Materials Testing Lab

MATERIALS TESTING LAB
(AAE-5163)
(For Internal circulation only)
Department of Aeronautical & Automobile Engineering
Name :
Class : M.Tech. Automobile Engineering
Roll No :
Batch :
Department of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering, M.I.T. Manipal
Vision of the Institute

Excellence in technical education through innovation and team work
Mission of the Institute

Educate students professionally to face societal challenges by providing a
healthy learning environment grounded well in the principles of
Aeronautical and Automobile engineering, promoting creativity and
nurturing teamwork
Vision of the Department

Excellence in Education of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering
fortified through Innovation and Teamwork
Mission of the Department

M1: Educate students professionally to face societal challenges.
M2: Provide a conducive environment for learning, reinforced with the
principles of Automobile Engineering.
M3: Promote Creativity and nurture Teamwork
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PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO)
PEO 1: Recognize the need for innovative product necessary for survival, safety and comfort of
the society and adapt to technological innovations.
PEO 2: Apply modern computational, analytical and simulation tools and the latest techniques to
address the challenges faced in aeronautical engineering streams.
PEO 3: Communicate effectively and convey ideas using innovative engineering tools and
demonstrate leadership skills.
PEO 4: Get employed as successful engineers in aeronautical industries, become entrepreneurs

and pursue higher studies.
PEO 5: Practice professional ethics, work in multicultural environments, promote social harmony,
engage in community service and contribute to improve and sustain the green environment.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
Engineering Post-Graduates will be able to:
PO 1 Apply the knowledge of basic engineering fundamentals, numerical mathematics and

science and specialization in avionics to apply the solution of complex aerospace engineering
problems.
PO 2 Identify aerospace engineering problems, formulate the mathematical models, review

current research journals, design, simulate and analyse complex aerospace problems using
engineering fundamentals.
PO 3 Learn avionics system engineering product life cycle and apply to design and develop
industry level research and product development process and search solution for complex
engineering problems.
PO 4 Do the research investigation and draw the conclusion with verification and validation using
research methodology and includes experiments, interpretation of data and synthesis of the
information.
PO 5 Apply the resources, software tools and hardware tools to learn, analyse, design and develop
software and hardware modules in the domain of avionics including embedded aerospace,
communication, control and navigation, drones, AI, signal processing and other associated
complex and indigenous product problems.
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PO 6 Understand the impact of engineering solution and make ready to provide solution for
society, environment, sustainable development with great responsibilities and professionally with
knowledge of ethics, awareness of safety and health and cultural.
COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
CO1: To determine the hardness, toughness and grain size of different ferrous materials.
CO2: To study the behavior of standard specimen subjected to tension, shear and torsion
CO3: To determine the structural rigidity of the given specimen
CO4: To determine the torsional rigidity of helical spring and elastic modulus of leaf spring.
CO5: To understand the heat treatment operation on a steel specimen and fatigue testing of
materials
REFERENCES
1. Suryanarayana A.V.K., Testing of metallic materials, PHI, 1990.
2. Khanna and Justo, Highway Material Testing, NemChand, 1989.
3. Technical Teacher’s Training Institute, Laboratory manual of strength of materials,
Oxford University Press, 1983.
4. Davis H.E., Troxell G.E., Wiscosil C.T., The testing and inspection of Engineering
materials, McGraw Hill Book Company.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr./Ms.………………………………………………Bearing

Registration No.……………………. has satisfactorily completed the Laboratory work in
Materials Testing Lab (AAE-5163) as prescribed by the Manipal University for the partial
fulfillment of M.Tech., Program in Automobile Engineering, during the term from
………………….to ……………….
Date : ……………… Name & signature of

the Faculty In charge
MIT/AAE/SL/MNL2019
INDEX
Manual Signature
Experiment Name of the Experiment Page No.
No. Marks
1 Composite laminate and curing 1
2 Brinell Hardness Test 5
Tension Test of Composite

3 10
beams
4 Torsion Test 19
5 Test on Helical Spring 27
6 Shear Test 33
7 Bending test of composite beam 36
8 Fatigue testing 43
Deflection of a Simply
9 50
Supported Beam
10 Verification of Maxwell’s 54
Reciprocal Theorem/
11 Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s 62

Ratio using Strain Gauge
12(a) Magnetic Particle Inspection 66

12(b) Die Penetrant Test 70
12(c) Flaw detection using C-scan 72
12(d) Flaw detection using ultrasonic 74

flaw detector
13 Heat treatment and 78

Microstructure Examination
14 Test on Leaf Spring 80
TOTAL MARKS
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EXPERIMENT No. 1
Composites Lamination and Curing
Aim:
To layup the given prepreg by vacuum bagging, Autoclave curing and post curing and specimen
preparation as per ASTM standards.
Apparatus:
Vacuum bagging material, Autoclave, Hot air oven.
Theory:
Polymer based composites are fabricated by hand layup process further cured either in autoclave,
microwave, or in hot air. Auto clave curing is used in curing of high grade aerospace materials to
achieve the defect free and accurate composites. Curing cycle has a strong impact on the thermal
and mechanical behavior of thermosetting polymers. The extent of cross-linking which is a strong
function of curing temperature and time is directly linked to the glass transition temperature (Tg)
of the thermosetting polymer. This transition temperature speaks about the transformation of the
polymer from glassy state to rubbery state, hence decides the applicability of the material at
certain temperature with certain degree of safety and reliability.
Post curing is used to break the cross link between the polymers and to improve the mechanical
properties and to improve the glass transition temperature of the composites.
Terminologies:
Autoclave: an oven with integrated pressure that cures laminates under high pressure and
temperature.
Adhesive film: used to bond laminates to core layers (such as honeycomb) to form sandwich
structures.
Bagging material: used to apply vacuum to the composite layup in combination with vacuum
sealant tape.
Breather Fabric: placed between release film and bagging material. It is the white fabric seen
above in Figure 7. Breather allows the pump to have airflow, releases volatiles from the resin, and
absorbs resin during the cure.
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Caul Plate: transmits a normal pressure to the composites during cure and creates a smooth
surface.
De-bulking: applying a temporary vacuum to the composite to remove air and allow the laminae
to come together better.
Epoxy resin: the resin acts as the matrix of the composite to ‘bind’ the composite materials
together and transfer the component stresses that may act on the part to the fibers in the composite.
The fibers are designed and selected to handle the designed stresses imposed.
Gel: refers to the state when resin begins to become more viscous and hard to spread. This is the
initial part of the cure phase.
Gel time: (pot life) the gel time is how much time passes until the resin begins to thicken and gel.
This is the time allowed to apply to the composite, once the pot life has been reached bagging of
the part should begin. This information can be found on the technical data sheet of the resin. Don’t
begin a layup until everything is prepared so that you can get the most out of your gel time for
application.
Procedure:
The lamination process:
Our goal is to make a composite structure/laminate that has a specific shape (plate, curved shell,
complex shape, etc.) that is composed of several plies. Each ply or lamina is made of matrix that
contains continuous fibers in a specific orientation. In order to do this, we need something that
has the final shape of our structure so that we can build our laminate on. This is called the mold
or the tool. It should be smooth in order for us to get a smooth surface in the resulting composite.
The tool can be a simple glass plate if we are building a flat composite plate, or it can be a piece
of high density foam with the shape of the composite structure engraved in it using a 3D router.
Foam molds need to be polished in order to make its surface smooth and ready for the lamination
process.
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Figure 1.1: 2D illustration of the lay-up process

After applying the release agent to the mold, you can start laminating your laminae in the proper
sequence based on your design. Again we don’t want our laminate to stick to any other layers that
will be placed on it, so we add another release film directly over the laminate called release film.
It is very important to apply pressure on the laminate during the curing process. The pressure
compacts the laminate, removing air, humidity, excess resin, and volatiles from the resin which
can all compromise the curing process and the performance of the finished part. This compaction
improves the fiber-to-resin ratio, which is the key to maximizing the strength-to-weight
advantages of any composite.
Autoclave curing:
1. Connect vacuum valve to the vacuum bagging.
2. Keep the mold in the autoclave
3. Connect vacuum hose pipe to the valve.
4. Start the compressor, cooling tower and air drier.
5. Check the compressor for 10 bar pressure and instrument panel pressure to 8 bar.
6. Switch on the autoclave in semi auto mode and enable the vacuum to check any leakage
in vacuum bagging.
7. Close the Autoclave door and lock it.
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8. Feed the cure cycle in the computer and save it.
9. Put the autoclave in auto mode and start the autoclave.
10. Frequently check the mimic for condition of the autoclave and the PID controller for
temperature, pressure vacuum.
11. Dump the pressure in the autoclave once the process in complete by putting the
autoclave in semi auto mode and by operating the forced dump knob.
12. Once the temperature reaches about 500C, open the autoclave and take out the mold.
13. Close the door and switch off the Autoclave.
14. Remove the vacuum bagging and carefully takeout the laminate.
Fig.1.2: Autoclave
Post Curing:Post curingof the composites were performed to improve the mechanical
properties of the composites. Post curing temperature is above the glass transition
temperature.
The composite is kept in hot air oven or in the auto clave and heated a pre-defined temperature
and for pre-defined time. The time and temperature are at which the post curing is performed
depends on the properties of the resin.
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EXPERIMENT No. 2 Date: …………………
BRINELL'S HARDNESS TEST

