦ ⇒ cos = cos 90◦ = 0;
2
p
we get Brahmagupta’s formula K = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)
Proof: Consider a diagonal BD. The area K of the quadrilateral is the sum of the areas of the
l.c
two triangles ∆ ADB and ∆ BDC.
K = [ADB] + [BDC]
ai
1 1
= ad sin A + bc sin C
2 2
⇒ 4K = a d sin A + b2 c2 sin2 C + 2abcd sin A sin C
2 2 2 2
(1)
gm
The cosine rule in the two triangles gives
BD2 = a2 + d 2 − 2ad cos A and
BD2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos C
ri@
⇒ a2 + d 2 − b2 − c2 = 2(ad cos A − bc cos C)

a2 + d 2 − b2 − c2

⇒ = a2 d 2 cos2 A + b2 c2 cos2 C − 2abcd cos A cos C (2)
4
ha
Adding (1) and (2) we get

a2 + d 2 − b2 − c2

2
4K + = a2 d 2 + b2 c2 − 2abcd cos (A +C)
4
sic
= a2 d 2 + 2abcd + b2 c2 − 2abcd [1 + cos (A +C)]

2 2 A +C
= (ad + bc) − 4abcd cos
2
ra

1 2 A +C
h i
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

K = 4(ad + bc) − a + d − b − c − abcd cos
16 2

na
1 2 2 2 2 2 A +C

= (a + d) − (b − c) (b + c) − (a − d) − abcd cos
16 2

1 2 A +C
= (a + d + b − c)(a + d − b + c)(b + c + a − d)(b + c − a + d) − abcd cos
16 2

1 A +C
= (2s − 2c)(2s − 2b)(2s − 2d)(2s − 2a) − abcd cos2
16 2

A +C
= (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos2
2
s
2
A +C
Hence K = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos
2
16
√ √
14 a) In ∆ ABC, a = 2, b = 1 + 3, C = 60◦ . Show that A = 45◦ , B = 75◦ , c = 6.
√ √
b) In ∆ ABC, a = 2, b = 6, c = 3 − 1. Show that A = 45◦ , B = 120◦ , C = 15◦
√
c) A and D are on opposite sides of a segment BC. AB = 2, AC = 3 − 1, BD = 2,
√ √
CD = 3 + 1, BC = 6. Show that A = 120◦ , D = 60◦ . Find the length of the other diagonal
AD.
om
√ √ √
d) In ∆ABC, a = 3 + 1, b = 3 − 1, C = 60◦ . Show that A = 105◦ , B = 15◦ , c = 6.
e) A and D are on opposite sides of a segment BC; E is a point on BD such that
√ √ √
∠BCE = 30◦ . AB = 2, AC = 3 − 1, BD = 2, CD = 3 + 1, BC = 6.
l.c
√ √
Show that BE = 3 − 3, DE = 3 − 1.
ai
gm
ri@
ha
sic
ra
na
17
15 Show that the lengths of the median from A and the angle bisector of ∠A of a triangle ABC are
given by
√
2b2 + 2c2 − a2
a) length (median from A) = ;
2
s
a2

b) length (internal bisector of angle A) = bc 1 −
om
(b + c)2
Hint: a) Let D be a point on the side (segment) BC of ∆ ABC.
Let AB = c, BC = a, CA = b, BD = m, DC = n, AD = x.
l.c
Then Stewart’s theorem gives the length of the Cevian AD by the formula:
mb2 + nc2 = a x2 + mn .

ai
a
If D is the midpoint of BC, we have AD = x; m = n = . Hence
2
2 2 + ac2 √

a x2 +
a
4
=
ab
2
gm
⇒ length (median from A) =
1
2
2b2 + 2c2 − a2
i.e., we have the Apollonius theorem, AB2 + AC2 = 2 (AD2 + BD2 )

ri@
b) Suppose AX is the internal angle bisector of ∠ A of ∆ ABC with X on BC. Let ∠ AXC = θ .
Then ∠ AXB = 180 − θ . The sine rule in the two triangles ∆ AXB and ∆ AXC gives
BX AB CX AC
= ; =
A sin (π − θ ) A sin θ
sin sin
ha
2 2
BX AB c
But sin θ = sin (π − θ ) ⇒ = = (Angle bisector theorem)
CX AC b
sic
c
BX = (CX); also BX +CX = BC = a
b
c ab
Hence CX + 1 = a ⇒ CX = (1)
b b+c
ra
c c ab ac
Hence BX = (CX) = = (2)
b b (b + c) b + c
ac ab
na
Use Stewart’s theorem with m = BX = ; n = CX = ; we get

b+c b+c
a2 bc ab2 c abc2

2 2 2
a(x + mn) = mb + nc ⇒ a x + 2 = +
(b + c)2 b+c b+c
a3 bc abc(b + c) 2 = bc − a bc
2
⇒ ax2 + = = abc ⇒ x
(b + c)2 b+c (b + c)2
s
a2

⇒ length (angle bisector) = AX = x = bc 1 −
(b + c)2
s s
bc(b + c + a)(b + c − a) bc(2s)(2s − 2a) 2 p
= = = b c s (s − a) (3)
(b + c)2 (b + c)2 b+c
18
If I is the in-centre of the triangle, we can apply the angle-bisector theorem to triangle ABX
with BI being the bisector of ∠ B, to get
ac
XI BX a
= = b+c =
AI BA c b+c
2 p
Also, AI + IX = AX; using eq (3), AX = bcs(s − a); we get
b+c
om
p p
bc s(s − a) a bc s(s − a)
AI = and XI =
s s(b + c)
Example: PQ = 13, PR = 14, QR = 15. The circle with radius r and centre O on QR, touches
l.c
PQ and PR at X and Y respectively.
56 65 70 28 112
Show that r = ; OQ = ; OR = ; PX = PY = ; XY = √
ai
9 9 9 3 3 13
13 + 14 + 15
Hint: Let OX = OY = r; let PX = PY = x; OQ = m; OR = n. Then s = = 21.
2
gm
Heron’s formula gives the area of the triangle as
p √
∆ PQR = (21)(8)(7)(6) = 7 × 3 × 2 × 4 × 7 × 2 × 3 = 7 × 3 × 2 × 2 = 84
r 56
∆ PQR = ∆ PQO + ∆ ORP ⇒ (13 + 14) = 84 ⇒ r =
ri@
2 9
QO PQ m 13
∆ POX ∼
= ∆ POY , (SSS); hence OP bisects ∠ P; hence = ⇒ = ;
OR PR n 14
also m + n = QR = 15.
13n 13n 14 × 15 70 65 65
ha
Solving, we get m = ⇒ + n = 15 ⇒ n = = ; m = 15 − =
14 14 27 9 9 9
∠ OXQ = 90◦ ⇒ r2 + QX 2 = QO2 ; QX = 13 − x
sic
√ √
652 − 562 121 × 9 11 28
⇒ 13 − x = = = . Hence x =
9 9 3 3
√
152

28 13
ra
2
The angle bisector formula gives OP = 13 × 14 1 − ⇒ OP =
(13 + 14)2 9
Ptolemy’s theorem (Problem 20) for the cyclic quadrilateral, (a kite in this example), PXOY
na
gives
√
28 56 28 13 112
rx + rx = (OP)(XY ) ⇒ 2 = XY ⇒ XY = √
3 9 9 3 13
19
16 a) If ma , mb , mc denote the lengths of the medians AD, BE, CF respectively, show that
3s 3
< ma + mb + mc < 2s; b) m2a + m2b + m2c = a2 + b2 + c2

a)
2 4
c) If two medians of a triangle are equal show that the triangle is isosceles.
d) If two altitudes of a triangle are equal show that the triangle is isosceles.
om
Hint: c) One way is to use the formula for the length of a median. Suppose the medians BE and
CF are equal.
2c2 + 2a2 − b2 2a2 + 2b2 − c2

= ⇒ 3b2 = 3c2 ⇒ b = c
2 2
l.c
The other method is to use congruent triangles. For this we require standard properties of the
medians.
ai
Concurrence of medians: The three medians of a triangle are concurrent.
Proof 1: This follows from Ceva’s theorem.
gm
Let D, E, F are the midpoints of the sides BC, CA, AB respectively.
BD CE AF
BD = DC; CE = EA; AF = FB ; hence . . = 1.
DC EA FB
ri@
Hence, by the converse of Ceva’s theorem, we get AD, BE, CF are concurrent.
This point of concurrence of the medians is called the centroid G.
Proof 2: This can also be proved using similar triangles.
ha
Consider two medians BE and CF intersecting at a point G.

AF AE 1
We have = , since both fractions are equal to
AB AC 2
sic
Also ∠ FAE = ∠ BAC. Hence ∆ AFE ∼ ∆ ABC , (SAS similarity)

Hence ∠ AFE = ∠ ABC; ∠ AEF = ∠ ACB; hence FE k BC (1)
Hence ∆ EGF ∼ ∆ BGC , (AAA similarity)
ra
FG EG FE
Hence = = (2)
GC GB BC
na
Further, eq (1) can be repeated for the medians DE and FD. We get
DE k AB; FD k AC; hence BDEF and FDCE are parallelograms.

1
Hence BD = FE and DC = FE ; FE = BC (3)
2
From (1), (2) and (3) we get BG : GE = CG : GF = 2 : 1
Thus far we have proved that the point of intersection of the two medians BE and CF divides
both the medians internally in the ratio 2 : 1. This is a unique point G on BE and CF.
The same argument can be repeated with the medians AD and BE. We conclude that the point
of intersection of these two medians must divide both AD and BE internally in the same ratio
2 : 1. Hence all the three medians intersect at G and AG : GD = BG : GE = CG : GF = 2 : 1
20
Now we can prove that if two medians are equal the triangle is isosceles.
Suppose the medians BE and CF are equal and intersect at the centroid, G.
2 2
Then BG = BE = CF = CG ⇒ ∠ GBC = ∠ GCB. (1)
3 3
1 1
Also GE = BE = CF = GF ; using BG = CG, we get two congruent triangles.
3 3
∆ BGF ∼
om
= ∆CGE, (SAS); hence ∠ GBF∠ GCE (2)
Adding (1) and (2), we get ∠ B = ∠C
d) If two altitudes of a triangle are equal, show that the triangle is isosceles.
l.c
Hint: One way is to use the area of the triangle. Suppose the altitudes BD and CE are equal.
1 1
ai
The area is equal to BD. AC = CE. AB; but BD = CE. Hence AB = AC.
2 2
Another method is to use congruent triangles.
gm
We get two congruent right-angled triangles ∆ BEC ∼
= ∆ BDC , (since BD = CE and the hy-
potenuse BC is common).
Hence ∠ B = ∠C
ri@
17 If AD is the internal bisector of ∠A in ∆ ABC then AD2 = AB . AC − BD . DC.

