SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

EDUC 101
THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND
LEARNING PRINCIPLE
SECOND SEMESTER, A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 5

MR.ELBEN S. MALLO,RN, LPT ,MEd

Instructor
Contact No. 09985562357 Page 1
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
Overview
Cognition is the process of learning in the broadest sense that includes
perception, memory, judgment, and thinking. It is both a mental activity and
behavior that provides an understanding of the world arising from biological,
experiential, motivational, and social influences.

Module Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you must be able to:
1. Identify the theories of cognition
2. Explain the various theories of intelligence and learning
styles

Theories of Cognitive Development: Piaget, Vygotsky,Information-Processing

Theories, Bio-cultural Theories

There are a variety of theories that attempt to explain the pattern of cognitive
development in children. Piaget made two important observations on the
development of the first intelligence test started by Alfred Binet.

First, children of the same ages tended to make the same mistakes and get the
same answers wrong. Second, errors of children of a particular age differed in
systematic ways from those of older or younger children. Piaget's theory of
cognitive development that relates to differences in the ways of thinking and
understanding the world was shaped by the errors of children. Piaget maintains that
children's incorrect responses on tests were more enlightening than their correct
responses.

Piaget used two methods to study children's thinking: interviews and observations.
In his interviews, children would be presented a problem to solve or a question to
answer. Afterwards they were made to explain their thinking. In his observational
research, he would watch closely the behavior or children as they tried solving the
problem presented.

A. Piaget's Main Tenet: The Child Actively Seeks Knowledge

According to Piaget children actively seek out information. Such information is in

turn
adapted to the children's acquired knowledge and conceptions about the world. It is
from their experiences that children construct their understanding of reality, a view
held by the constructivists. Children have the capacity as well to organize this
knowledge into an increasingly cognitive structure called schemata.

Page 2
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
A schema (plural, schemata) is an organized unit of knowledge. The child uses this
to be able to understand a situation or an experience and which will serve as basis
for organizing actions to respond to the environment.

Different schemata change as the children develop. For example, sucking which is
an innate reflex and a reaction pattern is a newborn schema. As the child advances
in age and gains added experiences whatever schemata possessed shill from motor
activities to mental activities, referred to as operations. These operations increase in
complexity as the child ages.

Piaget opined that schemata are modified by organization and adaptation.

Organization is the predisposition to combine simple physical or psychological

structures into more complex systems. Structures are viewed from larger
dimensions and not on limited parameters.

Adaptation involves the processes of assimilation and accommodation that are

complementary.

Adaptation is adjusting one's thinking according to environrnental demands.

Assimilation is making use of an existing schema to a new experience.

Accommodation is modifying an existing schema to make it work in a new

experience.

The Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget divided intellectual development reflecting changes in the cognitive structures

of children into four stages, children go through these changes although changes
may not occur at the same ages. Development however necessitates the attainment
of the earlier stages to reach the later periods of development.

I. Sensorimotor Stage — from birth to two years

This is the stage where the child is able to use internal representation of external
events without simply relying on reflexes. This period is divided into six sub-stages
characterized by the ability of the child to explore the physical environment and
engaging in symbolic thought and deferred imitation.

During this stage, a child makes the transition from relying on reflexes to using
internal representation of external events. Piaget divided this period into six sub-

Page 3
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
stages, during which the child physically explores the environment, developing such
abilities as symbolic thought, and deferred imitation.

The sub-stages, include basic reflex activity, primary circular reactions, secondary
circular reactions, coordination of secondary circular reactions, tertiary circular
reactions, and inventing new means using mental combination. It is in these sub-
stages that children gradually acquire an understanding of the world and what is
referred to as object permanence.

Piaget's view of object permanence that children may acquire, including ideas about
properties of objects and the principles of the physical world as causality had
already been acquired earlier than Piaget thought, claimed his critics.

Recently, researchers interested in early knowledge systems have begun to study

the understanding by very young infants of the physical world, including physical
laws such as containment and numerosity. They claim this type of understanding
basic to functioning as a person and make-up what they call core knowledge.
However, there is an ongoing debate whether the core knowledge systems are
innate or learned early in life. There are also efforts exerted to interpret the
evidence from young infants exploring such ideas.

2. Pre-operational Stage — two to seven years

One major development in the pre-operational stage is the development of symbolic

function as the ability to use symbols such as words, images, gestures to represent
real objects and events. This is reflected in the use of language in creative writing,
in imaginative play and even in an increase in deferred imitation. Pre-operational
stage is disided into the preconceptual stage and the intuitive stage.

The pre-conceptual sub-stage limits children's thinking to animistic thinking such as

attributing lifelike characteristics to inanimate objects. Children during this stage are
egocentric. They view things from their own perspective and usually find it difficult
to accept and understand other person's view.