Aim:
To determine the Brinell's hardness number of ferrous materials like mild steel, cast iron and
non-ferrous materials like brass, aluminium, etc. (IS: 1700-1961)
Apparatus:
Brinell's hardness tester, ball indenters and hardness test specimens.
Theory:
In Brinell's hardness test, which measures the resistance to indentation, a ball having a
diameter 'D' is pressed on the specimen of the material to be tested under a load 'P'. The load
is maintained for 10 to 15 seconds and the diameter, ‘d’ of the impression produced is
measured.
The Brinell hardness number BHN is measured as the ratio of the test load to the surface area
of indentation. The area of indentation is assumed to be spherical.
2P
( )
BHN or HB=
 D D − D2 − d 2
where P is in kgf and diameter in millimeters. The load .to be applied depends on the hardness
of the material under test and the diameter of the indenter.
Magnitude of the load:
The relation between the diameter of the ball and the size of the impression must be within
reasonable limits, so standard ratios of P/D2 are used, where P=load in Kgf, D=dia of the ball
indenter in mm. Usually 10mm or 5mm dia. ball indenters are used.The following table gives
the standard loads and ball diameters used.
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Load (P) in kg
Dia of ball
(D) mm
P/D2=5 P/D2=10 P/D2=30
5 - 250 750
10 500 1000 3000
Choice of the most suitable ratio of P/D2 depends on the average hardness of the material.
The following table gives a broad indication of desirable values.
Approximate Brinell
P/D2 ratio Representative material
hardness number
Above 160 30 Steel, Cast iron
160 to 60 10 Copper Alloys, Aluminium
Alloys
60 to 20 5 Copper, Aliminium
Observations:
1) Diameter of the indenter ‘D’ = ………………………….mm
2) Least count of the microscope = …………………………. mm
Calculations:
2P
( )
Brinell hardness number BHN =
 D D − D2 − d 2
=………………………………..
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= ……………………………….
P Diameter of
Material Load ‘P’ (kgf) indentation ‘d’ in BHN
D2 mm
Figure 2.3: Brinell Hardness Test Set up
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Machine description:
A sketch of the machine used is given in Fig 2.3. The load is applied by means of a single
lever mounted on knife edges and carrying a hanger for loose weights. The specimen is
supported on a hardened steel platen. A robust steel screw, which is adjusted by means of a
hand wheel, supports the platen. By removing the platen other types of work support may be
used.
Ball holders for 5mm and 10mm diameter balls are available. An adjusting wheel on the
penetrator column enables the ball holder to be brought into contact with the specimen.
Hydraulic power is used to elevate and lower the main lever, control being by means of a
hand lever and speed control knob. An indicator in front of the machine shows the position
of the loading lever and indicates the speed of application of the load.
Advantages:
1. One scale covers the entire hardness range, although comparable results can only be
obtained if the ball size and test force relationship is the same.
2. A wide range of test forces and ball sizes to suit every application.
3. Nondestructive, sample can normally be reused.
Disadvantages:
1. The main drawback of the Brinell test is the need to optically measure the indent size.
This requires that the test point be finished well enough to make an accurate
measurement.
2. Slow. Testing can take 30 seconds not counting the sample preparation time
Procedure:
1. For the Brinell hardness test the surface of the specimen which the impression is to be
made should be flat
2. The surface on which the impression is made as well as the surface in contact with the
support should be smooth, clean, dry and free from oxide scales and pits
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3. Ball holder with steel of 10mm or 5mm and one of load ranges 3000,1000,750 and 500kgf
are to be selected in the test
4. For ferrous metals the load range P=30D2 should be used and for non-ferrous metals like
Brass, Aluminium and soft bearing metal the load P=5D2 and 2.5D2 should be used
respectively
5. Clamp prism on optical tube and adjust in such a way that after illumination screen gets
illuminated completely
6. Select proper diameter ball and attach proper weights on the bottom weights based on the
type of material being tested
7. Start the motor by pushing green button of starter and allow the oil to circulate for few
minutes. Operate the hand lever from unload to load several times to raise and lower the
weights.
8. Place the specimen securely on the testing table. Turn the hand wheel in CW direction so
as to clamp the specimen.
9. Turn the hand lever from unload position so that total load is brought in action.
10. After positioning the lever to read position, indenter will get swiveled and diameter of the
indenter will be projected on the screen.
11. Read the graduations on the scale find the diameter of indentation.
Results:
Brinell hardness number for =
…………………………………. = ……………………………
……………………………………= ……………………………
……………………………………= ……………………………
Discussion:
Compare the hardness of different materials tested.
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EXPERIMENT No.3 Date ……………………
TENSION TEST OF COMPOSITE BEAMS

Aim:
a) To study the behavior of given specimen, under the action of a gradually increasing axial
tensile load, tested upto failure.
b) To determine tensile strength and modulus of elasticity.
Apparatus:
Universal testing machine, Extensometer, Gripping device, Scale, Micrometer,
Scope and applicability:

The tension test is done on a standard test piece by applying a gradually increasing
uniaxial load (static load). This is also called static tension test. It is one among the most
commonly made simple mechanical tests to evaluate the fundamental mechanical properties
viz., elasticity, ductility and tensile strength. These properties are important parameters in the
design of structural components and machine elements. Tension test is also made use of to
study the stress-strain characteristics of mild steel in tension which is of greater interest in
industrial applications. It helps to understand the yielding and necking phenomenon and the
cup and cone type of fracture.
Important terms and definitions:

Specimen geometry: The geometry of the test specimen should be in accordance with
ASTM D-3039 standard which is a standard method of finding the tensile properties of a
composite beam. The list of requirements for specimen shape, dimensions, and tolerances is
shown in Table 1.
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Table1: Tensile Specimen Geometry Recommendations [ASTM D-3039]
Figure 3.1: test specimen drawings [ASTM D-3039]
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a) Tensile Strength: The maximum load reached in the test divided by the original c/s area.
This is also termed as maximum tensile stress or ultimate tensile stress for the material of
the specimen.
b) Breaking Stress: Load at the time of breaking divided by the original c/s area is called
nominal breaking stress. Load at the time of breaking divided by the final c/s area is called
true breaking stress. True breaking stress is always more than the nominal breaking stress.
c) Modulus of Elasticity: It is the ratio of linear stress to linear strain within the elastic
limit. It is the slope of the initial straight-line portion of the stress-strain graph, where
stress is taken along Y-axis. It is a measure of elasticity. It is also known as Young's
Modulus.
d) Specimen: Test specimen should be according to the ASTM standard D 3039 and the
sample figure is shown in the figure.3.1
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Observations and Calculations:
Table 3.2
Sl. No Elongation (mm) Load (kN)
The result of the test depends to a considerable degree on the hardness and sharpness of the
edges of the support bearing the specimen.
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Description of universal testing machine (Ref. Fig. 3.2)
The machine consists of
• Loading unit
• Driving unit and
• Electronic control panel
Universal Testing Control Panel

Machine Computer
Fig. 3.2. Universal Testing Machine

Loading Unit: The loading unit consists ofbottom plate, middle cross-head and top plate. (ref.
Fig. 3.2). All the three plates are tied up between 4 columns. Middle cross-head is guided to
moves up and down between the columns by ball screws andthey are driven by servo motor
through gear box. The limit switches are used to restrict the motion of the middle cross-head.
One encoder is fitted below the bottom plate which is used to measure the displacement of
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the middle cross-head. The load cell on the bottom plate senses the load acting on the
specimen.
Driving unit: A D.C servomotor fitted at the bottom of the plate drives the gear box, which in
turn drives the ball screw. Being a variable speed motor the middle cross head can be moved
up and down at required sped. The rotary encoder, in-built with the servo motor, measures
the displacement of middle cross-head.
Electronic control panel: electronic control panel reads the load acting on the specimen and
the corresponding elongation or compression. The movement of the middle cross-head can
be controlled through the electronic control panel. The panel is connected to the computer
through RS-232 cable. The software can be used to obtain the maximum tensile/compressive
stress, yield stress, and the plot of load v/s deflection.
Procedure:
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen accurately.
2. Mark the gauge length using a marker.
3. Secure the specimen between the jaws such that distance between the jaws is the gauge
length.
4. Switch on the mains and the control unit.
5. Open the material testing software in the computer. Ensure that the RS-232 cable is
connected to the computer from the control panel.
6. Go to FILE and open a new file.
7. Give a specified name to the file. And enter the specimen details and enter SAVE.
8. Go to test type and select tensile test.
9. Go to START TEST icon in the main menu and enter the details and click ENTER.
10. Mention the appropriate scale for X and Y axis for the graph. Then enter TARE LOAD
and START.
11. Note down the load on the control panel after equal interval of displacement.
12. Note down the failure load.
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13. To save the result, measure the final diameter at the neck and the final gauge length.
14. Remove the failed specimen and study the failure pattern.
Graph:
Draw stress-strain graph taking stress in N/mm2 along Y-axis and strain along X-axis.
This graph should be a straight line up to the proportional limit as shown in Fig 4.3.
Calculations:
Tensile Stress/Tensile Strength: calculate the ultimate tensile strength using Eq 1 and
report the results to three significant figures. If the tensile modulus is to be calculated,
determine the tensile stress at each required data point using Equation 2
pmax
Ftu = (1)
A
P
i = i (2)
A
Where,
Ftu=ultimate tensile strength, MPa,
pmax = maximum force before failure, N,
σi = tensile stress at ith data point, MPa,
Pi = force at ith data point, N, and
A = average cross-sectional area
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Figure 3.3: Stress Strain plot

