One Hundred Years of Rapakivi Granite

Mineralogy and Petrology (1995) 52:129-185
Mineralogy
aDO
Petrology
© Springer-Verlag 1995
Printed in Austria
One hundred years of Rapakivi Granite

O. T. R/im6 and I. Haapala
Department of Geology, University of Helsinki, Finland
With 11 Figures
Received March 17, 1993;

accepted December 10, 1993
Summary
Rapakivi granites, recently redefined as A-type granites showing rapakivi texture at least
in the larger batholiths, occur on all continents and presumably represent the most
voluminous continental silicic intraplate magmatism on Earth. Most of the rapakivi
granites are Proterozoic (mainly 1.0 to 1.7 Ga) but also Archean (2.8 Ga) and Phaner-
ozoic (0.05 to 0.4 Ga) are known. The magmatic association is bimodal comprising
anorthosite to gabbro, diabase, minor Fe-enriched intermediate rocks, and monzonite,
beside granite; mingling of silicic and mafic magmas is typical. Geochemically and
otherwise, rapakivi granites show the characteristics of the Phanerozoic A-type granites,
except that they encompass relatively few peralkaline rocks and that they may occur as
very large (up to 40,000 km 2) batholiths. Some of the rapakivi granite complexes host
important Sn-polymetallic and Fe-Cu deposits.
The rapakivi granites crystallized from relatively hot, restite-poor magmas at low
(epizonal-subvolcanic) pressure, an2o, and ao2. Mineral assemblages are indicative of a
multiphase crystallization history; the conspicuous mantling of the perthite ovoids with
plagioclase can be explained by changes in magma composition and/or, P, T, and an2o
affecting the stabilities of feldspars. The isotopic composition of rapakivi granites is
generally compatible with a lower crustal protolith. The latter could have been either a
melt-depleted residue or otherwise relatively anhydrous igneous or metaigneous rock.
Melting of the protolith commenced under vapor-absent conditions and was induced
by heat from the contemporaneous mantle-derived marie magmas. The widespread
rapakivi granite magmatism in the Middle Proterozoic may have been related to the
establishment of a major continental mass (supercontinent).
Zusammenfassung
Einhundert J ahre Rapakivi-Granit
Rapakivi-Granite sind A-Typ Granite mit Rapakivi Texturen, die zumindest in den
gr6Beren Batholiten zu erkennen sind. Sie kommen auf allen Kontinenten vor und stellen
wahrscheinlich das umfangreichste Beispiel kontinentalen sauren Intraplate-Magmatis-
130 O.T. Rfim6 and I. Haapala
mus dar. Die meisten Rapakivi-Granite sind proterozoisch (1.0 bis 1.7 Ga), jedoch sind
auch archaische (2.8 Ga) und phanerozoische (0.05 bis 0.4 Ga) Beispiele bekannt. Die
magmatische Assoziation ist bimodal und umfaBt Anorthosit bis Gabbro, Diabas, in
kleinerem Umfang Fe-angereicherte intermedi/ire Gesteine und Monzonit, zusfitzlich zu
Granit. Das gemeinsame Auftreten yon Silizium-reichen und mafischen Magmen ist
typisch. Die geochemischen Charakteristika der Rapakivi-Granite entsprechen phaner-
ozoischen A-Typ Graniten mit der Ausnahme, dab sie relativ wenige peralkaline Gesteine
umfassen und dab sie als sehr groge (bis zu 40.000 km 2) Batholithe vorkommen k6nnen.
Einige Rapakivi-Granite fiihren wichtige Zinn-polymetallische und Fe-Cu Lager-
st/itten.
Die Rapakivi Granite kristallisierten aus einem relativ heiBen, Restit-armen
Magma bei niedrigem (epizonalem bis subvulkanischem) Druck, aH~o und ao~. Miner-
alassoziationen weisen auf eine vielphasige Kristallisationsgeschichte hin; die auffallen-
den Umwachsungen von Perthit-Ovoiden mit Plagioklas k6nnen durch Nnderungen
in der Magmenzusammensetzung und/oder von P, T und an~o erkl/irt werden, die die
Stabilit~ten der Feldspate beeinflussen. Die Isotopen-Zusammensetzung der Rapakivi
Granite entspricht im allgemeinen einem tieferen Krusten-Protolith. Der letztere kann
entweder ein an Schmelze verarmtes Residuum oder auch ein relativ wasserarmes,
magmatisches oder metamagmatisches Gestein gewesen sein. Schmelzen des Protoliths
begann in Abwesenheit yon volatilen Phasen und wurde durch W~irmezufuhr von
gleichaltrigen mafischen Magmen, die aus dem Mantel stammen, herbeigefiihrt. Der weit
verbreitete Rapakivi Granit-Magmatismus im mittleren Proterozoikum dtirfte mit der
Bildung eines Superkontinentes in Beziehung zu setzen sein.
1. Introduction
One hundred years ago, J. J. Sederholrn (1891) published his classic study of rapakivi
granites entitled 'Ueber die finnl~indischen Rapakiwigesteine' in Tschermak's
Mineralogische und Petrographische Mittheilungen (now Mineralogy and Petrol-
ogy). In this pioneering work Sederholrn described the areal distribution, mode of
occurrence, petrography, and chemistry of the Finnish rapakivi granites. Moreover,
he distinguished the terms rapakivi granite and rapakivi texture and showed
that rapakivi granites form an igneous suite with both intrusive and extrusive
characteristics.
The Finnish word "rapakivi" means disintegrated or crumbly rock or stone and
denotes the tendency of certain rapakivi granite types to disintegrate more easily
than other granitic rocks of the region. In the 18th century, rapakivi granite was
mentioned or briefly described in several reports and academic theses of Finnish
and Swedish scientists. Thanks to Sederholrn's paper, the terms rapakivi granite and
rapakivi texture were incorporated into the international geological terminology,
and southern Finland has since then been regarded as the type area of these rocks.
The work of Sederholrn has been continued and amplified by other Finnish geolo-
gists (Walter Wahl, Pentti Eskola, Victor Hackman, Th. G. Sahama, Antti Savolahti,
Atso Vorrna, among others).
Soon after Sederholrn's 1891 paper had been published, rapakivi granites were
found in Sweden and the Ukraine, and later in the 20th century in the Precambrian
of North America, South America, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica. Rapakivi gran-
ites and related anorogenic granites form an integral part of many Precambrian
cratonic areas and their formation has been an essential part of Precambrian
crustal evolution. The purpose of this paper is, together with a separate paper on
One hundred years of Rapakivi Granite 131
metallogeny (Haapala, 1995), to present an up-to-date review of what is known