The intuitive sub-stage affords the children to use certain mental operations but
may not be aware of the principles used for lack of ability to explain them. They
have limited ability in problems involving part-whole relations even in classification
and
conservation.

It is to be noted that the notion of conservation is the most important acquisition of

the pre-operational stage. The child at this stage is able to learn to
Page 4
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
conserve numbers but not physical properties as mass and volume.

Piaget proposed that three characteristics of pre-operational thought limit children's

thinking. The first is the child's inability to understand reversibility, that logical
operations can be changed back to the original state and that there are logical steps
involved in an operation.

The second is the tendency to focus on ends rather than means. The third
characteristic is centration, or focusing on only one dimension of a problem.

3. Concrete Operational Stage — seven to eleven years

Children are able to perform tasks that they were unable to do and master in the
preceding stage, like conservation, classification, and part-whole relations.

4. Formal Operations Stage — eleven to sixteen years

This is the stage when children can use abstract reasoning and can be flexible
whenever they consider varied solutions to a problem. However, not all children,
even adults attain this stage, formal operations depend upon the nature of the
problem to be solved and the preparation acquired from formal schooling.

Piaget's concepts of egocentrism and object permanence have implications on the

child's learning process and even in distinguishing himself from others. Recent
research on children's theory points to the principle that the mind guides the child's
own behavior and that of others.

B.Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Following the Bolshevik revolution of 191 7, the Soviet government hired Russian
psychologist Lev Vygotsky to create a school system that would serve the ends of
the new communist regime. Vygotsky devised a theory of child development that
was unique. His death in 1938 and the historical events that followed, II and the
Cold War resulted in his work remaining largely unknown outside the Soviet Union
for decades. Recently however, the developmentalists have become interested in his
views on
the influence of cultural forces on individual development (Thomas, 1996).

Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory asserts that complex forms of thinking have their
origins in social interactions rather than in the child's private explorations, as Piaget

Page 5
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
thought. According to Vygotsky children's learning of new cognitive skills is guided
by an adult for a more skilled child, such as an older sibling), who structures the
child's
learning experience, a process Vygotsky called scaffolding. To create an
appropriate scaffold, the adult must gain and keep the child's attention, model the
best strategy,
and adapts the whole process to the child's developmental level, or zone of proximal
development (Landry, Garner, Swank & Baldwin, 1996 as cited by Bee and Boyd,
2002).

Vygotsky used this term to signify tasks that are too hard for the child to do alone
but that he can manage with guidance. For example, parents of a beginning reader
provide a scaffold when they help him sound out new words.

Vygotsky's interest in the child's potential for intellectual growth led him to develop
the concept of the zone of proximal development. For years, this concept laid the
foundation for the application of scaffolding. In this process, teacher makes
adjustment in the amount and type support he gives to the child as he tries to
acquire a skill when the child has acquired the skill, teacher withdraws support. This
is similar to concepts of reciprocal instruction and guided participation.

Reciprocal instruction stems from the use of community learners models whereby
learning abilities and skills development are acquired through social interaction.
Guided participation emphasizes the cognitive development through active
participation of both the learners and the more experienced people, usually in
cultural activities of the community.

Vygotsky's ideas have important educational applications. Like Piaget's, Vygotsky's

theory suggests the importance of opportunities for active exploration. But assisted
discovery would play a greater role in a Vygotskian than in a Piagetian classroom;
the teacher would provide the scaffolding for children's discovery, through
questions,
demonstrations, and explanations (Tharp and Gallimore,1988 as cited by Bee and
Boyd, 2002). To be effective, the assisted discovery processes would have to be
within the zone of proximal development of each child.

Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the need for social interaction in facilitating the child's
development. It assumes that the thought processes that are internalized accrue
from interaction with others in the social environment.

Page 6
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
The shifts in the use of symbols and language give way to the honing of intellectual
capacities that is manifested in the transitions between elementary mental functions
and higher mental functions.

Two Principles of Cultural Influence in Vygotsky's Theory.

First, cultures are varied. They use different ways, tools and settings to facilitate
children's development.

Second, variations in culture as well as cultural contexts must be considered in

assessing children's cognitive development.

Vygotskian theory recognizes the important role language plays in learning the art
of communication and regulating other intellectual functions as children engage in
social speech, egocentric speech, and inner speech.

Egocentric speech is the transition from the social activity of children to a more
individualized activity which involves thinking until they are able to overcome
difficulties. From egocentric speech develops the inner speech.

Egocentric speech takes the form of a self-directed dialogue where the child
instructs herself in solving problems and drawing up plans. It is in the age of
maturity that
egocentric speech materialized into inner speech.

Inner speech is egocentric speech that has been internalized and which develops
intellectual capacities.

According to Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, learning is fundamentally a

socially mediated activity.