Tensile Modulus of Elasticity
Select an appropriate straight-line portion of the stress-strain curve and calculate the Young’s
modulus of elasticity as follows,

E= ,

Where,
Δσ = difference in applied tensile stress between the two strain points of MPa , and
Δε = difference between the two strain points. ( as shown in figure 4.4).
Figure 3.4: Load vs Extension
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Notes:
1. The line in the graph need not pass through all points. If the points are slightly staggered,
a best fitting straight line is to be drawn through the points.
Results:
Yield stress σy =……………………………….N/mm2
=……………………………….
Modulus elasticity E
N/mm2
= ……………………………….
Ultimate tensile strength y N/mm2
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EXPERIMENT No.4 Date: ……………………
TORSION TEST ON SOLID SHAFT

Aim:
To study the behavior of a shaft when subjected to a gradually increasing twist and to
determine (i) Modulus of rigidity of the material (ii) Modulus of rupture in torsion (iii)
Maximum shear stress at yield point for
I. Solid shaft
II. Hollow Shaft
Apparatus:
Torsion testing machine, scale, screw gauge etc.
Theory:
In addition to the bars/rods under axial loads there are other loading cases in engineering
practice. In this chapter we will discuss the effects of applying a torsional loading to a long
straight circular member such as a shaft or tube, as extracted from the machine showing in
Fig. 4.1.
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Fig. 4.1 Engineering example of torsional shaft
A circular bar when subjected to torque will get twisted. Shearing stresses will be
developed in any cross-section of the bar whose value increases linearly from zero at the
centre to the maximum at the outer periphery. The relation between the applied torque,
developed shear stress and angle of twist is given by the equation.
T f s G
= =
J R L
Where T=applied torque (N-mm)
Observations:
1. Diameter of the specimen d = …………………….mm (for solid Shaft)
d o = ...............mm
 For hollow shaft
d i = ...............mm 
2. Length of the specimen L =…………………….mm
3. Torque at yield point Typ=……………….N-m
4. Torque at failure Tf=……………….. N-m
Sl.
Material 𝜃 = 𝜃2 − 𝜃1 𝜃 in rad Torque N-m
No.
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J= polar moment of inertia = D4/32in mm4 for solid shaft

θ= angle of twist in radians.
R = outermost radius of the specimen= d/2 in mm
G = Modulus of rigidity in N/mm2
L= gauge length of specimen between two punch marks in mm
fs= shear stress in N/mm2
Modulus of Rigidity:
The modulus rigidity can be computed from the equation:
T J
G= =
 L
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T
Where is the slope of the torque v/s twist plot.

A graph is drawn with twist on x-axis and torque on y-axis up to yield point.
Figure 4.2: Nature of graph
The Yield Point Shear Stress:
Typ
fs = R
J
Where Typ = Torque at yield point from graph
R = outermost radius of the specimen
Modulus of Rupture:
Tf
Modulus of rupture is the stress at failure calculated from the equation f s = R where Tfis
J
TR
the Torque at failure of the specimen. Since the equation f s = is valid only up to
J
proportional limit (elastic limit). fs calculated at the failure will not give the actual stress value.
So it is called as a modulus and is used for comparison purpose only.
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Calculations:
a) For solid shaft
1. Modulus of rigidity (From T L

G= 
Graph)  J
=………………………….N/mm2
2. Yield point shear stress σs
=………………………..N/mm2
3. Modulus of rupture in torsion or
shear stress at failure (𝜎𝑠 max) =………………………….. N/mm2
ii) For hollow shaft

1. Modulus of rigidity (From Graph) T L
G= 
 J
=………………………….N/mm2
2. Yield point shear stress σs
=………………………..N/mm2
3. Modulus of rupture in torsion or
shear stress at failure (𝜎𝑠 max) =………………………….. N/mm2
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Load Cell
Drive unit
Centre Encoder
Figure 4.3 Torsion testing machine

For more precise determination of shearing properties, the torsion test is conducted, using
either solid or hollow specimens of circular section. In such a test, the specimen can be of a
length that a strainometer can be attached to assist in determinations of proportional limit and
yield strength in shear, shearing resistance and stiffness (modulus of rigidity), the latter being
obtained from the angle of twist and the applied torque. For accurate determination of the
elastic strength, a tubular test specimen should be used. The torsion method is inapplicable to
determine the shearing strength of brittle materials like cast iron since the specimen would
fail in diagonal tension before the shearing strength is reached, although the torsion test has
been applied to cast iron for determination of overall torsional resistance.
Test specimen:
The test piece should be straight and of sufficient length to provide the desired length between
the grips. The standard test specimen is shown in Fig. 4.4.
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Figure 4.4: Specimen details
The machine consists essentially of a drive unit, an encoder, load cell, two centres to
insert the jaw of required size to hold the specimen and a display unit. (Ref. Fig. 4.3) One end
of the specimen is twisted using an electric motor. The display unit consists of two LED
displays; one for angle of twist in degrees and other for torque in N-m. The capacity of the
machine is 100 N-m. The display unit can be connected to a dot-matrix printer to obtain the
graphical output.
Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter and gauge length of the specimen.
2. Fix the specimen in the specimen holder of the machine.
3. Keep the speed knob in forward direction.
4. Switch on the mains and put the control unit knob ON.
5. Switch the display unit on.
6. Set the display and torque reading to zero.
7. Press the START/STOP button
8. Note the reading at some fixed interval of angular displacement.
9. Stop the machine once the specimen is broken.
10. Press the DATA button to read the maximum torque, angle of twist at the maximum
torque and the total angle turned.
11. Carefully remove the specimen from the Jaw.
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Results:
Quantity For Solid Shaft
Modulus of rigidity G
Yield point shear stress
s
Modulus of rupture in
torsion
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EXPERIMENT No. 5 Date: ………………
TEST ON HELICAL SPRING

(IS CODE; 7906-1976)
Aim:
1) To study the behavior of close coiled helical spring under the action of gradually
increasing load.
2) To determine modulus of rigidity of the material of the spring.
3) To obtain the proof load, stress at proof load and the spring stiffness.
Apparatus: Universal Testing Machine, Scale & Micrometer, etc.

Helical springs are used as shock absorbers in automobiles, spring loading of levers, for
restoring mechanisms to original configurations etc. They can store large amount of energy
and release this energy at a slow rate.
Theory:
A close coiled helical spring under the action of
an axial load is structurally equivalent to a bar
subjected to a constant torque over its entire length
If '𝛿' the shortening or contraction under the load W,
θ the twist in radians of one end cross-section with
the other end cross-section,
D 2
Then =  =
2 D
Equivalent length of the wire L=  D n Figure 5.1: Spring Details
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Where,
D = mean coil diameter
d =Diameter of wire
n = Number of coils
Observation:
1. No of coils n =
2. Mean coil diameter D = mm
3. Least count of micrometer = mm
4. Diameter of the wire d = mm
Deflection δ Load in kN Average load

in mm in ‘N’
Loading Unloading Average
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Proof Stress
Proof stress is the stress corresponding to the proof load. The proof load Wp is the
maximum load beyond which there occurs a permanent deformation in the spring in tension
or the compressive load which reduces the gap between successive coils to zero.
Maximum shear stress in compression i.e. proof stress is given by the torsion equation.
Proof load Wp
T  G
= =
J r L
WD
Where T = Torque produced on the coil =
2
J = Polar moment of inertia (D2/32)
 = Maximum shear stress
r = Radius of the wire
G = Modulus of rigidity of the spring material
L = Equivalent length of coil
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Θ = Twist in radians of one end cross- section with respect to other
If  is the contraction or shortening under the load ‘W’
D 2δ
δ= xθ, θ=
2 D
 Gθ T
[ = = ]
r L J
()max Gx2δ/D Wp D/2