about rapakivi granites a hundred years after Sederholm's pioneering work.
2. Rapakivi granite and rapakivi texture

In southeastern Fennoscandia, rapakivi granites form a distinct rock group and
distinguishing them from other granitoid rocks is generally quite easy. However,
each rapakivi pluton has its own peculiarities, and in some cases their identification
as rapakivi granite may be equivocal. Referring to Sederholm, Vorma (1976) defined
the terms rapakivi texture and rapakivi granite.
Rapakivi texture sensu stricto, as it occurs in the Fennoscandian Shield, is
characterized by (Vorma, 1976, p. 5):
(a) ovoidal shape of the alkali feldspar megacrysts,
(b) mantling of the ovoids by oligoclase-andesine shells, some of the ovoids remain-
ing, however, unmantled, and
(c) occurrence of two generations of alkali feldspar and quartz, the idiomorphic
older quartz generation having crystallized as high quartz
Rapakivi texture sensu lato involves only the presence of plagioclase-mantled alkali
feldspar ovoids. In the literature, sometimes also the occurrence of plagioclase
mantles around angular (euhedral) alkali feldspar crystals is described as rapakivi
texture. Conversely, when plagioclase crystals are mantled by alkali feldspar, the
texture is called anti-rapakivi.
Rapakivi granites sensu stricto are epizonal, disharmonious, Subjotnian (about
1.7 to 1.5 Ga) postorogenic granites characterized by the presence of rapakivi texture
(Vorma, 1976). Different textural types of rapakivi granite include wiborgite (man-
tled ovoids), pyterlite (unmantled ovoids), porphyritic granites with unmantled
angular or subangular alkali feldspar megacrysts, and even-grained granites.
Rapakivi granites sensu lato are any granites that contain mantled alkali feldspar
ovoids, regardless of their age and relation to orogenic evolution.
Vorma's classification is in agreement with Sederholm's description of the Fen-
noscandian rapakivi granites, but its more general application is problematic. First,
whether certain granites should be classified as late-orogenic, postorogenic, or
anorogenic is often a matter of subjective opinions. Second, the use of geologic age
as a criterion for rapakivi granites sensu stricto would exclude several well-known
rapakivi granite plutons (e.g., in the U.S.A. and Brazil) from rapakivi granites proper.
It should be remembered that when Sederholm emphasized the Subjotnian age of
rapakivi granites his aim was to present a general age-associated classification of
the Finnish granitic rocks, and not to define a new rock type.
It has been stated in a number of studies that the rapakivi granites of Fennoscan-
dia and North America have, beside the characteristic mode of occurrence and
petrography, a bimodal magmatic association, a distinctive mineralogy (very high
Fe/(Fe + Mg) in the mafic silicates, fluorite common accessory mineral) and rock
chemistry (high K, K/Na, F, Ga, Rb, Zn, Zr, Y, and LREE; a negative Eu anomaly).
These are features of the A-type granites, as defined by Loiselle and Wones (1979),
Collins et al. (1982), and Whalen et al. (1987) (Haapala, 1985; Anderson and Bender,
1989; Emslie, 1991; Riim6, 1991). Accordingly, Haapala and Ri~m6 (1992) redefined
rapakivi granites simply as 'A-type granites characterized by the presence, at least
132 O. T. R/im6 and I. Haapala
in the larger batholiths, of granite varieties showing the rapakivi texture'. This
definition takes into account the mode of occurrence, magmatic association, petrog-
raphy, mineralogy, and chemistry of the granites but does not restrict the absolute
age of the rocks. It does, however, exclude migmatites and S- and I-type granites,
which locally may have alkali feldspar megacrysts mantled by plagioclase.
3. Distribution in space and time