Hint: One way is to use the formulas in problem 15.
a2 a2 bc

ha
ac ab 2
BD = ; DC = ; AD = bc 1 − = bc − = AB. AC − BD. DC
b+c b+c (b + c)2 (b + c)2
The formula AD2 = AB . AC − BD . DC can also be proved by extending the angle-bisector AD

sic
to intersect the circumcircle of ∆ ABC at E.

We know that angles in the same segment are equal; this gives ∠ ABD = ∠ AEC
ra
A
Also, ∠ BAD = ∠ EAC = . Hence we get similar triangles ∆ ABD ∼ ∆ AEC
2
AB AD
na
= ; hence AB. AC = AD. AE = AD (AD + DE) = AD2 + AD. DE ;

AE AC
also, the power of a point theorem gives AD. DE = BD. DC ; hence the result.
18 If G is the centroid of ∆ ABC, show that AG = BC ⇔ ∠BGC = 90◦ ⇔ 5a2 = b2 + c2
21
19 Steiner-Lehmus Theorem (1840), (Jacob Steiner, Swiss, 1844); (Ludolf Lehmus, German):
If the internal angle bisectors of two angles of a triangle are of equal length, the triangle is isosce-
les.
[Hint: Use problem 1 b) or 15 b)].
History This problem is much more difficult than the corresponding statements we proved ear-
lier for altitudes and medians.
om
It has been widely discussed and several proofs have been given since 1844. We cite two famous
references.
i) Martin Gardner, (American popular science writer, 1914-2010), Review of H. S. M. Coxeter’s
l.c
Introduction to Geometry, Scientific American, 204 (1961) 166-168)
ii) J. A. McBride, Edinburgh Math. Notes, 33 (1943) 1-13
ai
Now we give three proofs of the Steiner-Lehmus theorem.
Given ∆ ABC ; given BD = CE, where BD and CE are the internal bisectors of ∠ B and ∠C,
(with D on AC and E on AB).
gm
To prove that AB = AC
Method 1. Proof by contradiction. Assume ∠ B 6= ∠C. Then either B > C or C > B.
ri@
Assume B > C.
B C
Let = α and = β . Then α > β
2 2
ha
Use the cosine rule in ∆ BCD and ∆ BCE. We get
CD2 = BC2 + BD2 − 2 BC. BD cos α

BE 2 = BC2 +CE 2 − 2 BC.CE cos β
sic
Given BD = CE; also α > β and cos x is a decreasing function on [0, π].
Hence cos α < cos β ⇒ − cos α > − cos β ,
ra
Hence we get CD2 > BE 2 ; i.e., CD > BE (1)

−→ −→
Complete the parallelogram BDFE, i.e., take a point F such that BD = EF. Hence BD is
na
parallel to CE and BD = CE. Join CF.
CE = BD = EF, since opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.

Hence CE = CF ⇒ ∠ EFC = ∠ ECF ⇒ ∠ EFD + ∠ DFC = ∠ ECD + ∠ DCF
But ∠ ECD = β and opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal. Hence ∠ EFD = α
Hence α + ∠ DFC = β + ∠ DCF
But α > β ⇒ ∠ DFC < ∠ DCF ⇒ CD < DF
But DF = BE , (since opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal); hence CD < BE

This contradicts eq (1) and finishes the proof.
22
Method 2:
We continue with the same notation. Given BD = CE, where BD and CE are the internal
bisectors of ∠ B and ∠C, (with D on AC and E on AB).
Using the formula for the length of an angle bisector from problem 15, we get
b2 c2

BD2 = CE 2 ⇒ ac 1 − = ab 1 −
(a + c)2 (a + b)2
om
b2 c bc2
⇒ c− = b −
(a + c)2 (a + b)2

c b
⇒ bc − = b−c (2)
(a + b)2 (a + c)2
l.c
Assume b > c > 0. Then c < b (3)
1 1 1 1
ai
Also a + b > a + c ⇒ < ⇒ 2
< (4)
a+b a+c (a + b) (a + c)2
Inequalities (3) and (4) can be multiplied since all quantities are positive.
We get
c
<
b
.
gm
(a + b)2 (a + c)2
Hence the LHS of eq 2) is negative but the RHS is positive. This is the required contradiction.
ri@
We get a similar contradiction in the other case 0 < b < c.

Hence b = c, i.e., AB = AC. This finishes the proof.
It is easy to see that this argument fails for negative real numbers.
ha
For example, eq (2) is satisfied by a = 1, b = 1, c = −2 , but the conclusion b = c is false.

Method 3 Possibly the shortest proof is due to G. Gilbert and D. MacDonnell, (American Math-
ematical Monthly, Vol. 70, No. 1, Jan. 1963).
sic
Suppose BD and CE intersect at P. Assume BD = CE; suppose B > C; then C < 90◦ (*)
B C
> ⇒ ∠ EBP > ∠ PCD
2 2
ra
C
Hence we can cut off an angle of from ∠ EBP, by taking a suitable point F on the segment
2
na
C
EP, such that ∠ FBD = .
2
C
Now, ∠ FBD = ∠ FCD = ⇒ FBCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
2
Also, CF < CE = BD; hence CF and BE are chords of the circle FBCD and CF < BD.
Hence the acute angle subtended by CF at any point on the circumference must be smaller than
the acute angle subtended by BD at any point on the circumference.
B +C
Hence ∠ FBC < ∠ BCD ⇒ < C, as C < 90◦ ; hence
2
B +C
< C ⇒ B +C < 2C ⇒ B < C; this contradicts eq (*) and completes the proof.
2
23
Exercise: Prove or disprove the following statement.

In ∆ ABC given BD = CE, where BD and CE are the internal bisectors of ∠ B and ∠C, (with
D on AC and E on AB).
If ∠ B > ∠C then CD > BE
Note; The Steiner-Lehmus theorem is false for external angle bisectors.
om
Example: For convenience of notation, extend CB to some point X and extend AC to some
point Y .
Let the external bisector of ∠ B, (i.e., the bisector of angle ∠ ABX ) intersect CA extended at D.
l.c
Let the external bisector of ∠C, (i.e., the bisector of angle ∠ BCY ) intersect AB extended at E.
We want BD = BE but AB 6= AC. Let us try to find C such that BD = BE = BC.
ai
Angle chasing gives the following calculations:

C
180 − 90 −
∠ BCE =
180 −C
2
; ∠CBE =
2
gm
2
= 45 +
C
4
(1)
C
∠ B = 180 − ∠CBE = 135 − ;
4
ri@

C 3C
∠ A = 180 − B −C = 180 − 135 − −C = 45 − (2)
4 4
3C C
45 − > 0 ⇒ C < 60 ⇒ B = 135 − > 120◦
4 4
ha
BD is the external angle bisector of ∠ B; hence

C
180 − 135 −
180 − B 4 180 +C
sic
∠ ABD = = = (3)
2 2 8
If we want examples with all relevant angles positive integers (in degrees), we must have
ra
C ∈ {4, 8, 12, . . . 56}.

The smallest such value gives A = 42◦ , B = 134◦ , C = 4◦
na
The triangle A = 36◦ , B = 132◦ , C = 12◦ is called the Emmerich triangle.
24
20 Ptolemy’s theorem
In a convex cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, (in order), AB.CD + AD. BC = AC. BD, (1)
i.e., the sum of the products of the two pairs of opposite sides is equal to the product of the
diagonals.
Method 1: We use the cosine rule to calculate the lengths of the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilat-
eral. Let AB = a, BC = b, CD = c, DA = d.
om
∆ ABC gives AC2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos B (1)
∆ ADC gives AC2 = c2 + d 2 − 2cd cos D; but cos D = cos (180 − B) = − cos B
l.c
hence AC2 = c2 + d 2 + 2cd cos B (2)
Multiply eq (1) by cd and eq (2) by ab and subtract, (to eliminate θ )
ai
(ab + cd) AC2 = a2 cd + abc2 + b2 cd + abd 2 = ac(ad + bc) + bd(bc + ad) = (ac + bd)(ad + bc)
(ac + bd)(ad + bc) (ac + bd)(ab + cd)
AC2 = ; similarly, BD2 =
ab + cd
gm ad + bc
Hence AC2 . BD2 = (ac + bd)2 ⇒ AC. BD = ac + bd = AB.CD + AD. BC
Method 2: Synthetic geometry, similar triangles

ri@
Given a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD with diagonals AC and BD. Take a point P on BD, such
that ∠ BAP = ∠CAD.
1
We use the fact that angles in the segment of a circle are equal, i.e., ∠ ABD = ∠ ACD = ∠ AOD,
2
where O is the centre of the circle.
ha
BA BP
∠ ABP = ∠ ACD; ∠ BAP = ∠CAD ⇒ ∆ BAP ∼ ∆CAD; = ⇒ AB.CD = BP. AC (1)
CA CD
sic
AD DP
∠ ADP = ∠ ACB; ∠ BAC = ∠ PAD ⇒ ∆ ADP ∼ ∆ ACB; = ⇒ AD. BC = PD. AC (2)
AC CB
Adding (1) and (2) gives AB.CD + AD. BC = AC (BP + PD) = AC. BD
ra
Method 3: Trigonometry Let ∠ ADB = ∠ ACB = α; ∠ BDC = ∠ BAC = β ;

∠ DAC = ∠ DBC = γ.
na
Then ∠ ABD = 180 − (α + β + γ). The sine rule gives
AB = 2R sin α; BC = 2R sin β ; CD = 2R sin γ; AC = 2R sin (α + β ); BD = 2R sin (β + γ)

To prove eq (1), i.e., 4R2 [sin α sin γ + sin (α + β + γ) sin β − sin (α + β ) sin (β + γ)] = 0
Consider sin α sin γ + sin (α + β + γ) sin β − sin (α + β ) (sin β cos γ + cos β sin sin γ)
1
= cos (α − γ) − cos (α + γ) + cos (α + β + γ − β ) − cos (α + 2β + γ)
2
1
− cos (α + β − β − γ) − cos (α + 2β + γ)
2
=0
25
Equivalently, sin α sin γ + sin ((α + β ) + γ) sin β − sin (α + β ) (sin β cos γ + cos β sin sin γ)
(( ( ((
= sin α sin γ + ( sin((α
((+( ) cos γ + cos (α + β ) sin γ sin β − sin((α
β( ( (+( ((γ(
) cos
β( sin β
(
− sin (α + β ) cos β sin γ
= sin α sin γ − sin γ [− cos (α + β ) sin β + sin (α + β ) cos β ]
= sin α sin γ − sin γ sin (α + β − β ) = sin α sin γ − sin α sin γ = 0
om
−
→ −→ − → −→ −→ − →
Method 4: Euler’s identity for vectors, (1747) AB · CD + AC · DB + AD · BC = 0
−→ → − −
Proof: We need the the definition AB = b − → a and fact that dot product of vectors is commu-
l.c
→
− →
− →
− →
−
tative, i.e., u · v = v · u , for all vectors. Hence we can copy the same proof that works for
any four real or complex numbers.
Consider (b − a) · (d − c) + (c − a) · (b − d) + (d − a) · (c − b)
ai
= b· d −b· c−a· d +c· b−c· d −a· b+a· d +d · c−d · b−a· c+a· b
gm
−
→ −→ −→ − → − → −→
= 0; hence AB · CD + AD · BC = AC · BD
Now we can prove Ptolemy’s theorem by projection of the four points onto a line.
ri@
Take any point O on the circumference of the circumcircle of the cyclic quadrilateral ABCD.
Take any line l intersecting OA, OB, OC, OD internally at points A0 , B0 , C0 , D0 , respectively, in
that order.
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
Euler’s identity gives A0 B0 . C0 D0 + A0 D0 . B0C0 = A0C0 . B0 D (3)
−−→ −−→
ha
But A0 B0 . C0 D0 = (A0 B0 ) (C0 D0 ) cos 0 = (A0 B0 )(C0 D0 ), (and similar calculations of all the dot prod-
ucts in eq 3). Note that the angle between any two collinear vectors is either 0 or π.
p2
sic
Let p be the perpendicular distnce from O to l. Multiply eq (3) by