= = 4
d/2 πDn πd /32
8Wp D
()max =
πd3
Modulus of rigidity of the spring (G)
T Gθ
Considering torsion equation =
J L
WD⁄ G2δ⁄
2 = D
πd4⁄ πDn
32
Calculations:
∆W
1. Spring stiffness ‘K’ = =slope of load vs contraction graph.
∆δ
=……………………………….
=…………………………………. N/mm
W 8D3 n
2. Modulus of rigidity ‘G’ = x
δ d4
=…………………………………..
=…………………………………….N/mm2
30
`
8Wp D
3. Maximum shear stress at proof load =
πd3
= ………………………………..
=………………………………….N/mm2
W 8 D3 n
𝐺= x
δ d4
Stiffness of the spring (W/)
It is defined as the load required to produce unit deflection and is equal to the slope of load
contraction graph.
Graph:
A graph is drawn with load along Y-axis and contraction ‘δ'along x-axis. The slope of the
graph gives the stiffness of the spring. The readings are taken during loading and unloading
and the graph is plotted by taking average load values.
Figure 5.2: Load vs Contraction graph

31
`
Procedure:
1. Measure the mean coil diameter 'D' and the wire diameter ’d’.
2. Count the number of coils 'n'.
3. Place the spring in the machine and apply the load gradually.
4. Note the load values at regular intervals of displacement.
5. Apply the load till the proof load is reached (load at which the gap between successive
coils is zero).
6. During unloading operation note down the load values at the same contraction intervals.
7. Plot the load-contraction graph taking the average load value (loading and unloading) and
corresponding contraction values.
Results:
1. Spring stiffness K= …………………………….N/mm
2. Modulus of rigidity of the spring material G=…………………………… N/mm2
3. Maximum shear stress at proof load=……………………………. N/mm2
32
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SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL
Aim:
To determine the ultimate shear strength in single shear and double shear of mild steel rod.
Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine, Shear Shackle, Micrometer screw gauge.
Theory:
Shear stress is caused by forces which act parallel to an area of cross section and tend to
produce sliding of one portion past another portion. Shear stresses are created by a direct
action of the force while trying to cut through the material, such as bolts, pins, rivets, keys,
etc. If there is only one cross section which resists the failure, the material is said to be in
single shear and the average ultimate shear strength will be equal to the failure load divided
by the area of cross section. If two areas resist the failure then the material is said to be in
double shear and the average ultimate shear strength will be equal to the failure load divided
by twice the area of cross section. (Ref. Fig 6.1 &6.2).
Fig 6.1: Single Shear Fig 6.2: Double Shear

The procedure for shear test is standardized by IS:5242-1969. A special shear attachment
called Shear Shackle is used to hold the specimen. The specimen can be placed either one
33
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end supported or two ends supported in the shackle. One end supported specimens fail under
single shear where as both ends supported will fail under double shear. The properties of
shear stress are:
i. Shear stresses on opposite faces of an element are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.
ii. Shear stresses on perpendicular faces of and element is equal in magnitude and have
directions such that both stresses point toward or away from the corner
An element subjected to shear stress only is said to be pure shear, and the material will
deform, resulting in shear strains
Observations:
Ultimate Shear Safe Shear

Type Area of Failure Strength 𝝈s (Pu/A for Strength
Diameter 𝛔𝐬
of c/s load Pu single shear,
(mm) 𝛔𝐬𝐚𝐟𝐞 =
test (mm2) (N) Pu/2A for double 𝐅. 𝐒
shear) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Single
shear
Double
shear
Scope and applicability of direct shear test:
The result obtained from the direct shear test, that is the ultimate shear strength is used to
arrive at a safe shear stress of the material after adopting a suitable factor of safety. This value
of safe shear stress is used in design of rivets, crankpins, etc.
34
`
The result of the test depends to a considerable degree on the hardness and sharpness of the
edges of the support bearing the specimen. Care should be taken to minimize the bending stress
across the plane along which the shearing load is applied. This test has further limitation of
being useless for the determination of modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity owing to
the impossibility of measuring strains.
Procedure:
1. Note down the dimensions of the specimen.
2. Place the specimen in the shear shackle with one end supported for single shear test and two
ends supported for double shear 'test.
3. Place the shackle in the universal testing machine and load without any jerk till failure
4. Note down the failure load Pu in Newton.
5. Calculate the ultimate strength in shear.
6. Also calculate the safe shear strength using a factor of safety 3.
Results:
Safe shear strength in single shear = …………………………… N/mm2
Safe shear strength in double shear = ……………………………N/mm2
Discussions:
Compare the value of ultimate shear strength obtained from single shear and double shear
tests.
35
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BENDING TEST
Aim:
To conduct static bending test on given specimen and to determine
(a) Modulus of rupture
(b) Bending stress at proportional limit
(c) Modulus of elasticity.
Apparatus:
Universal testing machine, scale, and standard wooden specimen.
Theory:
Bending test on beams is usually made to determine strength and stiffness in bending. While
bending, beam cross sections develop bending stress in the form of compressive and tensile
stresses. Resultant tensile and compressive forces on the cross section produce moment of
resistance to oppose the bending moment applied. Bending stress will be maximum at the
extreme fibers. A specimen fails in bending only when the applied bending moment exceeds
the maximum moment of resistance of the specimen cross section. In this test a simply
supported beam specimen is tested under a central concentrated load to study the load-
deflection characteristics and to obtain other design parameters as mentioned above.
Rectangular c/s for the specimen is recommended by the IS code. The test is to be conducted
in accordance to IS 1708-1969. Bending stress at any fiber at a distance 'y' from the neutral
axis is given by the equation.
M
σ= xy
I
where σ = bending stress at a fibre distant 'y' from the neutral axis.
bd3
I = Moment of inertia = 12
for rectangular c/s.
36
`
b= width of the specimen
d= depth of the specimen
The maximum bending stress is at the extreme fiber. For rectangular section,
ymax=d/2.
M d
Maximum bending stress= bd3
x
2
12
6M
σmax = (1)
bd2
Equation (1) is derived from the theory of simple bending and it is valid only up to elastic
limit.
P
P
d
b
L
Figure 7.1: Bending Test specimen
Figure 7.2: Load vs displacement nature of graph
37
`
Modulus of rupture:
This is the maximum stress value calculated on the assumption that the bending equation
is valid even at the failure of the specimen. Using equation (1) with the ultimate bending
moment (M.u) causing the failure;
6Mu
Modulus of rupture =
bd2
This is not the actual fiber stress because of the invalidity of the equation (1) at the time
of failure. Thus, this value is called “modulus” and is used to compare the flexural strength
of different specimens.
Modulus of elasticity:
This can be calculated from the load-deflection relationship of timber specimen. For a simply
supported beam with concentrated load at center, central deflection
PL3 𝑃 𝐿3
δ= :𝐸 =
48EI 𝛿 48 𝐼
Where :
P = load
L = span
E = modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia
= central deflection under the load P.
P/  = slope of the straight-line portion of the load-deflection curve.
Proportional limit
This is the limit up to which load is proportional to the deflection or this is the point
on the graph where the transition from linear to nonlinear nature takes place. This point
approximates elastic limit.
38
`
Most structures and machines have members whose primary function is to resist loads
that cause bending. The bending test serves as a direct means of evaluating the behavior under
bending loads. The proportional limit and modulus of rupture are determined to establish,
with appropriate reduction factors, allowable bending stress for use in design. Modulus of
rupture may also be used as a criterion of quality control. The value of modulus of elasticity
can be used to compute the elastic deflection of beams of the same material but of different
size, shape or loading. Some error may be involved in those calculations because of (1)
ignoring shearing deflections (2) deviation from the straight-line relationship of stress and
strain (3) lack of uniformity of the material.
The bending test is used as a control test for brittle materials and is not used for
determining ultimate strength of ductile materials.
Specimen:
As per ASTM D790 bending test is to be done on a specimen

12.7mmx127mmx3mm in size. Specimen shall be absolutely free from any defects. (If
standard specimen is not available span shall be kept 14 times the depth of specimen)
Observations:
Depth d = …………………… mm
Breadth b =…………………….. mm
Span L =…………………….. mm
Load at failure Pu =…………………….. (N)
39
`
Sl No Load (P) KN Central deflection
(mm)
40
`
Procedure:
1) Measure breadth and depth of the specimen. Mark the supporting points keeping the span
as 600mm.
2) Place the specimen in the Universal Testing Machine.
3) Switch on the machine and start applying the load.
4) Note down the loads corresponding to 1mm deflection (central deflection). Deflection is
read from the Vernier scale attached to the machine.
5) Continue the loading till failure occurs.
6) Note down the failure load.
7) Study the failure pattern.
,
Graph:
Draw a graph between 'P' (N) along Y-axis &  (mm) along X-axis. The graph will have an
initial straight-line portion. Extend this straight line and mark the point of deviation of the
plot from the straight line. Load corresponding to this point is the load at proportional limit.
(PL)
Results
Modulus of rupture =…………………………
Stress at proportional limit =………………………..
Modulus of elasticity =…………………………
Discussion:
1. Comment about the graph
2. Discuss on the failure pattern
41
`
Calculations:
bd3
Moment of inertia I = mm4
12
= ……………………………..
= …………………………………..mm4
Bending moment corresponding to the failure load Pu