Thinking and problem solving according to Vygotsky have three categories:

l. some can be performed independently by the child
2. others cannot be performed even with the help from others
3. between the 1st two are tasks that can be performed with help from others

The tasks in number three are in the zone of proximal development. If a child uses
these cognitive processes with the help of others such as teachers, parents, and
other students, they will become skills and abilities that can be independently
practiced. As Vygotsky puts it, "What the child is able to do in collaboration today,
he will be
Page 7
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
able to do independently tomorrow." In reading instruction, the terms independent
level, instructional level and frustration level correspond to Vygotsky's zones, with
instructional level being the same as the zone of proximal development.

C. Information-Processing Theories
The information-processing approach takes the human mind as a system that
processes information. This is similar to computer programming where the
processes
involved are subject to limitations and observance of logical rules. This views
development according to cognitive competencies as derived from changes in the
processes and strategies applied in the process.

Several basic assumptions of information-processing approaches are:

l. Thinking is information processing
2. Mechanisms of change are important to describe
3. The cognitive system is self-modifying
4. Careful task analysis is crucial

Explanation of number l. Mental activity or thinking is putting into the mind

whatever information there is to process in ways or means that can render the
information understandable, functional and usable. There are underlying questions
about how the processes such as perceiving, encoding, representing and storing
information, change as children get older and have more experiences with the
world.

Explanation of number 2. Mechanisms like encoding, strategy construction,

automatization, and generalization all together help in instituting change in the
children's cognitive skills. Constantly used cognitive skills eventually become a
routine. Where these are automatized the cognitive system is better able to work on
new aspects of the problems, which may require application of new cognitive skills.

Explanation of number 3. Child is able to modify his responses to situations or

problems by using the acquired knowledge and strategies from solving earlier
problems. a powerful base new and better ways of responding to situations are
developed. Thus children play an active role in their own cognitive development.

Explanation of number 4. Child's cognitive performance is dependent on the

problem or situation and the ability to handle such according to his level of
development. A careful task analysis is needed to appraise the child's actual
performance and the performances vary according to age. Most likely, the analysis
reveal how children of different ages understand, approach and solve a problem,
and what strategies they apply in solving problems. Careful task analysis often
Page 8
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
involves error analysis or attending to the errors children make. This involves
examining incorrect answers for evidence of less sophisticated, although systematic,
strategies that children apply to problems.

Such analysis often relies on a method called microgenetic analysis.

Microgenetic analysis calls for a close scrutiny, a detailed examination of a child

solves a problem on a particular learning situation or in the succeeding learning
activities that immediately follow.

Metacognition is the individual’s knowledge and control of cognitive activities. It is

that develops through time, over childhood and which includes knowedge of the
self, his frame of mind, knowledge about task and the strategies that can be
applied.

D. Bio-cultural Theories

One of the most current trends in developmental psychology is the established link
between physiological processes and development explained through universal
changes and individual differences.

Theories of Nativism, Ethology, and Sociobiology

l. Nativism views human as endowed with genetic traits the species, regardless of
differences in their environments. Developmentalists adhere to the nativist theory
hold that peculiarities in behavior can be identified early in life developed in all
individuals in every culture but do not exist in other species. Example: a child learns
to
speak the language in the absence of formal instructions from adults at home, he
learns by imitating and by heading. Actually, no has been found of grammatical
language in non-human species.

To some critics, nativism reduces the impact of environment in learning a language.

While it is true that children learn language in the same still
environment factors and characteristics of language cannot be discounted where the
rate at which a language is learned is taken into account.

2. Ethology points to genetically survival behaviors assumed to have evolved

through natural selection. Ethologists say that nature has equipped birds with
nest-building genes which is imperative for survival.

Page 9
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
Likewise, as claimed by exponents of ethology even emotional relationships are
important for infants' survival. Emotional bonding is achieved between the infant
and the mother everytime she attends to the needs of the infant. As ethologists say,
even infants' crying is genetically and adults are genetically programmed to a baby's
crying needs between the infant and the adult increases the prospect of' infant's
survival.

Ethologists on one hand are criticized for placing too much emplrasis on heredity.
For one, ethological theories are hard to test for the same reason that behavior like
attachment for survival is difficult to quantify or explain.

3. Sociobiology focuses on the study of society using the methods and concepts
of biological science. Like the ethologists, sociobiology emphasizes genes that aid
group survival. Living in groups affords humans better chances of survival. As
claimed by the exponents of sociobiology even the concept of cooperation is
genetically programmed.

To support their views, socio-biologists look for social rules and behaviors that exist
in all cultures. For example, any society has to put up a set of rules to regulate
conduct of human behavior. Respect for other people’s rights is deemed an
imperative to an orderly society. Where laws/rules are wantonly disregarded,
conflicts arise and people cannot live in peace and in harmony others.
Sociobiologists claim that respect for people's lives is genetically programmed.