4
1 1 1 1 1 1
p (A0 B0 ) p (C0 D0 ) + p (A0 D0 ) p (B0C0 ) = p (A0C0 ) p (B0 D0 ); using areas, we get
2 2 2 2 2 2
ra
[OA0 B0 ] [OC0 D0 ] + [OA0 D0 ] [OB0C0 ] = [OA0C0 ] [OB0 D0 ];

1
but [OA0 B0 ] = (OA0 )(OB0 ) sin(AOB), (since ∠ AOB = ∠ A0 OB0 )
na
2
Hence sin AOB sin COD + sin AOD sin BOC = sin AOC sin BOD;
AB
Use the sine rule, sin AOB = etc. (where R is constant for all the triangles)
2R
We get Ptolemy’s theorem AB.CD + AD. BC = AC. BD
Method 5: (Euler’s identity and Complex numbers)

We have already proved Euler’s identity for any four complex numbers,
(a − b) (c − d) + (a − c) (d − b) + (a − d) (b − c) = 0
Hence (a − c) (b − d) = (a − b) (c − d) + (a − d) (b − c)
26
|(a − c) (b − d)| = |(a − b) (c − d) + (a − d) (b − c)|

z
The triangle inequality gives |z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|; equality holds if and only if is a positive
w
real number.
Hence |(a − c) (b − d)| ≤ |(a − b) (c − d)| + |(a − d) (b − c)|
⇒ AC. BD ≤ AB.CD + AD. BC. This is Ptolemy’s inequality for any quadrilateral. (1)
om
(a − b)(c − d)
Equality holds if and only if is a positive real number
(a − d)(b − c)
a−b
⇔ ‘the cross-ratio’ a − d is a negative real number
l.c
c−b
c−d

a−b c−b
⇔ arg − arg
ai
= π (mod 2 π) = π + 2kπ, for some integer k. (2)
a−d c−d
Take A, B, C, D in order, in the anti-clockwise direction, so that BD separates A and C.

b−a

gm

d −c

Eq (2) is equivalent to arg + arg = π (mod 2 π) (3)
d −a b−c

z2
But arg is the angle of anti-clockwise rotation from OA to OB with A ≡ z1 and B ≡ z2
ri@
z1

b−a −→ − →
Hence arg = the angle of rotation from AD to AB = 2 π − ∠ DAB
d −a

d −c −→ −→
arg = the angle of rotation from CB to CD = 2 π − ∠ DCB
b−c
ha
Hence eq (3) is equivalent to ∠ DAB + ∠ DCB = 180◦ , i.e., ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
−→ − → −→ − → −→ −→
sic
21 Use Euler’s vector identity, AH · BC + BH · CA + CH · AB = 0, to show that the three altitudes

of a triangle are concurrent at the orthocentre H.
ra
na
27
22 The Euler line:
a) Let D, E, F be the midpoints of the sides BC, CA, AB respectively, of a triangle ∆ ABC.
Then the four triangles BDF, DCE, AEF and DEF are congruent to each other.
Let BE intersect CF at G. Then the following triangles are similar:
om
∆ AFE ∼ ∆ ABC; BC = 2 FE; ∆ FGE ∼ ∆CGB; BG = 2 GE, CG = 2 GF. Similarly, AG = 2 GD.
b) The medians are concurrent at the centroid G; G is also the centroid of the medial triangle
∆ DEF.
l.c
c) The orthocentre of the medial triangle ∆ DEF is the circumcentre O of ∆ ABC.
d) OD = R cos A.
ai
e) Draw F1 E1 parallel to BC through A, E1 D1 parallel to AB through C and D1 F1 parallel to
CA through B. gm
Then the orthocentre H of ∆ ABC is the circumcentre of ∆ D1 E1 F1 whose circumradius is equal
to 2 R.
f) AH = 2R cos D1 = 2R cos A = 2 OD.
ri@
g) Show that O, G and H are collinear; OGH is the Euler line and HG = 2 GO,
i.e., G divides OH internally in the ratio 1 : 2
23 Show that H and O are isogonal conjugates, i.e., ∠BAH = ∠CAO; i.e., AH and AO are reflec-
ha
tions (of each other) in the bisector of ∠A.

−1 2 11 4
24 In ∆ ABC, A ≡ (1, 10), O ≡ ,and H ≡ , . Show that
sic
3 3 3 3
√

8 −11 −13 −40 19
G ≡ 1, ; D ≡ 1, ; R = 10 2; B ≡ , ;C ≡ , −6 .
9 3 3 3 3
ra
25 If H is the orthocentre of ∆ ABC and the alitude AD intersects the circumcircle at P, show that
∆ BHD ∼ = ∆ BPD; hence HD = DP.
na
r
A B C bc(s − a) A
26 a) r = 4R sin sin sin ; b) AI = = r cosec ;
2 2 2 s 2
c) Using the AM-GM inequality pairwise for s − a, s − b and s − c, show that
abc ≥ 8(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) ⇒ abc ≥ (a + b − c)(b + c − a)(c + a − b) and R ≥ 2r;

equality holds only when the triangle is equilateral.
28
27 I is the incentre and O is the circumcentre of ∆ ABC. Let AI extended intersect the circumcir-
cle at L. Then
a) BL = CL = IL; OL is the perpendicular bisector of BC; AI. IL = 2Rr;
b) Euler’s formula: OI 2 = R2 − 2Rr
om
28 a) ab + bc + ca = r2 + s2 + 4Rr; b) a2 + b2 + c2 = 2s2 − 2r2 − 8Rr
c) Leibniz formula:
a2 + b2 + c2
For any point M inside ∆ ABC, MA2 + MB2 + MC2 = + 3 MG2
3
l.c
1
d) OG2 = R2 − a2 + b2 + c2 ; HG = 2 GO; OH 2 = 9R2 − a2 + b2 + c2 ;

9
1
e) IG2 = s2 + 5r2 − 16Rr

9
ai
29 Nine-point circle: (Poncelet and Brianchon, 1820): Let A0 , B0 , C0 be the midpoints of the sides
gm
BC, CA, AB of ∆ ABC.
Let AD, BE, CF be the altitudes. Let H be the orthocentre and let O be the circumcentre.
Let P = midpoint (AH); Q = midpoint (BH); R = midpoint (CH).
ri@
Then A0 , B0 , C0 , P, Q, R, D, E, F all lie on a circle, called the ‘nine-point circle’.

Steps: a) ∆ PQR ∼
= ∆ A0 B0C0 , by SSS congruence;
b) Any isosceles trapezium is a cyclic quadrilateral; A0 B0C0 D is a cyclic trapezium;
ha
c) The midpoints of the sides and the feet of the altitudes, A0 , B0 , C0 , D, E, F all lie on a circle;
d) Apply the previous step to ∆ BCH; A0 , Q, R, D, E, F all lie on a circle; repeat the argument
with ∆ ACH;
sic
e) A0 , B0 , C0 , D, E, F, P, Q, R all lie on the nine-point circle.

f) C0 PRA0 , A0 B0 PQ, B0C0 QR are rectangles;
ra
A0 P, B0 Q, C0 R are diameters of the nine-point circle;
H is the orthocentre of ∆ PQR;

na
O is the orthocentre of the diametrically opposite ∆ A0 B0C0

−−−−→
g) N = midpoint (OH) is the centre of the nine-point circle; OGNH is the (directed) Euler line;
−→ −→ −→ 1 −→
ON = NH and OG = GH
2
1 1
h) The nine-point radius is QN = BO = R
2 2
i) The triangle ∆ A B C is diametrically opposite to ∆ ABC; i.e., ∆ A0 B0C0 is obtained by rotat-
0 0 0
ing ∆ ABC about N through an angle of 180◦

j) The orthic triangle and the medial triangle have the same circumcircle, i.e., the nine-point
circle.
29
30 Let AD, BE and CF be the altitudes of ∆ ABC. ∆DEF is the orthic triangle of ∆ ABC.
a) The orthocentre H of ∆ ABC is the incentre of the orthic triangle ∆ DEF.
b) The orthic triangle is the triangle of least perimeter which can be inscribed in an acute angled
triangle ∆ ABC. (Fagnano’s problem, Italian, 1775).
om
31 a) A circle of radius r1 passes through the vertex A of a triangle ABC and touches the base BC
at B;
another circle of radius r2 passes through A and touches the base BC at C.
Show that r1 r2 = R2 , where R is the circumradius of ∆ ABC.
l.c
b) Given a segment AB. Find the locus of a point P moving such that ∠ APB = α constant.
Ans: Case 1: Suppose the given angle ∠ α < 90◦ . Let D be the midpoint of AB. Take two points
ai
O and O0 on opposite sides of AB such that ODO0 ⊥ AB and ∠ DAO = ∠ DAO0 = 90◦ − α.
Calculation: APB = α ⇒ ∠ AOB = 2α ⇒ ∠ AOB = α ⇒ ∠ DAO = 90◦ − α.
gm
If we take undirected angles, the locus of P is the union of two arcs of circles, (on opposite sides
of AB) of equal radii OA = O0 A and centres O and O0 .
Case 2: If α = 90◦ , the geometric limit of the drawing in case 1) shows that each arc is a semi-
ri@
circle on AB as diameter; the union of the arcs is the circle on AB as diameter.

Case 3: If α > 90◦ , ODO0 ⊥ AB and ∠ DAO = ∠ DAO0 = α − 90◦ .
Calculation: Take P0 on the circle through A, P, B such that P and P0 are on opposite sides of
AB. ∠ APB = α ⇒ ∠ AP0 B = 180 − α ⇒ ∠ AOB = 2(180◦ − α) ⇒ ∠ AOD = 180◦ − α
ha
Hence ∠ DAO = α − 90◦ .