Pu x L
Mu =
4
= ……………………………..
= ……………………………..
6𝑀𝑢
Modulus of rupture = N/mm2
𝑏𝑑 2
= ……………………………
= ……………………………
PL x L 1
Stress at proportional limit =6 X x
4 bd2
3PL x L
= =
2bd2
P L3
Modulus elasticity E = x
δ 48 I
P
Where is the slope of the straight line portion of the graph.
δ
= …………………………… N/mm2
42
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EXPERIMENT No.8 Date: ……………………
FATIGUE TEST
Aim:
To determine the fatigue strength and endurance limit of given specimen.
Apparatus:
Fatigue testing machine, micrometer screw gauge etc.
Theory:
Most structural assemblies are subjected to variation in applied loads causing fluctuations
of stresses in the parts. If the fluctuating stresses are of sufficient magnitude, even though the
maximum applied stress may considerably be less than the static strength of the material,
failure may occur when the stress is repeated a sufficient number of times. A failure induced
in such a manner is called a 'fatigue failure'. The phenomenon of decreased resistance of a
material to repeated stress is called fatigue.
Endurance Limit:
It is defined as the maximum value of stress or limiting stress below which the specimen
will not fail even after any number of reversals of stresses. It is now the usual practice in
endurance test to plot maximum stress at failures (Smax) against log N where N is the number
of stress reversals. The curve approaches asymptotic after a certain stage (Fig.8.1). The
magnitude of endurance limit is disclosed by a definite discontinuity in the curve as shown in
Fig.8.1
43
Figure 8.1: Nature of graph of endurance limit
Endurance Ratio:
The ratio of endurance limit to static strength is known as endurance ratio. For most
structural materials this ratio varies from 0.2 to 0.6.
Observations:
Sl. Time (Sec) Mean Load (N) Range of Load No. of Stress
No Reversals
N
44
Endure limitSp = ……………………. ………..N/mm2
Range of stress at endurance limit = (2 x Sp )
= ……………………….. N/mm2
Endurance limit
Endurance ratio =
static strength
= ………………………………
The test consists of mounting a test piece as a beam fixed at both the ends. The test piece is
subjected to the repeated loads. The test is continued until failure occurs or until a
predetermined number of stress cycles has been exceeded i e. 10 million stress reversals for
routine tests and 100 milIion cycles in special cases.
If Smax and Smin are the maximum and minimum values of the varying stress then the algebraic
difference 'R' is called the range of stress.
Range of stress R= Smax − Smin
Mean Stress
Smax +Smin
Mean stress Smean =
2
The cycle is completely defined if the range of stress and the maximum stress are given. For
reversal of stress; Smean = 0
Specimen for Fatigue Test:

As per IS 5075-1969 the standard dimension of the specimen is illustrated in Fig 8.2
45
Figure 8.2 Specimen details of fatigue test

Machine parts are frequently subjected to varying stresses and it is important to know the
strength of materials under such conditions. For this, fatigue test is made use of. Fatigue tests
of various types are conducted to develop data on endurance limit of many materials. These
tests are also used to study the stress concentration factors.
It is difficult to apply the results of fatigue test on small specimens to the design of
complicated parts and built up units. To obtain direct information on the behaviour of such
units fatigue test can be conducted on full sized specimens. This gives the required data for
such components which are unsuitable for inspection test or quality control test.
Fatigue testing machine has a provision to conduct either tension-tension or tension-
compression type fatigue test. The machine can produce a maximum load of 50 KN and a
displacement of 160mm. The main component of the machine is a hydraulic actuator which
is driven by hydraulic power pack under a pressure of 220bar. The one end of specimen
clamped to movable actuator and other end clamped to fixed cross head. Servo hydraulic
valves are used to provide upward and downward movement to the actuator. The inputs
provided by the operator converted in electrical pulse and communicated to machine through
microcontroller. The fatigue testing machine connected to cooling tower to dissipate the heat
developed in the power pack.
46
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Components of a fatigue testing machine
Fatigue testing machine is composed of the following structural components:
i. Load-producing mechanism: This generates the alternating load (displacement) to which in
some cases a steady load is added.
ii. Load-transmitting member: This includes grips, guide fixtures, flexure joints etc. by which
the load produced is transmitted in such a way as to produce the desired stress distribution
within the specimen.
iii. Measuring devices: This permit the setting of the nominal upper and lower load limits.
iv. Control devices: This component controls the load throughout the test and sometimes
automatically corrects changes in force or displacement arising during the test using
feedback techniques.
v. Counter and shut-off apparatus: This counts the number of stress reversals imposed on the
specimen and stop the testing machine after a given number of cycles, at complete fracture
of the specimen or at some pre-assigned change in deformation or frequency.
vi. Framework It supports the various parts of the machine and if necessary is arranged to
reduce the vibratory energy transmitted to the foundation
Procedure:
1. Switch on the computer, hydraulic power pack and cooling tower.
2. Open MTL software and interconnect system and fatigue testing machine.
3. Adjust the height between upper cross head and lower cross head of the testing
column using HMI unit.
4. Clamp the specimen in the fixture.
5. Open test builder software and create a file.
6. Select testing mode as load mode.
7. Select fatigue test option from the test builder window.
8. Enter the maximum and minimum load should be applied on the specimen.
9. Enter the mean load of the specimen.
10. Set number of cycles required to perform the experiment.
11. Set the frequency of loading.
12. Set the high and low load limit of the machine according to maximum and minimum
load to be applied on the specimen.
47
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13. To save the result create file in data acquisition option.
14. Bring the specimen to mean load condition by pressing Go to Mean Position option.
15. Select start record option to capture the data and start the test.
16. Open View point software to view the loading pattern and displacement of the
specimen.
17. Once test finished export the data from the test builder and plot the load vs time curve
Plot a graph with various values of maximum stress (Smax) on y-axis and N on log scale along
x-axis. The curve becomes almost flat for smaller stress levels. The stress level at which the
curve is asymptotic gives the endurance limit for the material as shown in Fig.8.3.
48
Figure 8.3: Nature of endurance limit
Results:
Endurance limit Sp =……………………………….. N/mm2
Range of stress at endurance =……………………………….. N/mm2
Endurance ratio =………………………………..
49
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EXPERIMENT No. 9 Date………………...
DEFLECTION OF A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Aim:
To determine the deflection of a simply supported beam and the relationship between load and
deflection.
Apparatus:
Beam test set-up with load cells, Steel scale caliper, Flat beam
Theory:
A beam shown in figure 9.1 shows the section which is simply supported at the ends and
is subjected to bending about its major axis with a concentrated load anywhere in the beam.
The beam is provided with strain gauge, the deflection of the beam can be determined
whenever the load is applied on the beam. Strain gauge values may be noted for several
further works.
Figure 9.1: Simply Supported beam under load
50
Deflections are given by following expressions; students may derive the expressions using unit
load method or castigliano’s theorem.
𝑊𝑏[(𝐿2 − 𝑏 2 )𝑋 − 𝑋 3 ]
𝑦𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑋 < 𝑎
6𝐸𝐼𝐿
𝐿
𝑊𝑏 [𝑋 3 − (𝑋 − 𝑎)3 − (𝐿2 − 𝑏 2 )𝑋]
𝑏
𝑦𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 < 𝑋 < 𝐿
6𝐸𝐼𝐿
Where W is the load applied at a distance ‘a’ from the left support in Newton.
L= Span of the beam in mm, yx = deflection at any point x from left end
b = Distance of the load from right support,
Ixx = Moment of Inertia of the beam in mm4, E = Young’s Modulus in N/mm2
Procedure:
• Measure the dimensions of the specimen accurately.
1
• Find the moment of inertia of the beam using 𝑀𝑂𝐼 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑3 .
12
• Place the beam supporting from wedge supports.
• The load position can be varied.
• Set the load cell to read zero in the absence of load.
• Set the deflection gauge to read zero in the absence of load.
• Load the beam with 0.2kg. Note the deflections before and after the load point through
deflection gauge.
• Increase the load by 0.1kg and repeat the experiment.
Observations:
Length of the beam L =………………. mm
Width of the beam b* = ………….…...mm
51
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Depth of the beam d = ……………….mm
Therefore,
1
𝑀𝑂𝐼 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑3 =.……………..mm4
12
Distance of the load applied from the left support a =…………..mm

Distance of the load applied from the right support b =…………..mm
Distance of the Deflection Gauge from the left support X=…………..mm
Material 1:
Load Experimental Theoretical Error
SL No.
(N) Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm) (%)
Material 2:
Load Experimental Theoretical Error
Sl No
(N) Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm) (%)
52
Graph:
Draw Load Deflection graph taking Load in kg along y-axis and deflection along x-axis.
Result:
The deflections of a simply supported beam at X mm from various loads are as follows:
Conclusion:
53
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EXPERIMENT No. 10 Date: ……………………
VERIFICATION OF MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL THEOREM
Aim:
To verify the Maxwell’s theorem for the structures system.
Apparatus:
Beam Test Setup with Load Cells, Steel Rule, Caliper, Flat Beam
Theory:
The displacement at point i, in a linear elastic structure, due to concentrated load at point j is
equal to the displacement at point j due to concentrated load of same magnitude at point i. The
displacement at each point will be measured in the direction of the concentrated load at that
point. The only other restrictions on this statement, in addition to the structure being linear
elastic and stable, is that the displacement at either point is/must be consistent with the type of
load at that point. If the load at a point is a concentrated force, then the displacement at that
point will be a translation, while if the load is moment, then the displacement will be rotation.
The displacement at any point will be in the same direction as the load.
54
Figure 10.1: Nature of endurance limit
This theorem often referred to as Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem.