Critics of sociobiology do not seem to favor the genes. They claim sound rules that
govern life in a society are passed on over many generations because they are
workable through language, not genes.

Behavior Genetics aver that a broad range of and behaviors like intelligence,
shyness, and aggressiveness are a result of heredity. Heredity provides for
individual differences. Whatever traits or behaviors children acquire are said to be
influenced by genes coming from related people.

Further, hereditary traits are observable across the lifespan. It has been found that
children who are stubborn and can be difficult to get along with encounter more
problems in the adult life. Likewise, good tempered children in their young age
looked at life more positively and therefore able to adjust to difficult and
complicated situations in life. On the other hand, bad tempered children had years
of school, less achievements in life, and with low paying jobs.

Such studies also that environments determine apparently hereditary traits affect an
individual's development, and to what extent. For instance, only ill-tempered boys
Page 10
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
with status occupations change jobs often in their adulthood. Those jobs high status
had
more stable careers.

Such findings point to psychological behavior as a product of both heredity and

environment. Inherited characteristics continue over time reflected in the same
response patterns that influence human reaction to world realities.

Brofenbrenner's Ecological Theory

Another approach gaining interest in developmental psychology is Bronfenbrenner's

ecological theory. This theory explains development in terms of relationships
between people and their environments, or contexts, as Bronfenbrenner calls them.
He attempts to classify all the individual and contextual variables that affect
development and to specify how they interact.

The contexts of development are like circles within circles. The outermost circle, the
macrosystem (or the cultural context), contains the values and beliefs of the culture
in which a child is up. For example, a society's beliefs about the importance of
education exist in the cultural context.

The next level, the exosystem (the socio-economic context) are the cultural
institutions which have indirect influence on the child's development. For example,
institutions
acknowledge that it is the duty of government to provide the basic services (cultural
context) but the inability of the government to provide its citizens the basic services
is hampered by the economic slowdown and budget deficits (socio-economic
context).

The microsystem (or the immediate context) includes those units that have directly
influence on the children.
Examples are: families, schools, religious institutions, and neighborhoods

The mesosystem consists of the interconnections between these: components.

example, the specific schools a child attends and her own family are part of the
microsystem. The parents involvement in the school and the response of the school
to their involvement arc part of the mesosystem.

Thus, the culture a child is born into may strongly value quality education.
Moreover, the nation's economy may provide ample funds for schooling. However,
her own education will be more strongly affected by the particular school she
attends and the connections or lack thereof, between her school and her family.
Page 11
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
Thus, the child's immediate context may be either consistent with the cultural and
socio-economic contexts or at odds with them.

The child's development is also influenced by his genetic make-up. This is attributed
to the biological context. Learning and mastering a specific skill is dependent on a
combinations of his culture, socio-economic status and family. The ability to make
use of such mastery will still be determined by the degree to which his learning skill
fits his
individual needs.

Ecological theory calls for a way of thinking that development is a complex of

individuals and contextual variables and that development is a result of the
combined
effects of all contexts.

Study Guide

1. Explain the intellectual development reflecting changes in the cognitive structures

of children.

2. Explain the concept of the zone of proximal development of Vygotsky.

3. Enumerate and explain the basic assumptions of information processing

approach.

RUBRICS 5 3 2 1
Ideas Presents ideas in an original Presents ideas in a Ideas are too general Ideas are vague or
manner consistent manner unclear
Organization Strong and organized Organized beg/mid/end Some organization; No organization;
beg/mid/end attempt at a lack beg/mid/end
beg/mid/end
Understanding Writing shows strong Writing shows a clear Writing shows adequate Writing shows little
understanding understanding understanding understanding
Word Choice Sophisticated use of nouns Nouns and verbs make Needs more nouns and Little or no use of
and verbs make the essay essay informative verbs nouns and verbs
very informative
Sentence Sentence structure enhances Sentence structure is Sentence structure is No sense of
Structure meaning; flows throughout evident; sentences limited; sentences need sentence structure
the piece mostly flow to flow or flow

Page 12
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo
 SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

MODULE APPROVAL SHEET

Course No. EDUC 101 Descriptive Title : THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS
AND LEARNING PRINCIPLE

Module No. : 5 Course Year & Section BSED 1-B AND BEED 1-A-B

Prepared and Submitted by:

ELBEN S. MALLO,RN,LPT,MEd
Instructor

Checked by:

RHODORA P. PANIZAL Ed. D.

Dean, School of Teacher Education

Recommending Approval:

HEIDE A. PAMA, M. ED.

Dean of Instruction

Approved:

JANICE JENNIFER P. PALMARES, MPA

Acting College President/ SAO/ Registrar Designation
Page 13
Module No.5 EDUC 101 The Child and Adolescent Learner& Learning Principle
Elben S. Mallo