The locus of P is a lens-shaped figure, which is, as before, the union of two arcs of circles, (on
opposite sides of AB) of equal radii OA = O0 A and centres O and O0 .
sic
ra
na
30
Concurrence and collinearity
32 Ceva’s theorem, (Italy, 1678).

Let X, Y, Z be points on the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of ∆ ABC.
BX CY AZ
a) If AX, BY, CZ are concurrent then = 1.
XC YA ZB
om
b) Conversely, if this relation holds, the ‘Cevians’ AX, BY, CZ are concurrent.
33 Using Ceva’s theorem, prove the following:
l.c
a) The three medians of a triangle are concurrent.
b) The three altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
ai
[Hint: Use the projection formulas; if the triangle is acute-angled the orthocentre H lies inside
the triangle, hence also inside the circumcircle; for a right-angled triangle, H is the vertex of
the right angle, i.e., H is on the circumcircle; when the triangle is obtuse-angled at A, H lies
gm
outside the triangle and also outside the circumcircle].
c) The three internal angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
AD AB
Hint: If AD is the bisector of ∠A, the sine rule gives = .
ri@
DC AC
d) Homothety: If the corresponding sides of two triangles ∆ ABC and ∆ A0 B0C0 are parallel to
each other, i.e., AB k A0 B0 , BC k B0C0 and CA k C0 A0 , then AA0 , BB0 , CC0 are concurrent at a
point O called the centre of homothety, (or all three lines are parallel).
[Hint: Let BB0 ∩CC0 = O; OA ∩ A0 B0 = A1 .
ha
A0 B0 B0C0 OB0 A1 B0
Then = = = ⇒ A0 = A1 ].
AB BC OB AB
sic
34 a) The external angle bisectors of ∠B and ∠C and the internal angle bisector of ∠A are con-
current at an excentre Ia opposite A.
[Hint: Every point on the internal as well as external angle bisector of ∠B is equidistant from
ra
AB and BC.
Every point on BIa is equidistant from AB and BC;
na
every point on CIa is equidistant from AC and BC;

hence Ia is equidistant from AB and AC ⇒ Ia lies on AI].
b) I is the othocentre of ∆ Ia Ib Ic ;
∆ ABC is the pedal triangle of ∆ Ia Ib Ic .

[Hint: The internal and external angle bisectors of any angle are perpendicular to each other].
31
rs
34 c) Let ra be the radius of the excircle opposite the vertex A. Then ra = .
s−a
[Hint: Let Y and Ya be the points of tangency of the incircle and the excircle (opposite A ) with
the side AC, respectively.
Then the triangles ∆ AIY and ∆ AIaYa are similar;
AYa = AZa since they are tangents from A to the excircle;
om
r AY s−a
also AYa + AZa = AB + BC +CA = 2s ⇒ AYa = s ⇒ = = ].
ra AYa s
d) If X, Y, Z are the points of contact of the incircle with the sides BC, CA, AB respectively, of
a triangle ∆ ABC, then AX, BY and CZ are concurrent at the ‘Gergonne point’, (French, 1830).
l.c
BX s−b
[Hint: = , etc.]
XC s − c
ai
e) Let Ia be the excentre opposite A; Xa is the point of tangency of this excircle with BC.
Similarly define Xb and Xc . Then AXa , BXb and CXc are concurrent at the ‘Nagel point’, (Ger-
man, 1836).
gm
BXa s−c
[Hint: = , etc].
XaC s − b
ri@
35 Let AD be the internal angle bisector of ∠A in ∆ ABC. Let AMa be the median. Let ASa be
the symmedian, i.e., the isogonal conjugate of the median, i.e., the reflection of the median AMa
in the angle bisector AD. Similarly define BSb and CSc . The 3 symmedians are concurrent.
BSa ∆ BASa AB. ASa CSa ∆ ASaC AC. ASa
[Hint: = = ; = =
CMa ∆ AMaC AC. AMa BMa ∆ AMa B AB. AMa
ha
BSa AB2
Dividing we get, = , etc]
CSa AC2
sic
36 Suppose AD, BE, CF are concurrent Cevians in ∆ ABC. Let D0 , E 0 F 0 be the reflections of
D, E, F in the midpoints of the sides BC, CA, AB respectively. ( D and D0 are ‘isotomic con-
jugates’).
ra
Show that AD0 , BE 0 , CF 0 are also concurrent.

[Hint: Assume B, D0 , Ma , D, C are in order. Then
na
BD0 BMa − Ma D0 MaC − Ma D DC

= = = , etc].
D0C D0 Ma + MaC DMa + Ma B BD
32
37 Menelaus theorem, (Greek, 100 AD)

Let X, Y and Z be points on the sides BC, CA and AB of ∆ ABC, (either one side extended or
all three sides extended).
AZ BX CY
Then X, Y, Z are collinear if and only if . . = −1.
ZB XC YA
[Hint: Assume X, Y, Z are collinear.
Let h1 , h2 , h3 be the perpendicular distances from A, B, C respectively to XY Z.
om
Take one side of the line XY as positive and the other side as negative.
AZ h1 BX h2 CY h3
Then =− ; =− ; = − ; hence the product is equal to −1.
ZB h2 XC h3 YA h1
l.c
0 AZ AZ 0
Conversely, let AB ∩ XY = Z ; then = 0
⇒ Z = Z 0 ].
BZ BZ
ai
38 a) Let O be any point in the plane. Let M and N be the feet of the perpendiculars from O on
the interior and exterior angle bisectors of ∠A of ∆ ABC. Similarly P and Q are defined for
∠B; R and S are defined for ∠C . Show that MN, PQ and RS are concurrent.
gm
b) The external angle bisectors of the angles of a scalene triangle intersect the sides in three
collinear points.
Hint: Let the external angle bisector of ∠A intersect BC at X. Then
ri@
BX ∆ ABX (1/2) (c)(AX) sin(90 + A/2) c

= = = etc.
CX ∆ ACX (1/2)(b)(AX) sin(90 − A/2) b
39 let O be the circumcentre of ∆ ABC. Join AO and extend it to intersect the circumcircle at D.
Suppose DB = DC. Show that OD is the perpendicular bisector of BC.
ha
→
− − → −
[Hint: Take the circumcentre O as the origin. Let →−
a , b ,→c , d be the position vectors of
A, B, C, D, respectively.
sic
→
− → − →
− − 2
Given DB = DC ⇒ |DB| = |DC| ⇒ | d − b |2 = | d − → c|
→
− →
− →
−
⇒ d 2 − 2 d . b + b2 = d 2 − 2 d .→
−
c + c2 , but |OB| = |OC|
→
− → − → − − →
− → − − −→ − →
⇒ d = c ⇒ d . b = d .→ c ⇒ d .( b −→
ra
c ) = 0 ⇒ OD ⊥ BC ].
na
33
Homework
40 a) If the Euler line of ∆ ABC is parallel to BC, show that tan B. tanC = 3.
b) In a rectangle ABCD , AB = CD = 40 cm, AD = BC = 55 cm. Points P and Q are taken on
AD and BC respectively such that the distance between the parallel lines BP and QD is 1 cm.
Find the area of the parallelogram BQDP.
√
om
Hint: Let BP = x ; drop BR ⊥ DP (extended); use similar triangles; 55 − x = 40 x2 − 1 ;
x = 5/3 ; required area = 40x = 200/3 sq. cm.
c) (Putnam Competition, 1997): In ∆ ABC, M is the midpoint of BC; O, H are the circumcen-
tre and orthocentre, respectively; AF is the altitude. Assume HOMF is a rectangle. AH = 10,
l.c
OH = 11, OM = 5 units. Find the length of BC.
√ = 15; by part
Hint: AF √ a) BF.FC = 75; x(x + 22) = 75; x = 3; BC = 28; AH = 10;
AB = 3 26; AC = 5 34.
ai
gm
41 If M is any point on the circumcircle of ∆ ABC, show that BM +CM = AM.
Hint: Let ∠CAM = θ . Then ∠CBM = θ = ∠CAM
⇒ AM − BM = 2R sin (60 + θ ) − 2R sin (60 − θ ) = 2R . 2 cos 60 . sin θ = 2R sin θ = CM

ri@
42 Let I be the in-centre of ∆ ABC. The in-circle touches the sides BC, CA, AB at A0 , B0 , C0 re-
spectively. Points L, M, N are taken on A0 I, B0 I, C0 I equidistant from I.
a) Show that AL, BM, CN are concurrent.
ha
b) Let A1 , B1 , C1 be the projections of A, B, C on a general line through I.

Show that A1 L, B1 M, C1 N are concurrent.
sic
43 ABCDEF is a hexagon inscribed in a circle. Show that the diagonals AD, BE, CF are concur-
rent if and only if AB.CD. EF = BC. DE. FA
ra
44 Show that the tangents to the circumcircle of a triangle ∆ ABC at the vertices A, B, C intersect
the sides BC, CA, AB at three collinear points.
na
45 A circle intersects the sides AB, BC, CA of a triangle ∆ ABC at the points C1 ,C2 , B1 , B2 , A1 , A2 .
If AA1 , BB1 , CC1 are concurrent, show that AA2 , BB2 , CC2 are also concurrent.
46 Let A1 , B1 , C1 be points on the sides BC, CA, AB of ∆ ABC.

Let AB ∩ A1 B1 = C2 , BC ∩ B1C1 = A2 , CA ∩C1 A1 = B2 .
If AA1 , BB1 , CC1 are concurrent, show that A2 , B2 , C2 are collinear.
47 ‘Gaussian line’: A line l intersects the sides AB, BC, CA of a triangle ∆ ABC at D, E, F re-
spectively. Show that the midpoints of DC, AE, BF lie on a line.
34
48 Let C1 , C2 , C3 be three pairwise disjoint circles. Let A1 , A2 , A3 be the intersection points of

the pairwise internal common tangents of the circles C1 , C2 , C3 ; similarly, let B1 , B2 , B3 be the
intersection points of the pairwise external common tangents of the circles. Show that there are
four lines with three points on each line, (B1 B2 B3 ), (A1 A2 B3 ), (A1 A3 B2 ), (A2 A3 B1 ).
49 M is a point in the plane of ∆ ABC. The internal and external angle bisectors of ∠ AMB intersect
om
AB at C1 , C2 . Similarly, A1 , A2 are on BC and B1 , B2 are on CA. Show that these six points
lie on four lines each having three points, (as in problem 48).
50 Ref: I. F. Sharygin: Problems in Plane Geometry (1982), (free download available online):
l.c
The line l1 passes through A and is parallel to B1C1 .
The line l2 passes through B and is parallel to C1 A1 .
The line l3 passes through C and is parallel to A1 B1 .
The line l10 passes through A1 and is parallel to BC.
ai
The line l20 passes through B1 and is parallel to CA.
The line l30 passes through C1 and is parallel to AB.
gm
If l1 , l2 , l3 are concurrent, show that l10 , l20 , l30 are also concurrent, (or parallel).
51 A1 , B1 , C1 are points on BC, CA, AB respectively.

ri@
A2 , B2 , C2 are points on B1C1 , C1 A1 , A1 B1 respectively.