This can be proved through unit load method i.e., the deflection at A due to unit load at B is
equal to deflection at B due to unit load at A.
𝑀𝑚𝑑𝑥
𝛿=∫
𝐸𝐼
Where,
M = Bending Moment at any point x due to external load
m = Bending moment at any point x due to unit load applied at the point where deflection is
required.
Let 𝑚𝑋𝐴 = Bending Moment at any point x due to unit load at A
𝑚𝑋𝐵 = Bending Moment at any point x due to unit load at B when unit load
(External load) is applied at A,
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑋𝐴
55
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When unit load (external load) is applied at A, apply unit load at B. Then 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑋𝐴
To find deflection at B due to unit load at A, apply unit load at B. Then𝑚 = 𝑚𝑋𝐵
Hence,
𝑀𝑚𝑑𝑥
𝛿𝐵𝐴 = ∫
𝐸𝐼
𝑚𝑋𝐴 ∗ 𝑚𝑋𝐵 𝑑𝑥
𝛿=∫ … … … … … … (1)
𝐸𝐼
Similarly, when unit load (external load) is applied at B, 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑋𝐵
To find deflection at A, then 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑋𝐴

Hence,
𝑀 ∗ 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑋𝐴 ∗ 𝑚𝑋𝐵 𝑑𝑥
𝛿𝐴𝐵 = ∫ =∫ … … … … (2)
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
Comparing equation (1) and (2),
𝛿𝐴𝐵 = 𝛿𝐵𝐴 … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
The external load (w) can be taken as a multiple with unit load, therefore, the load
w will appear as multiple with 𝑚𝑋𝐴 in equation 1 and as multiple with 𝑚𝑋𝐵 in eqn. 2
Thereby resulting in
𝑤𝛿𝐴𝐵 = 𝑤𝛿𝐵𝐴
56
A beam shown in figure which is simply supported at the ends and is subjected to bending
about its major axis with a concentrated load anywhere in the beam.
Deflections 𝛿𝑋 at any distance ‘X’ from left support are given by following expressions;
reference may be made to experiment No.1
𝑊𝑏(𝐿2 − 𝑏 2 )𝑋 − 𝑋 3
𝛿𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑋 < 𝑎
6𝐸𝐼𝐿
𝐿
𝑊𝑏 [𝑋 3 − (𝑋 − 𝑎)3 − (𝐿2 − 𝑏 2 )𝑋]
𝑏
𝛿𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 < 𝑋 < 𝐿
6𝐸𝐼𝐿
Where
W is the load placed at a distance ‘a’ from the left support in Newton.
b = distance of load from left side support
L= span of the beam in mm
𝛿𝑋 = deflection at any point distance x from the left end
I= moment of inertia of the beam in mm4 (Ixx)
E= young’s modulus in N/mm2
The Maxwell’s reciprocal displacement theorem is very useful in the analysis of statistically
indeterminate structures for evaluating the flexibility co-efficient.
The displacement relationship can be expressed at point i and j
𝛿𝑖,𝐵 = 𝑓𝑖,𝑗 𝑤 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (5)
𝛿𝑗,𝐴 = 𝑓𝑗,𝑖 𝑤 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (6)
57
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Where 𝑓𝑖,𝑗 is the displacement at point i due to a unit load at point j and 𝑓𝑗,𝑖 is the displacement
at point j due to a unit load at point i. If we now substitute these expressions in Betti’s law
and cancel out the term w on each side, we obtain
𝑓𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑓𝑗,𝑖
The theorem can be restated as the displacement at point i, an elastic structure, due to a unit
load at point j is equal to the displacement at point j due to unit load at point i.
Procedure:
• Find the moment of inertia of beam from the following expression.
1
𝑀𝑂𝐼 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑3
12
Where ‘b’ is width of beam and ‘d’ is depth.
• Place the beam supporting from two wedge supports.
• The load position can be varied.
• Set the load cell to read zero in the absence of load.
• Set the deflection gauge to read zero in the absence of load.
• Load in beam with 2.5 Kg. Note deflections at any point through deflection gauge.
Interchange the load location with the point of deflection measurement and repeat the
readings, increase the load to 5 Kg and repeat the experiment.
• Find deflections from the formula and verify.
Observations:
Length of the beam L = ………………mm
Width of the beam b* =………………mm
Depth of the beam d =………………..mm
Therefore,
1
𝑀𝑂𝐼 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 12 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑3 = ……………mm4
58
Result:
Hence Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem is verified since, 𝛿𝐴𝐵 = 𝛿𝐵𝐴

.
59
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Load Applied at Point A:
Theoretical Value Experimental value

Ixx L a b X
Load(kg) 4
BA or AB BA or AB
mm mm mm mm mm
mm mm
60
Load Applied at Point B:
Theoretical Value Experimental value

Ixx L a b X
Load(kg) 4
BA or AB BA or AB
mm mm mm mm mm
mm mm
61
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EXPERIMENT No. 11 Date: ……………………
DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS AND POISSON’S RATIO

USING STRAIN GAUGE
Aim:
To determine the young’s modulus of a simply supported beam or a cantilever beam.
Theory:
A beam shown in figure shows the section which is simply supported at the ends and is
subjected to bending about its major axis with a concentrated load anywhere in the beam. The
beam is provided with strain gauge, the deflection of the beam can be determined wherever
the load is applied on to the beam. An available cantilever beam can be also utilized for this
experiment.
The strain gauge is at a fixed position in the beam and load position can be varied. A strain
gauge is mounted on a free surface, which in general is in a state of plane stress where the state
of stress is with regards to a specific 𝑥𝑦 rectangular rosette. Consider the three element
rectangular rosette shown in fig which provides normal strain components in three directions
spaced at angles of 45°. If a 𝑥𝑦 coordinates system is assumed to coincide with the gauge A
and C then𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀𝐴 and𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑐 Gauge B provides information necessary to determine𝛾𝑥𝑦 . Once
𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 are known, then Hooke’s law can be used to determine𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . However in
this case the requirement is to determine young’s modulus (E), which can be determined from
equation (1) below
𝑀 𝜎
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
𝐼 𝑦
62
Also
𝜏𝑥𝑦
Shear Modulus:𝐺 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (2)
𝛾𝑥𝑦
2𝐺
Young’s Modulus: 𝐸 = 1+𝜗 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
11.1 STRAIN ROSETTE 11.2 ROSETTE AT 45o
𝐸
𝜎𝑥 = (𝜀 + 𝜗𝜀𝑦 )
(1 − 𝜗 2 ) 𝑥
𝐸
𝜎𝑦 = (𝜀 + 𝜗𝜀𝑥 )
(1 − 𝜗 2 ) 𝑦
𝐸
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾
(1 − 𝜗 2 ) 𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀𝐴 ; 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝐶 ; 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 2𝜀𝐵 − 𝜀𝐴 − 𝜀𝐶
63
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Principal stress axes is located with the angle θ according to
(2𝜀𝐵 − 𝜀𝐴 − 𝜀𝐶 )
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 =
(𝜀𝐴 − 𝜀𝐶 )
Principal Stresses are given by following expressions
𝜎1 = 𝐴 + √𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 ; 𝜎2 = 𝐴 − √𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = √𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
2
Where
(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )
𝐴= ;𝐵 = ; 𝐶 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
E= young’s modulus; strains are in microns.

Procedure:
• Mount the cantilever beam at the left support of beam test setup.
• Connect the strain gauges wire with the strain measuring equipment.
• Use the following color codes.
𝜀𝐴 = Red wire
𝜀𝐵 = Blue wire
𝜀𝐶 = Green wire
• Set the load cell to read Zero value in the absence of load.
• Set the three strains to read zero in the absence of load.
• Now load the beam with 2.5kg at some time and record the strains in three directions.
• Record the load value at the load cell.
Repeat the experiment with load value of 5kg. Compute the values of Poisson’s ratio from
𝜀𝑦
𝜗=
𝜀𝑥
64
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Calculation:
Young’s Modulus is given by
6 PL
E=
 A bt2
Result:
1. The young’s modulus is........................