AA1 , BB1 , CC1 are concurrent.
A1 A2 , B1 B2 , C1C2 are concurrent.
Show that AA2 , BB2 , CC2 are also concurrent, (or parallel).
ha
52 In a quadrilateral ABCD, AD ∩ BC = P,CA ∩ BD = Q, AB ∩CD = R.

Show that BC ∩ QR, CA ∩ RP, AB ∩ PQ are collinear.
sic
53 A1 , A2 are points on BC; B1 , B2 are points on CA; C1 , C2 are points on AB such that AA1 , BB1 , CC1
are concurrent and AA2 , BB2 , CC2 are also concurrent. Show that
ra
a) AB ∩ A1 B1 , BC ∩ B1C1 , CA ∩C1 A1 are collinear, on a line l1 ;

b) AB ∩ A2 B2 , BC ∩ B2C2 , CA ∩C2 A2 are collinear on a line l2 ;
na
c) A, l1 ∩ l2 , B1C1 ∩ B2C2 lie on a line;

d) AB ∩ A1 B1 , BC ∩ B2C1 , CA ∩C2 A2 are collinear.
54 A line l intersects AB, BC, CA at K, M, L respectively.

l intersects A1 B1 , B1C1 , C1 A1 at K1 , M1 , L1 respectively.
Assume A1 M, B1 L, C1 K are concurrent.
Show that AM1 , BL1 , CK1 are also concurrent.
55 Given a triangle ∆ ABC ; given a point D. Let E, F, G be points on AD, BD, CD respectively.
Let AF ∩ BE = K, BG ∩CF = L, CE ∩ AG = M, AB ∩ DK = P, BC ∩ DL = Q, AC ∩ DM = R.
Show that the six lines AL, BM, CK, EQ, FR, GP are concurrent.
35
56 The pairs of points (A, A1 ), (B, B1 ), (C,C1 ) are symmetric with respect to a line l. N is a point
on l .
Show that the points AN ∩ B1C1 , BN ∩C1 A1 , CN ∩ A1 B1 are collinear.
57 Pascal’s hexagon theorem: Consider six points A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , A5 , A6 on a circle. Show that

the points P1 = A1 A2 ∩ A4 A5 , P2 = A2 A3 ∩ A5 A6 , P3 = A3 A4 ∩ A6 A1 are collinear.
om
l.c
ai
gm
ri@
ha
sic
ra
na
36
58 a) In ∆ ABC , let O be the circumcentre, I be the incenter and Ia be the excentre opposite A.
Then
1
a) a2 + b2 + c2 = 2s2 − 2r2 − 8 Rr ; b) OG2 = R2 − a2 + b2 + c2 ;

9
1
c) OI 2 = R2 − 2Rr; d) IG2 = s2 + 5r2 − 16Rr ;

9
om
e) OIa2 = R2 + 2Rra ; f) IIa2 = 4R (ra − r).
58) b) In ∆ ABC, AB = 17, AC = 19; ∠ AGO = 90◦ . Find BC
l.c
Ans: Let AGD be the median from A. GD = x, AD = 2x, AD = 3x, AO = R
1
AO2 = AG2 + GO2 ; R2 = 4x2 + OG2 ; but OG2 = R2 − (a2 + b2 + c2 )
9
ai
1
⇒ R2 = 4x2 + R2 − (a2 + b2 + c2 ) ⇒ a2 + b2 + c2 = 36x2 ⇒ 36x2 − a2 = 650 (1)
9
a2
gm
By Apollonius’ theorem, we get, AB2 + AC2 = 2(AD2 + BD2 ) ⇒ 172 + 192 = 2(3x)2 +
2
⇒ 36x2 + a2 = 1300 (2)
√
ri@
From (1) and (2), we get a2 = 325 ⇒ BC = 5 13
59 AC and BC are two equal chords of a circle. BA is produced to a point P. CP intersects the
circle at T . Then
ha
a) CT : T P = AB : AC b) CT : T P = AC : AB
c) CT : CB = CA : CP d) CT : CB = CP : CA
sic
Ans: In all the given options, the left side depends on T and hence on P. In (a) and (b) the right
side does not depend on P or T ; so these answers cannot be right.
Option (d) is obviously wrong because CA = CB and CP > CT .
ra
We have ∠ PAT + ∠ TAB = 180◦ = ∠ TAB + ∠ BCT
∠ PAT = ∠ BCT ; this gives the similar triangles ∆ PAT ∼ ∆ PCB, (SSS)
na
PA PT AT
Hence = = ⇒ PT. PC = PA. PB.
PC PB CB
This is the ‘power of a point theorem’. This deserves further elaboration.
Let (O, r) be a given circle, with centre O and radius r > 0. Let L1 and L2 be two lines in the
plane of the circle passing through a point P, which lies inside or outside the circle. Suppose L1
intersects the circle at A and B; suppose L2 intersects the circle at C and D.
Case 1: Suppose P lies inside the circle. We know that angles in the same segment are equal;
i.e., ∠ PAC = ∠ PDB and ∠ PCA = ∠ PBD.
Hence we get two similar triangles, ∆ PAC ∼ ∆ PDB.
37
PA PC
Hence = . This gives PA. PB = PC. PD. (Power of a point theorem)
PD PB
Case 2: Suppose P lies outside the circle, and BA and DC are two chords of the circle inter-
secting at P .
From the point P we have two sets of collinear points, P, A, B and P, C, D.
We know that opposite angles of the cyclic quadrilateral ABDC are supplementary.
om
∠ PAC = 180 − ∠CAB = ∠CDB; ∠ PCA = 180 − ∠ ACD = ∠ ABD
Hence we get the same pair of similar triangles ∆ PAC ∼ ∆ PDB.
l.c
PA PC
As before, we get = ⇒ PA. PB = PC. PD. (Power of a point theorem)
PD PB
We have a limiting case when C = D ; i.e., PC is tangent to the circle at C
ai
and PAB is a secant line. In this case PC2 = PA. PB
gm Tangent-chord theorem
In this problem this is not sufficient to get the solution.
Let ∠ ABT = x; ∠ T BC = y. Given AC = BC; hence ∠ BAC = ∠CBA = x + y;
∠ BCA = 180 − 2x − 2y.

ri@
AT BC is a cyclic quadrilateral. Hence ∠ ACP = ∠ ABT = x
∠ BCT = 180 − 2x − 2y + x = 180 − x − 2y; in triangle ∆ BPC , we get

∠ BPC = 180 − (x + y) − (180 − x − 2y) = y = ∠ T BC = ∠ TAC
ha
Hence we get two similar triangles ∆ PAC ∼ ∆ ATC, (SSS).

AC PC
= ; CA = CB, (given); CT : CB = CA : CP. This gives the option (c).
sic
TC AC
ra
na
38
60 The incircle of ∆ ABC touches BC at D. Let I be the incentre of the triangle.
Let M = midpoint of AD, N = midpoint of BC.
Show that M, I, N are collinear.
61 let P be a point on the circumcircle of ∆ ABC. Let L, M, N be the feet of the perpendiculars
from P on BC, CA, AB respectively.
om
Show that L, M, N are collinear. (This line is called the Simson line of P).
62 a) The Simson line of P bisects PH, where H is the orthocentre of the triangle;
b) If PL intersects the circumcircle again at L0 , show that AL0 is parallel to the Simson line
l.c
LMN.
ai
gm
ri@
ha
sic
ra
na
39
63 a) O is the circumcentre of ∆ ABC. AA0 is a diameter. BE , CF are altitudes and H is the

orthocentre.
Prove that a) A0 H bisects BC.
b) If D is the midpoint of BC, show that DE = DF
om
64 IMO SL (2010): AD, BE, CF are the altitudes of an acute-angled triangle ∆ ABC. FE inter-
sects the circumcircle at P; BP ∩ DF = Q.
Prove that AP = AQ.
l.c
65 IMO SL (1997): Let D be a point on the side BC of ∆ ABC. AD intersects the circumcircle at
X.
P and Q are the feet of the perpendiculars from X on AB and AC respectively.
ai
Show that PQ is tangent to the circle on XD as diameter if and only if AB = AC.
gm
66 IMO (2004): Let AB 6= AC in an acute-angled triangle ∆ ABC. The circle on BC as diameter
intersects AB and AC at M and N respectively. O is the midpoint of BC. The bisectors of
∠ BAC and ∠ MON intersect at R.
ri@
Prove that the circumcircles of the triangles BMR and CNR have a common point lying on the
side BC.
67 ARO (2007): The internal bisector of ∠ ABC in an acute-angled triangle ∆ ABC intersects AC
ha
at B1 .
The perpendicular from B1 on BC meets the circumcircle at K,
where K is on the minor arc AC.
c
The perpendicular from B to AK meets AC at L.
sic
The line BB1 meets the circumcircle again at T, (T 6= B).

Prove that K, L, T are collinear.
ra
68 USA TSTST (2012), (www.artofproblemsolving.com):

Let ABCD be a quadrilateral with AC = BD. The diagonals AC and BD meet at P.
na
Let ω1 and O1 denote the circumcircle and circumcentre of triangle ABP.

Let ω2 and O2 denote the circumcircle and circumcentre of triangle CDP.
BC meets ω1 and ω2 again at S and T .
Let M and N be the midpoints of the minor arcs SP
c (not including B ) and TcP (not including
C) .
Prove that MN is parallel to O1 O2 .
69 (Japanese theorem): The incenters of the four triangles ABC, BCD, CDA, DAB of a cyclic
quadrilateral ABCD form a rectangle.
[Hint: In any triangle ABC, ∠BIC = 90 + A/2].
40
70 a) INMO (2017): ABCD is a square paper. E is on AB ; F is on DC .

The paper is folded along EF such that A goes to a point A0 , A0 6= C, A0 6= B on the side BC
and D goes to D0 . The line A0 D0 cuts CD in G.
Show that the inradius of the triangle GCA0 is the sum of the inradii of the triangles GD0 F and
A0 BE.
b) Let ABC be a triangle with ∠ A = 90◦ and AB < AC.
om
Let AD be the altitude from A onto BC. Let P, Q and I denote respectively the incentres of
triangles ABD, ACD and ABC.
Prove that AI is perpendicular to PQ and AI = PQ.
l.c
71 a) CRMO (2015): Let ∠B = 90◦ in a triangle ∆ ABC. E is the midpoint of AB.
F is the midpoint of AC. I is the incentre of the triangle. The points A, E, I and F are con-
ai
cyclic.
BC
Find
AB
. [Ans: 4/3].
gm
b) The diagonals AC and BD of a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD intersect at X.
The circumcircles of the triangles AXD and BXC intersect at X and Y .
ri@
If X is the incentre of ∆ ABY , prove that ∠CAD = 90◦ .
72 In triangle ∆ ABC, points P and Q are on BC; BP = PQ = QC;

similarly R and S are on CA; CR = RS = SA;
T and U are on AB; AT = TU = UB.
ha
If P, Q, R, S, T, U are concyclic, show that ∆ ABC is equilateral.
73 X is a point in the interior of ∆ ABC.

sic
Lines XA, XB, XC intersect the circumcircle again at P, Q, R respectively .

U is a point on the ray XP. The line through U parallel to AB intersects BQ at V .
The line through U parallel to AC intersects CR at W .
ra
Prove that the points Q, R, V, W are concyclic and WV is parallel to BC.

na
74 (INMO 2016): In triangle ∆ ABC, AB = AC. Suppose the orthocenter H lies on the incircle of
triangle ∆ ABC. Find the ratio AB/BC.
41
75 (RMO 2014): a) Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle and suppose ∠ B is the largest angle of
the triangle.
Let R be its circumcentre. Suppose the circumcircle of triangle ∆ ARB intersects AC again at X.
Prove that RX is pependicular to BC.
[Hint: Extend RX to intersect BC at E. Join RA, RB, BX.
∠ AXB = ∠ ARB = 2C; ∠BXR = ∠BAR = 90◦ −C.
om
∠EXC = 90 +C; ∠CEX = 90◦ ].
76 Let ABC be a triangle. Let X be on the segment BC such that AB = AX.

Let AX meet the circumcircle Γ of ∆ ABC again at D.
l.c
Show that the circumcentre of ∆ BDX lies on Γ.
[Hint: Draw AE perpendicular to BC; extend AE to meet Γ at F.
ai
AB = AX; AE is the perpendicular bisector of BX. Join CF, CD.
∠ ABX = ∠CDX; ∠ AXB = ∠CXD. Hence CD = CX. gm
∠ BCF = ∠ BAF; ∠ DCF = ∠ DAF. ∠ BCF = ∠ DCF.
Hence CF bisects ∠DCX; CF is the perpendicular bisector of DX.
F is the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides BX and DX. Hence F
is the circumcentre of ∆ BXD].
ri@
77 The following triangles are examples of ‘Heron’ triangles, (refer problem 5) i.e., all the sides
and the area of the triangle are integers.
a) Isosceles Heron triangle: a = 2(u2 − v2 ), b = c = u2 + v2
ha
b) Heron triangle with sides in AP:
(a, b, c) = (b − d, b, b + d), where d = m2 − 3n2 , b = 2(m2 + 3n2 )

sic
c) Heron triangle with ∠ B = 2∠ A:

1 2 2 2 1 1 2
r + s , b = r4 − s4 , c = 3r4 − 10r2 s2 + 3s4 ,

a=
4 2 4
ra
1
∆ = crs r2 − s2

2
na
d) a = n m2 + k2 , b = m n2 + k2 , c = (m + n) mn − k2 ;

2 m2 n
≤ k2 ≤ mn.

∆ = kmn (m + n) mn − k , where
2m + n
e) Heron triangles with one side prime:
a = p = m2 + 2n2 , b = m2 + 4n2 , c = 2 m2 + n2 , ∆ = 2mn m2 + 2n2

r
f) If the sides of a triangle ∆ ABC are integers and AD is an altitude, show that BD, DC and
R
are rational. The lengths of the medians, the altitudes, the angle bisectors, the inradius and the
circumradius are quadratic irrationals.
p √
2 bc(s − a) 2b2 + 2c2 − a2 abc
Ans: l(angle bisector) = ; l(median) = ; ∆ = rs =
b+c 2 4R
42
78 (INMO 2019) In a triangle ∆ ABC, ∠ BAC > 90◦ . D is point on the segment BC and E is on
the line AD such that AB is tangent to the circle ACD at A and BE is perpendicular to AD.
CA = CD; AE = CE. Find ∠ BCA.
Ans: (We give a direct proof. The offical method needlessly relies on trigonometry).
Extend AD to intersect the circumcircle of ∆ ABC at F.
om
∠ ACD = ∠ BCA = θ . Given, AB is tangent to the circumcircle of ∆ ACD at A. Hence
∠ BAD = θ .
Also, ∠ BCA = ∠ BFA = θ = ∠ BAF.
l.c
Hence AB = BF. Also given BE is the altitude of the isosceles triangle ∆ BFA.
Hence AE = EF; also AE = CE, (given). Hence AE = EF = CE ⇒ E is the circumcentre of
the triangle ∆ ACF and ∠ ACF = 90◦
ai
Hence E is the circumcentre of ∆ ABC and AF is a diameter; ∠ ABF = 90◦ .
gm
AE = EF = BE ⇒ θ . ∆ BAF is an isosceles right-angled triangle; θ = ∠ BFA = ∠ BAD = 45◦
79) (INMO 2019) AB is a diameter of a circle Γ and C is a point on Γ different from A and B.
Let D be the foot of the perpendicular from C on AB. K is a point on the segment CD such
ri@
that AC is equal to the semi-perimeter of ∆ ADK. Prove that the ex-circle of ∆ ADK opposite
A is tangent to Γ.
Ans: Let ω be the ex-circle of ∆ ADK opposite A. Let O be the centre and R be the radius of
Γ ; let M be the centre and r be the radius of ω
ha
Suppose AD touches ω at X; AK touches ω at Y ; DK touches ω at P.

Tangents from A to ω must be equal; hence AX = AY (1)
Tangents from D to ω are equal; hence DP = DX (2)
sic
Tangents from K to ω are equal; hence KP = KY (3)

Given, the semi-perimeter of ∆ ADK is equal to AC
ra
AD + DK + KA = 2 AC
⇒ AD + DP + PK + AK = 2 AC
⇒ AD + DX + KY + AK = 2 AC
na
⇒ AX + AY = 2 AC
⇒ AX = AY = AC (4)
Now, ω is the ex-circle of ∆ ADK. Hence
PD ⊥ DX; MX ⊥ DX; MP ⊥ PD; hence PDMX is a rectangle.

Also, MP = MX ⇒ PDMX is a square. Hence DX = XM = r (5)
To prove that the circles Γ and ω are tangent to each other.
We will give a ‘metric proof’, i.e., compute distances. In the next part we give a ‘synthetic ge-
ometry’ proof of the converse from an earlier Israel Mathematical Olympiad paper (1995). This
proof can be worked backwards as well.
43
To prove that OM = R − r (3)

Consider OM 2 = OX 2 + XM 2
= (OD + DX)2 + r2
= (OD + r)2 + r2 ; use OD = AD − AO = AD − R
= (AD − R + r)2 + r2
= [AD − (R − r)]2 + r2
om
= AD2 − 2 AD.(R − r) + (R − r)2 + r2
= AD2 + 2r (AD) + r2 − 2R (AD) + (R − r)2
= [AD − (R − r)]2 + r2
= (AD + r)2 − 2 (AD).R + (R − r)2
l.c
= (AD + DX)2 − 2 (AD).R + (R − r)2
= AX 2 − 2 (AD).R + (R − r)2
= AC2 − 2 (AD).R + (R − r)2 , use AC2 = AD2 + DC2
= AD2 + DC2 − 2 (AD).R + (R − r)2
ai
= AD2 + DC2 − 2 (AD).R + (R − r)2 , use CD2 = AD.DB
= AD2 + AD.DB − 2 (AD).R + (R − r)2
gm
= AD (AD + DB − 2R) + (R − r)2 , use AD + DB = AB = 2R
= (R − r)2
Hence OM = R − r ; hence the distance between the centres of the two circles is equal to the
difference of the radii. Hence the two circles touch each other internally.
ri@
We have given a ‘metric proof’, i.e., using distances. In the next part we give a ‘synthetic geom-
etry’ proof of an equivalent version of this problem.
Israel Math Olympiad, (1995) Converse of the previous problem.
ha
PQ is a diameter of a semi-circle H. The circle O is internally tangent to PQ at H and tangent

to PQ at C.
A be a point on H and B is a point on PQ such that AB ⊥ PQ and AB is tangent to O.

sic
Prove that AC bisects ∠ PAB.

Ans: We draw the diagram so that C is between P and B , (so as to fit the orientation and
ra
conclusion of the problem).

Let X and Y be the points of contact of the circle O with the circle H and with the line seg-
ment AB respectively.
na
Claim 1: XQ intersects AB at Y .
Proof: Suppose XQ intersects AB at Z.
The angle in a semi-circle is 90◦ . Hence ∠ PXQ = 90◦ .
Also, ∠ QBY = 90◦ , (given). Hence the exterior angle of the quadrilateral XY BP is equal to the
interior opposite angle. Hence XY BP is a cyclic quadrilateral. Hence ∠ XYA = ∠ XPB
∠ XZA = ∠ BZQ = ∠ ZBQ − ∠ ZQB = 90◦ − ∠ ZQB = ∠ PXQ − ∠ XQB = ∠ XPB.

These two equations give ∠ XZA = XYA; also both X and Y lie on AB. Hence Y = Z. This
settles Claim 1
The power of the point Q w.r.t the smaller circle gives QC2 = QY. QX (1)
44
Also, we have the two similar triangles ∆Y BQ ∼ ∆ PXQ, (since ∠Y BQ = ∠ PXQ and ∠Y QB
is common).
QX BQ
Hence = ⇒ QX. QY = QB. QP (2)
PQ Y Q
Also in the right triangle (in the semi-circle) PAQ we get QA2 = QB. QP (3)
(1), (2) and (3) give QC = QA (4)
om
Consider the triangle ∆ PAQ.
Here ∠ PAQ = 90◦ ; AB ⊥ PQ; B is on the segment PQ and C on the segment PB such that
QC = QA.
l.c
Claim 2: AC bisects ∠ PAB.
Proof: Let ∠ AQP = α. Then ∠ APQ = 90 − α.
ai
180 − α
Given QC = QA ⇒ ∠ QAC = ∠ QCA =
2
180 − α
∆CAB gives ∠CAB = 90 − ∠ QCA = 90 −
gm
2
=
α
2
∆ PAB gives ∠ PAB = 90 − ∠ APQ = 90 − (90 − α) = α = 2 (∠CAB)
Hence AC bisects ∠ PAB. This proves the second claim.
ri@
This completes the proof.
80) (IMOTC, ST4, 2012): Let ABCD be a quadrilateral having no parallel sides and having an
incircle with centre O. Prove that O is the point of intersection of the two lines joining the
ha
mid-points of the opposite sides of the quadrilateral if and only if OA . OC = OB . OD

Ans: Method 1) (Synthetic proof): Let AB = a, BC = b, CD = c, DA = d. Let DA ∩ CB = X
which lies outside the quadrilateral ABCD.
sic
Let P, Q, R, S be the mid-points of the sides AB, BC, CD, DA

(in order), respectively.
ra
Assume that the centre of the in-circle is O = PR ∩ QS; PQ k AC k RS; PS k BD k QR.

Hence PQRS is a parallelogram. The diagonals bisect each other. OP = OR; OQ = OS
na
Drop OK, ON perpendicular from O on AB, AD respectively..