2. The Poisson’s ratio is............................
Tabulation:
υ=
SL Load Y /
A B C X Y  XY E
No. (N)
X
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EXPERIMENT No. 12 (a) Date: ……………………
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Aim:
To detect the flaws and cracks in a given specimen
Apparatus:
Magnetic Particle Crack Detector
Theory:
Magnetic particle inspection is one of the simple, fast and traditional non-destructive testing
methods widely used because of its convenience and low cost. This method uses magnetic
fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect flaws in components. The
only requirement from an inspect ability standpoint is that the component being inspected
must be made of a ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys,
since these materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the
inspection to be effective. On the other hand, an enormous volume of structural steels used in
engineering is magnetic.
The principle is to generate magnetic flux in the article to be examined, with the flux lines
running along the surface at right angles to the suspected defect. Where the flux lines
approach a discontinuity they will stray out in to the air at the mouth of the crack. The crack
edge becomes magnetic attractive poles North and South. These have the power to attract
finely divided particles of magnetic material such as iron fillings. Usually these particles are
of an oxide of iron in the size range 20 to 30 microns, and are suspended in a liquid which
provides mobility for the particles on the surface of the test piece, assisting their migration to
the crack edges. However, in some instances they can be applied in a dry powder form.
66
Fig: 12(a).1 Principle of Crack detection
Illustration of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

The technique not only detects those defects which are not normally visible to the naked eye,
but also renders easily visible those defects which would otherwise require close scrutiny of
the surface. Modern equipment generate the magnetic field electrically either directly or
indirectly.
Fig. 12(a).2: Magnetic particle Flaw detection

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In the direct method high amperage current is passed through the subject and magnetic flux
is generated at right angles to the current flow. Therefore the current flow should be in the
same line as the suspected defect. If it is not possible to carry out this method because of the
orientation of the defect, then the indirect method must be used. This can be one of two forms:
1. Passing a high current through a coil that encircles the subject.
2. Making the test piece form part of a yoke, which is wound with a current carrying coil.
The effect is to pass magnetic flux along the part to reveal transverse and circumferential
defects. If a bar with a length much greater than its diameter is considered, then longitudinal
defects would be detected by current flow and transverse and circumferential defects by the
indirect method of an encircling coil or magnetic flux flow.
Normally, to ensure that a test piece has no cracks, it is necessary to magnetize it in at least
two directions and after each magnetizing - and ink application – visually examine the piece
for crack indications.
Procedure:
1. Place the electromagnetic yoke on the specimen to be tested.
2. Pour the kerosene-iron filling suspension on the surface of the specimen.
3. Switch on the mains and energize the electromagnet.
4. Observe the behavior of the suspended particles.
Advantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

• Simplicity of operation and application.
• Quantitative.
• Can be automated, apart from viewing. (Though modern developments in
automatic defect recognition can be used in parts of simple geometry e.g. billets
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and bars. In this case a special camera captures the defect indication image and
processes it for further display and action)
Disadvantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

• Restricted to ferromagnetic materials.
• Restricted to surface or near surface flaws.
• Not fail safe in that lack of indication could mean no defects or process not
carried out properly.
Result:
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EXPERIMENT No. 12(b) Date: ……………………
DYE-PENETRANT TEST
Aim:
To observe the cracks and defects in a given specimen using dye-penetrant test.
Apparatus: Gloves, liquid dye penetrant, developer.
Theory:
Liquid dye penetrant test is used to detect the detect casting, forging and welding surface
defects such as hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on
in-service components.
The process is purely a mechanical/chemical one and the various substances used may be
applied in a large variety of ways, from aerosol spray cans at the most simple end to dipping
in large tanks on an automatic basis at the other end. The latter system requires sophisticated
tanks, spraying and drying equipment but the principle remains the same. The steps in
penetrant test is given in fig 10.1.
Fig. 12 (b).1: Stages in die-penetrant te

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Procedure:
1. Clean the specimen to remove all traces of foreign material, grease, dirt, etc. from the
surface in general, and from within the cracks in particular.
2. Apply the liquid dye penetrant on the surface to be tested.
3. Allow the penetrant to settle for about 15 minutes. During this time, the dye penetrant
is peculated in to the cracks by capillary action.
4. Remove the surplus penetrant on the surface by a soft cloth.
5. Apply a thin layer of developer on the surface and keep for 15 minutes. During this
time, the developer will blot the penetrant from the crack and bring it to the surface,
indicating the crack.
Advantages of Dye Penetrant Testing
• Simplicity of operation.
• Best method for surface breaking cracks in non-ferrous metals.
• Suitable for automatic testing, with reservation concerning viewing. (See automatic defect
recognition in Magnetic Particle Inspection)
• Quantitative.
Disadvantages of Dye Penetrant Testing
• Restricted to surface breaking defects only.

• Decreased sensitivity.
• Uses a considerable amount of consumables.
• Depth of the crack cannot be measured.
Result:
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EXPERIMENT No. 12(c) Date: ……………………
FLAW DETECTION USING C-SCAN
Aim:
To detect and assess the flaw in the given specimen using C-scan.
Apparatus:
C-scan, computer, ultrasonic probe.
Theory:
Ultrasonic inspection is considered as the most efficient method used for quality control and
materials quality inspection in all major industries. This includes electrical and electronic
components manufacturing, production of metallic and composite materials and fabrication
of structures such as airframes, piping and pressure vessels, ships, bridges, motor vehicles,
machinery and jet engines. In-service ultrasonic inspection for preventive maintenance is also
used for detecting any defects and impending failure in various structures like railroad-
rolling-stock axles, press columns, earthmoving equipment, mill rolls, mining equipment,
nuclear systems and other machines. ASM Handbook presents the pulse echo method as the
most widely used ultrasonic method, which involves the detection of echoes produced when
an ultrasonic pulse is reflected from a discontinuity or an interface of a test piece. This method
is very often used for flaws location and thickness measurements. C-scan display records
echoes from the internal portions of test pieces as a function of the position of each reflecting
interface within an area. Flaws are shown on a read-out, superimposed on a plan view of the
test piece and both flaw size (flaw area) and position within the plan view can be recorded.
Flaw depth is normally not recorded, although a relatively accurate estimate can be made by
restricting the range of depths (gates) within the test piece that is covered in a given scan.
Procedure:
1. Fill the tank with water to the required level.
2. Immerse the specimen in the tank.
72
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3. Mount the scanning probe to the scanning axis.
4. Immerse the scanning probe into water over the scanning surface.
5. Open acqUT software and check for the signals from the specimen surface.
6. Set the trigger delay in acqUT.
7. Measure the coordinates of specimen and feed to acqUT.
8. Mention the indexing axis and scanning resolution in scan settings.
9. Press start scan.
10. Save the file after finishing the scan.
11. Open exTUT software and open the saved file.
12. Set the front wall in A-scan.
13. Check the defects by changing gates.
14. Save the image.
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`
EXPERIMENT No. 12(d) Date: ……………………
ULTR-SONIC FLAW DETECTOR
AIM:
This technique is used for the detection of internal and surface (particularly distant surface)
defects in sound conducting materials.
EQUIPMENTS:
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
THEORY:
The principle is in some respects similar to echo sounding. A short pulse of ultrasound is
generated by means of an electric charge applied to a piezo electric crystal, which vibrates
for a very short period at a frequency related to the thickness of the crystal. In flaw detection
this frequency is usually in the range of one million to six million times per second (1 MHz
to 6 MHz). Vibrations or sound waves at this frequency have the ability to travel a
considerable distance in homogeneous elastic material, such as many metals with little
attenuation. The velocity at which these waves propagate is related to the Young’s Modulus
for the material and is characteristic of that material. For example the velocity in steel is 5900
metres per second, and in water 1400 metres per second.
Ultrasonic energy is considerably attenuated in air, and a beam propagated through a solid
will, on reaching an interface (e.g. a defect, or intended hole, or the backwall) between that
material and air reflect a considerable amount of energy in the direction equal to the angle of
incidence.
74
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For contact testing the oscillating crystal is incorporated in a hand held probe, which is applied
to the surface of the material to be tested. To facilitate the transfer of energy across the small
air gap between the crystal and the test piece, a layer of liquid (referred to as ‘couplant’),
usually oil, water or grease, is applied to the surface.
As mentioned previously, the crystal does not oscillate continuously but in short pulses,
between each of which it is quiescent. Piezo electric materials not only convert electrical
pulses to mechanical oscillations, but will also transduce mechanical oscillations into
electrical pulses; thus we have not only a generator of sound waves but also a detector of
returned pulses. The crystal is in a state to detect returned pulses when it is quiescent. The
pulse takes a finite time to travel through the material to the interface and to be reflected back
to the probe.
12 (d)1. Illustration of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection
75
`
The standard method of presenting information in ultrasonic testing is by means of a cathode
ray tube, in which horizontal movement of the spot from left to right represents time elapsed.
The rate at which the spot moves is such that it gives the appearance of a horizontal line on
the screen. The system is synchronized electronically so that at the instant the probe receives
its electrical pulse the spot begins to traverse the screen. An upward deflection (peak) of the
line on the left hand side of the screen is an indication of this occurrence. This peak is usually
termed the initial pulse.
The height of the peak (echo) is roughly proportional to the area of the reflector, though there
is on all instruments a control, which can reduce or increase the size of an indication - variable
sensitivity in fact. Not only is party of the beam reflected at a material/air interface but also
at any junction where there is a velocity change, for example steel/slag interface in a weld.
ADVANTAGES OF ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION

Thickness and lengths up to 30 ft can be tested.
Position, size and type of defect can be determined.
Instant test results.
Portable.
Extremely sensitive if required.
Capable of being fully automated.
Access to only one side necessary.
No consumables.
DISADVANTAGES OF ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION

No permanent record available unless one of the more sophisticated test results and data
collection systems is used.
The operator can decide whether the test piece is defective or not whilst the test is in progress.
Indications require interpretation (except for digital wall thickness gauges).
76
`
Considerable degree of skill necessary to obtain the fullest information from the test.
Very thin sections can prove difficult.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
77
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Date: ……………………
EXPERIMENT NO- 13
HEAT TREATMENT AND MICROSTRUCTURE EXAMINATION

AIM:
To conduct heat treatment operation on a steel specimen
APPARATUS:
Muffle furnace of heating range – 0 to 1000 degrees centigrade, metallurgical microscope.
THEORY:
The purpose of heat treatment of steel is to alter its physical properties in order for it to be
suitable for a particular operation. The 3 main heat treatment processes are- hardening,
tempering and annealing. Hardening or quenching is heating the steel above its critical
temperature and suddenly cooling by dipping in water or oil. Tempering is the operation to
remove the brittleness of the hardened steel and improve the toughness so that the tool doesn’t
break during use. It consists of heating steel to below its lower critical temperature( 205 –
505 degree Celsius ) and cooling slowly , Annealing is softening the steel ( opposite of
hardening) by heating the steel to a temperature below its critical temperature and cooling
gradually, sometimes inside the furnace covered with wood dust for a period of days. Critical
temperature is the temperature to which steel is to be heated for hardening. Higher its carbon
content, lower is its critical temperature to which it has to be heated.
PROCEDURE:
Insert the specimen inside the furnace.
Set the required temperature of the furnace on its display panel and perform the hardening
and tempering heat treatment operations.
Keep a can of water or oil ready to immerse the heated steel.
Immerse the specimen in the quenching media and allow it to cool.
Take out the specimen and check the microstructure under the metallurgical microscope.
Caution: Use gloves and goggles always while handling hot metal.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
78
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The specimen used for heat treatment is:
Following observations were made during the microstructure examination:
79
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Date: ……………………
EXPERIMENT No.14
TEST ON LEAF SPRING

Aim:
1. To study the behavior of the leaf spring under the action of gradually increasing
load.
2. To determine the ‘proof load’, skin stress at the proof load and stiffness of the
spring.
3. To determine modulus of elasticity of the material of the spring.
Apparatus: Leaf spring testing machine, leaf spring, calipers, scale etc.
Leaf springs are widely used in automobiles, railway wagons and coaches. They are used to
absorb shocks which give an unpleasant feeling to the passengers. The energy absorbed by a
laminated spring during a shock is released immediately without doing any useful work.
Theory:
A leaf spring or carriage spring behaves like a beam of uniform strength under the action of
a central concentrated load W. Structurally it is equivalent to a beam of span ‘L’, with constant
thickness and width which varies from zero at two ends to ‘n x b’ at the center.
Where,
n = number of leaves
b = width of each leaf
Bending moment at the center of the span = WL/4
I
M= moment resisted by each leaf =
y
bt 3
Where I = and y= t/2.
12
80
`
t = thickness of the leaf
 bt 2
M=
6
Moment resisted by ‘n’ plates at the center is given by,
n bt 2
M=
6
Figure 14.1: Leaf spring

Equating maximum bending moment to resisting moment,
WL n bt 2
=
4 6
3WL
=
2nbt 2
Proof stress:
The maximum skin stress i.e. proof-stress occurs at the proof load (Wp). Proof load is
the load required to make the spring flat.
3WP L
b =
2nbt 2
81
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Stiffness of the spring:
It is the load required to produce unit deflection and is equal to the slope of the load vs
deflection curve.
The deflection ‘δ’ from its original position, at the center of the spring under any load W is,
3WL3
b =
8nbt 3 E
Modulus of elasticity is given by,
 W  3L
3
E =  
   8nbt
3
Procedure:
1. Measure the width ‘b’, the thickness ‘t’ of each of the leaves and count the
number of leaves ‘n’.
2. Mount spring assembly trolley bracket.
3. Adjust the height between spring and upper clamp plate.
4. Close Left control valve (LCV) and right control valve (RCV).
5. Switch on the hydraulic switch ON.
6. Release RCV till you find that reading on the display remain constant or zero.
7. Close RCV.
8. TARE load on the display.
9. Open RCV gradually and apply load till the spring becomes flat.
10. Note down the load on the display for some equal interval of displacement.
11. Switch the hydraulic off.
12. Open LCV slowly to take the reading during same interval of displacement
during release of the load.
82
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Observations:
1. Number of leaves ‘n’ =………………………
2. Dimensions of cross-section of any one leaf ‘b’ =……………… ……mm
‘t’ =……………… …….mm
3. Span ‘L’ =…………………….mm
4. Initial Bank at the center yc =……………… …….mm
Observation Table:
Central Load (KN) Average Load
Deflection in
mm Loading Unloading Average (N)
83
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Calculations:
W
1. Spring Stiffens, K =

=…………………..
=………………….. N/mm
K 3L3
2. Modulus of elasticity, E =
8nbt 3
=……………….. N/mm2
3WP L
3. Skin stress at the proof load =  b =
2nbt 2
=………………….N/mm2
Graph:
Load vs deflection curve is plotted, and the slope of this curve gives the stiffness of the spring.
For plotting the graph, the average of the load values at regular deflection intervals during
loading and unloading may be taken.
Figure 14.2: Load V/s Deflection
84
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Results:
1. Spring stiffness K = ……………………………. N/mm
2. Modulus of elasticity E =……………………………. N/mm2
3. Skin stress at the proof load σ =……………………………. N/mm2
85

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MATERIALS TESTING LAB

Department of Aeronautical & Automobile Engineering

Class : M.Tech. Automobile Engineering

Vision of the Institute

Mission of the Institute

Vision of the Department

Mission of the Department

PEO 4: Get employed as successful engineers in aeronautical industries, become entrepreneurs

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering Post-Graduates will be able to:

PO 1 Apply the knowledge of basic engineering fundamentals, numerical mathematics and

PO 2 Identify aerospace engineering problems, formulate the mathematical models, review

COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)

This is to certify that Mr./Ms.………………………………………………Bearing

Date : ……………… Name & signature of

1 Composite laminate and curing 1

2 Brinell Hardness Test 5

Tension Test of Composite

5 Test on Helical Spring 27

7 Bending test of composite beam 36

11 Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s 62

12(a) Magnetic Particle Inspection 66

12(b) Die Penetrant Test 70

12(c) Flaw detection using C-scan 72

12(d) Flaw detection using ultrasonic 74

13 Heat treatment and 78

14 Test on Leaf Spring 80

Figure 1.1: 2D illustration of the lay-up process

BRINELL'S HARDNESS TEST

10 500 1000 3000

1) Diameter of the indenter ‘D’ = ………………………….mm

2) Least count of the microscope = …………………………. mm

Figure 2.3: Brinell Hardness Test Set up

TENSION TEST OF COMPOSITE BEAMS

Scope and applicability:

Important terms and definitions:

Figure 3.1: test specimen drawings [ASTM D-3039]

Sl. No Elongation (mm) Load (kN)

Universal Testing Control Panel

Fig. 3.2. Universal Testing Machine

Figure 3.3: Stress Strain plot

Figure 3.4: Load vs Extension

Yield stress σy =……………………………….N/mm2

EXPERIMENT No.4 Date: ……………………

TORSION TEST ON SOLID SHAFT

4. Torque at failure Tf=……………….. N-m

J= polar moment of inertia = D4/32in mm4 for solid shaft

Figure 4.2: Nature of graph

The Yield Point Shear Stress:

a) For solid shaft

1. Modulus of rigidity (From T L

ii) For hollow shaft

Figure 4.3 Torsion testing machine

Figure 4.4: Specimen details

Yield point shear stress

TEST ON HELICAL SPRING

Apparatus: Universal Testing Machine, Scale & Micrometer, etc.

Scope and applicability:

2. Mean coil diameter D = mm

3. Least count of micrometer = mm

4. Diameter of the wire d = mm

Deflection δ Load in kN Average load

()max Gx2δ/D Wp D/2