Then OK = ON = r ; AK = AN, (both are tangents) and OA is common. Hence we get the
congruent right triangles ∆ OAK ∼
= OAN; hence OA bisects angle A.
Similarly, OA, OB, OC, OD are angle bisectors of the respective internal angles of ABCD.
Also we have two right-angled congruent triangles ∆ ONS ∼
= ∆ OLQ, (hypotenuse and one side,
since OQ = OS; OL = ON = r).
Hence ∆ XSQ is isosceles; ∠ XSQ = ∠ XQS.
In quadrilateral ABQS we get the sum of the angles
(A + B)
A + B + XSQ + XQS = 360◦ ⇒ ∠ XSQ = 180 − (1)
2
45
Similarly, in quadrilateral BCRP we get the sum of the angles

(B +C) A + D
A + B + XSQ + XQS = 360◦ ⇒ ∠ OPB = ∠ ORC = 180 − =
2 2
A B
In ∆ AOB, ∠ AOB = 180 − − (2)
2 2
A
From (1) and (2) we get ∠ ASO = ∠ AOB ; also OA bisects ∠ A, i.e., ∠ OAS = ∠ BAO = .
2
om
Hence we get similar triangles ∆ ASO ∼ ∆ AOB
AS SO OA ad
⇒ = = ⇒ OA2 = AB. AS =
AO OB BA 2
l.c
ad ab bc cd
Similarly, we get OA2 = ; OB2 = ; OC2 = ; OD2 =
2 2 2 2
adbc
⇒ OA2 . OC2 = = OB2 . OD2 ⇒ OA. OC = OB. OD
ai
4
Method 2): (Trigonometric proof). Let P, Q, R, S be the mid-points of the sides
gm
AB, BC, CD, DA (in order), respectively.
Assume O = PR ∩ QS; PQ k AC k RS; PS k BD k QR.
Hence PQRS is a parallelogram. The diagonals bisect each other. OP = OR; OQ = OS
ri@
Drop OX, OY, OZ, OW perpendicular from O on AB, BC, CD, DA respectively..
Then OX = OY = r ; BX = BY , (both are tangents); hence we have the congruent right triangles
∆ OXB ∼
= OY B; hence OB bisects angle B.
ha
Similarly, OA, OB, OC, OD are angle bisectors of the respective internal angles of ABCD.
A OX r A
Hence sin = sin OAX = = ; hence OA = r csc
2 OA OA 2
sic
A B C D
Similarly, OA = r csc ; OB = r csc ; OC = r csc ; OD = r csc (1)
2 2 2 2
To prove that OA. OC = OB. OD ; use eq (1)
ra
A C B D
⇔ r csc . r csc = r csc . r csc
2 2 2 2
na
A C B D A C B D
⇔ csc . csc = csc . csc ⇔ sin . sin = sin . sin (2)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
We have the congruent right-angled triangles ∆ XOP ∼
= ∆ ZOR, since OX = OZ = r; OP = OR.
Note that A, X, P, B and D, Z, R, C must be in the same order on opposite sides of O.
(Otherwise, if (X, P) and (Z, R) are in opposite orders, these congruent right triangles would
give AB k DC, contradiction).
Hence ∠ XPO = ∠ ZRO; hence the supplements of these two angles must also be equal;
∠ BPO = ∠CRO = θ
We now recall the cotangent rule: In any triangle ∆ OAB, let P be a point on the side AB such
that
46
AP m
= ; suppose ∠ OPA = θ
PB n
Then (m + n) cot θ = m cot B − n cot A
Proof: This follows from the sine rule in the two triangles ∆ OPA and ∆ OPB.
Let AP = km; PB = kn
om
kn OP km OP
Then = and =
sin (θ − B) sin B sin (180 − θ − A) sin A
Dividing, we get
l.c
n sin (θ + A) sin A
=
m sin (θ − B) sin B
⇒ n sin B (sin θ cos A + cos θ sin A) = m sin A (sin θ cos B − cos θ sin B)
ai
⇒ (m + n) sin A sin B cos θ = sin θ (m sin A cos B − n cos A sin B)
gm
Dividing both sides by sin A sin B sin θ , we get
(m + n) cot θ = m cot B − n cot A (Cotangent rule)
Use this formula in ∆ OBA and ∆COD with m = n = 1 ;

ri@

B A C D
∠ BPO = ∠CRO = θ ; base angles , and , , respectively, in order.
2 2 2 2
B A C D
We get 2 cot θ = cot − cot = cot − cot
2 2 2 2
ha
B D C A
cos cos cos cos
⇒ 2+ 2 = 2 + 2
B D C A
sic
sin sin sin sin

2 2 2 2
B+D A +C
sin sin
⇒ 2 = 2
B D A C
ra
sin sin sin sin

2 2 2 2
B+D A +C B+D A +C
But A + B +C + D = 360◦ ⇒ = 180 − ⇒ sin = sin
2 2 2 2
na
A C B D
Hence sin . sin = sin . sin
2 2 2 2
This proves (2) and finishes the proof.
47
81) ABCD is a square (with vertices labelled in order in the anti-clockwise direction). O is the
centre of the square.
M is the mid-point of the side AD. P and Q are points on the segment OD such that
B, O, P, Q, D are in order. ∠ PMQ = 45◦ , BP = 15 and DQ = 4. Find PQ.
Hint: (Cosine rule). Let PQ = x. PQ = OQ − OP = x (1)
BP − OP = OB = OD = OQ + QD ; hence 15 − OP = OQ + 4 ⇒ OP + OQ = 11 (2)
om
11 − x x + 11
Solving (1) and (2) we get OP = and OQ = (3)
2 2
11 + x x + 19
PD = PQ + QD = x + 4; OD = OQ + QD = +4 =
l.c
2 2
OD x + 19
∆ OMD a right-angled isosceles triangle. Hence OM = √ = √ (4)
2 2 2
ai
Also given, ∠ PMQ = 45 = ∠ MDQ ; hence PM is tangent to the circumcircle of ∆ MDQ.
Hence PM 2 = PQ. PD = x(x + 4) (5)
gm
The cosine rule in ∆ OPM gives PM 2 = OM 2 + OP2 − 2 OP. OM cos 45◦
x + 19 2 11 − x 2

11 − x x + 19 1
⇒ x(x + 4) = √ + −2 √ √
ri@
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
⇒ 3x2 + 22x − 185 = 0. This has only one positive root x = 5
Home-work: a) ABCD is a square with centre O. M is the mid-point of the side AD. P and Q
are points on the diagonal BD such that B, P, O, Q, D are in order and ∠ PMQ = 45◦ . BP = 3
ha
and DQ = 4. Find PQ.

Ans: PQ = 5.
sic
b) In this set-up, suppose BP = a and DQ = b . Show that
x+b−a x+a−b x+a+b

OP = ; OQ = ; OM = √ ; PM 2 = x(x + b)
2 2
ra
2
The cosine rule in ∆ OPM gives PM 2 = OP2 + OM 2 − 2 OP. OM cos 135◦
√
na
(b − a) + 2 a2 − 2ab + 4b2
Solving, we get, PQ =
3
82) ABCD is a square E and F are points on the sides BC and CD respectively such that
∠ EAF = 45◦ . AE and AF intersect the diagonal BD at P and Q respectively. Find the ratio
of the areas [APQ] : [AEF]
Ans: Method 1) Rotate ∆ AEF about A in the anti-clockwise direction keeping E on BC and
F on CD and ∠ EAF = 45◦ until E coincides with C.
Then F coincides with D , P moves to the centre O of the square and Q coincides with D.
E = C and F = D implies that [APQ] : [AEF] = [AOD] : [ACD] = 1 : 2
48
Method 2) (Cyclic quadrilaterals): ∠ EAQ = ∠ EBQ = 45◦ . Hence ABEQ is a cyclic quadri-
lateral.
Hence AQE = 90◦ ; ∆ AQE is a right-angled isosceles triangle; AQ = QE ⇒ AE 2 = 2 AQ2 (1)
Similarly, ∠ PAF = ∠ PDF = 45◦ ⇒ APFD is cyclic; hence ∠ APF = 90◦
∠ AFP = 45◦ = ∠ AEQ ⇒ PEFQ is a cyclic quadrilateral.
om
Hence ∠ APQ = ∠ AFE. We get similar triangles, ∆ APQ ∼ ∆ AFE, (AAA)
[APQ] AQ2 1
= = , using eq (1) above.
[AEF] AE 2 2
l.c
Method 3 (Sine rule): Since we want to compute only ratios and not actual values, we may
assume ABCD is a unit square, i.e., each side is 1 unit long. Let ∠ ABE = θ ; ∠ DAF = 45 − θ
ai
AB = AE cos θ ; AE = sec θ ; AD = AF cos (45 − θ ); AF = sec (45 − θ )
AP AB 1 sin 45
∆ ABP ⇒ = = ⇒ AP = (1)
sin 45 sin (135 − θ ) sin (45 + θ )
AQ AD 1
gm sin 45
sin (45 + θ )
∆ ADQ ⇒ = = ⇒ AQ = (2)
sin 45 sin (90 + θ ) cos θ cos θ
1
AP. AQ. sin 45
ri@
[APQ] sin2 45
= 2 =
[AEF] 1 sin (45 + θ ) cos θ sec θ sec (45 − θ )
AE. AF. sin 45
2
sin θ + cos θ
But sin (45 + θ ) = √ = cos (45 − θ )
2
ha
[APQ] 1
Hence = sin2 45 =
[AEF] 2
sic
83) (RMO 2013) AB = AC in a triangle ABC. Γ is the circumcircle of ∆ ABC. D is on the arc AB
opposite C. E is on the arc AC opposite B. AD = CE. Prove that AD k BE.
Hint: We know that the arc-length is given by s = r θ . Hence two chords are equal if and only
ra
if their (minor) arc-lengths are equal if and only if they subtend equal angles at the centre if and
only if they subtend equal angles at the circumference.
Given arc (AB) = arc (AC); arc (AD) = arc (CE)
na
⇒ arc (AB) − arc (AD) = arc (AC) − arc (CE)
⇒ arc (AE) = arc (BD)

Hence these two arcs must subtend equal angles at the circumference.
∠ ABE = ∠ BAD. Hence AD k BE
49
84) ABCD is a square with each side of 1 unit. Draw four arcs of quarter circles of radius 1 each,
inside the square, with centres at each vertex of the square. Find the area of the region common
to these four circles inside the square.
Ans: Let the two arcs (B, AC) and (C, BD) intersect at P. Similarly we get P, Q, R, S labelled
in the anti-clockwise direction. To find the area of the region PQRS.
Let a = area of each of the four regions bounded by two adjacent arcs and one side of the square.
om
Let b = area of each of the four regions bounded by three adjacent arcs of circles.
Let c = the required area of the innermost region bounded by the four arcs of circles.
Total area of the square is 4a + 4b + c = 1 (1)
l.c
π
Area of a quarter circle is 2a + 3b + c = (2)
4
Q be the point of intersection of the arcs (C, BD) and (D, AC)
ai
Join BP and CP. Drop PD ⊥ BC. gm
1
By symmetry, BD = DC = ; BP = 1 ⇒ ∠ BPD = 30◦ (because, in a right-angled triangle,
2
π
the side opposite to 30 is half the hypotenuse). Hence ∠ BPC = 60◦ = = ∠ PBC = ∠ PCB;
◦
3
hence ∆ PBC is equilateral with each side 1.
√ √
ri@
3 3
Area [BPC] = (side)2 =
4 4
1 1 π π
Area of the sector CBQP is equal to r2 θ = . =
2 2 3 6
1 π π
∠ ABP = 30◦ ⇒ ( Area of the sector ABP ) = . =
ha
2 6 12
√ ! √
π π 3 3 3−π
⇒ (area of the sector ABQPA) = a + b = − − = (3)
12 6 4 12
sic
√
3+π −3 3
Solving equations (1) and (3), we get c =
3
ra
This is the required area.

√ √
12 − 3 3 − 2π 6 3 + π − 12
Further calculation gives a = and b =
12 12
na
84) Of all triangles on a fixed base and constant area, show that the isosceles triangle has the least
perimeter.
1
Hint: Given base BC = a = constant and given area [ABC] = a h = constant. Hence h is
2
constant.
Draw a line l parallel to BC at a height h . Take two points A and P on l such that AB = AC
and PA 6= PB.
To prove that PB + PC > AB + AC.
Proof: Extend BA to C0 such that AC = AC0 . Then AB = AC = AC0 ⇒ ∠ BCC0 = 90◦ , (angle
in a semi-circle is 90◦ ).
50
Hence CC0 ⊥ BC ⇒ CC0 ⊥ l

Let CC0 ∩ l = X ⇒ ∆ AXC ∼
= ∆ AXC0 ⇒ CX = C0 X
Hence C0 is the reflection of C in the line l; ∆ PXC ∼
= ∆ PXC0 ⇒ PC = PC0
The triangle inequality in ∆ PBC0 gives PB + PC = PB + PC0 > BC0 = BA + AC0 = AB + AC
om
85) Given a square ABCD with each side of length a cm. A quarter circle is drawn with vertex
passing through B and D. A semi-circle touches the quarter circle, and touches CD at C. A
circle touches the quarter circle, the semi-circle and also the side CD. Find its radius.
l.c
Let the radii of the quarter circle, the semi-circle and the circle be r1 , r2 , r3 , respectively. We
consider the line CD as a circle of radius ∞.
When there are four mutually tangent circles we have Descartes’ four circles theorem:
ai
(k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 )2 = 2 k12 + k22 + k32 + k42

(1)
1
where ki = are the curvatures of the circles.
ri
gm
Let E be the centre of the semi-circle on the side BC.
Let AB = r1 = a, CE = r2 = r, BE = a − r, AE = a + r
ri@
a
The Pythagoras theorem gives (a + r)2 = a2 + (a − r)2 ⇒ a2 = 4ar ⇒ r =
4
1 4
Use eq (1) with k1 = , k2 = , k3 = 0,
a a
2
1 4 1 16 2
we get + + 0 + k4 = 2 2 + 2 + 0 + k4
ha
a a a a
10 k4 25 34
⇒ k42 + + 2 = 2 + 2k42
a a a
sic

2 10k4 9 1 9
⇒ k4 − + 2 = 0 ⇒ k4 − k4 − =0
a a a a
9 a
k4 = ⇒ r4 =
ra
a 9
86) Regular Polyhedra: There are exactly five regular polyhedra.

na
Proof: A regular polyhedron is a solid such that

a) all its faces are congruent regular polygons;
b) each vertex has a constant number of edges intersecting at that vertex.
Suppose the polyhedron has V vertices, E edges and F faces.
Suppose each regular polygon is an n−gon, i.e., it has n sides, n ≥ 3
Suppose the degree of each vertex (in the corresponding planar graph), is d ≥ 3
The total number of edges can be calculated in two ways. Each face has n edges; each edge is
2E
common to two faces. Hence nF = 2E ⇒ F = (1)
n
51
We can use a similar two-way counting for the total number of vertices. Suppose the number of
edges at each vertex is d. The total number of vertices is dV . Each edge has 2 vertices; hence
2E
dV = 2E ⇒ V = (2)
d
Substitute (1) and (2) in Euler’s formula, V − E + F = 2, (for any solid)
2E 2E 2nd 2 2 2
om
−E + =2 ⇒ E = and −1+ = > 0 (3)
d n 2n + 2d − nd d n E
2 2 1 1 1
⇒ −1+ > 0 ⇒ + > (4)
d n d n 2
⇒ 2d + 2n > nd ⇒ nd − 2d − 2n + 4 < 4 ⇒ (n − 2)(d − 2) < 4 ⇒ (n − 2)(d − 2) = 1, 2, 3
l.c
Hence the possible values are (d, n) = (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (3, 5), (5, 3) (5)
ai
2nd 2E 2E
For each case, we use E = ,V= ,F= to get the five regular polyhedra.
2n + 2d − nd gmd n
1) d = 3, n = 3 ⇒ E = 6, V = 4, F = 4 (Tetrahedron)
2) d = 3, n = 4 ⇒ E = 12, V = 8, F = 6 (Cube)
ri@
3) d = 3, n = 5 ⇒ E = 30, V = 20, F = 12 (Dodecahedron)
4) d = 4, n = 3 ⇒ E = 12, V = 6, F = 8 (Octahedron)
5) d = 5, n = 3 ⇒ E = 30, V = 12, F = 20 (Icosahedron)

ha
Example: A football is triangulated using pentagons and hexagons. Find the number of such
polygons required for this triangulation.
sic
Ans: Let a = number of pentagons; let b = number of hexagons. Counting the total number of
vertices and edges we get,
a + b = F; 5a + 6b = 2E; 5a + 6b = 3V .
ra
Hence 2 and 3 divide a; hence a = 6k
F = b + 6k; E = 3b + 15k; V = 2b + 10k; V − E + F = 2

na
Hence k = 2; a = 12. This is the number of pentagons.

In a minimal triangulation, there are no hexagons, b = 0; F = 12, E = 30, V = 20. This is the
dodecahedron.

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Mathematics Olympiad

9) I. F. Sharygin, Problems in Plane Geometry, (1982), (free download available online):

Main references for number theory:

D. R. Heath-Brown, J. H. Silverman, eds, OUP, 2008)

1 a) In a right-angled triangle ∆ ABC, ∠B = 90◦ . BD ⊥ AC.

BD2 = AD . DC; AB2 = AD . AC; BC2 = CD .CA.

We will make this similarity explicit: ∆ ADB ∼ ∆ BDC, since

AB < CD ⇒ ∠ APB < ∠CPD

c) Prove the sine rule for a triangle:

ABEC is a cyclic quadrilateral; ∠ A + ∠ BEC = 180

Drop AD perpendicular from A onto BC.

From (2) and (3), we get = = (4)

Again we get eq (4).

a = b cosC + c cos B; a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

To prove the cosine rule, i.e., a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

= 2 DC2 + 2 (BD) (DC)

Hence a2 + b2 − c2 = 2 DC (DC − BD) = 2(−b cos C)(−BC) = 2ab cos C, as before.

c) Deduce that, a2 > b2 + c2 ⇔ ∠ A > 90◦

d) ∠A = 60◦ if and only if a2 = b2 − bc + c2 .

e) ∠A = 120◦ if and only if a2 = b2 + bc + c2 .

anti-clockwise direction; AB k CD and AD = BC, AB = CD.

∠ B + ∠C = 180◦ ; either ∠B < 90◦ or ∠C < 90◦ . Assume ∠ B < 90◦

Drop DX ⊥ BC and BY ⊥ DA, (extended if necessary). Then Y B k DX; Y BXD is a rectangle.

To get eqs (4) and (5), consider

ad − bc < 0 if the rotation from AB to AD is clockwise;

ad − bc = 0 if the area [ABCD] = 0, i.e., A, B, C, D are collinear.

(Heron’s formula, Alexandria, 60 AD)

Also, ∆ = ac sin B and the sine rule gives sin B = ⇒∆=

4) Heron’s formula using the cosine rule, (without half-angle formulas):

b + c − a = (a + b + c) − 2a = 2s − 2a = 2(s − a); c + a − b = 2(s − b); a + b − c = 2(s − c)

Hence IX = IZ and IX = IY ; hence IY = IZ ⇒ ∆ IAY ∼

but u + (v + w) = s and v + w = a ⇒ u + a = s ⇒ u = s − a; similarly, v = s − b; w = s − c

∠ IBX = ⇒ tan = = ⇒ cot = ; similarly,

i) Pythagorean triples: a = u2 − v2 , b = 2uv, c = u2 + v2 ; ∆ = uv(u + v)(u − v)

ii) Sides in arithmetic progression: a, b = a + d, c = a + 2d. The area is given by

If u > 3v, ∠C is obtuse.

a) Langley’s problem (1922): ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC.

∠ A = 20◦ ; D and E are points on AC and AB respectively;

b) In ∆ ABC, M and N are points on AB and AC respectively such that

∠ MCB = 55◦ ; ∠ NBC = 80◦ ; ∠ B = 100◦ ; ∠C = 65◦ .

∠ XBM = ∠ XCM = 10◦ ⇒ XMBC is a cyclic quadrilateral.

Y BCN is cyclic; hence XNY = ∠Y BC = 90◦ ; ∠ XMY = ∠ XNY = 90◦

∠ ABD = 10◦ ; ∠ BCE = 60◦ ; ∠ ECD = 20◦ .

Ans: ∠ BDE = 12◦ .

9 ABC, is a right-angled triangle with ∠B = 90◦ . AB = 3, BC = 4 and AC = 5. C1 and C2 are

13 Brahmagupta’s cyclic quadrilateral, (Ujjain, India, 628 CE):

Brahmagupta’s formula: Area of a cyclic quadrilateral

d) Verify Ptolemy’s theorem, AB.CD + AD.BC = AC.BD

f) Bretschneider’s theorem, (German, 1842), generalisation of Ptolemy’s theorem

m2 n2 = a2 c2 + b2 d 2 − 2 abcd cos(A +C).

∠ ABK = ∠CAD, ∠ BAK = ∠ ACD, ∠ BCA = ∠ DAM and ∠CAB = ∠ ADM.

g) If ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, use A +C = 90◦ in part a) to deduce Ptolemy’s theorem.

h) Bretschneider’s formula for the area of a quadrilateral

The area K of any quadrilateral is given by

⇒ a2 + d 2 − b2 − c2 = 2(ad cos A − bc cos C)

Adding (1) and (2) we get

= a2 d 2 + 2abcd + b2 c2 − 2abcd [1 + cos (A +C)]