Rapakivi granite complexes known by 1993 are shown on a global map in Fig. 1
and their main characteristics are given in Table 1. There are 34 occurrences ranging
from single plutons to groups of several related intrusions and registering crystalliza-
tion ages from 0.05 to 2.78 Ga. The overwhelming majority of the occurrences is
middle Proterozoic; the median of the ages listed in Table 1 is 1.54 Ga. Typically,
the rapakivi granites are exposed within early Proterozoic crustal provinces or
covered under sedimentary rocks in platforms surrounding Precambrian terranes.
In the following, the distribution and ages of the rapakivi granite occurrences are
briefly itemized. The numbers in square brackets refer to those in Fig. 1 and are
keyed to the numbering in Table 1.
3.1 The Ukraine and Fennoscandia

In the southeastern part of the Fennoscandian Shield and along the western flank
of the Russian Platform there are several Proterozoic rapakivi granite complexes,
including the classic Finnish occurrences. Their ages vary from 1.77 Ga in the
Ukraine (Korosten and Korsun-Novomirgorod complexes [3]) to 1.54 Ga in south-
western Finland (Laitila batholith [9]) and Russian Karelia (Salmi batholith [7]).
Moreover, in Moisiovaara, east-central Finland there is a recently found early
Proterozoic (2.40 Ga) rapakivi granite [2]. Typical of these rapakivi complexes is
the preponderance of silicic rocks. Complexes in the Ukraine [3] and Sweden [12,
13], however, contain a substantial amount ofmafic rocks as well. In southern Urals,
Russia, there also occurs a rapakivi complex [14] in which both silicic and mafic
rocks are present, but the petrography and age (ca. 1.35 Ga) of this pluton are poorly
known. Besides the bimodal rapakivi granite batholiths of Ragunda and Nordingrgt,
several small rapakivi stocks (Jungfru, G6temar, Stromsbro, R6d6, Bonden) are
known from the eastern coast of Sweden (Lundqvist, 1979). The R6d6 wiborgitic
rapakivi stock is associated with quartz-feldspar porphyry and diabase dykes, which
may also form composite dykes (Lundqvist, 1979).
3.2 North America and Greenland

In North America and Greenland, rapakivi granite complexes occur along a roughly
linear zone that extends from South Greenland through Labrador, and the mid-
continent to southern California. These occurrences comprise several age groups.
The rapakivi-textured monzonites and associated norites of the Kap Farvel area in
South Greenland [15] are 1.74 to 1.76 Ga old and thus roughly coeval with the
Ukrainian rapakivi granites. In central Labrador (Nain and Churchill Provinces
[16]), rapakivi granite-anorthosite complexes are generally 1.29 to 1.46 Ga in age.
1.76 Ga old rapakivi-like granites are also known west of Hudson Bay in central
v~
E
8
£.££~
,.m.,
~ £
~.~ o
~,~Z
-'~ 0_0_03
n'-
0
i
.-g'~ o
•~ ~ O
.- ~0
"~ O
o~..~
~ o
o_ ~ "~
~o ~
O
m~c0
o
134 O . T . R/im6 and I. Haapala
.~.~ O0
O~ O0 ....-~ ~ ~ ~ ,._~ ~
-~- .~
.0 : ~"~o o
°
o = ~ .- --~ ~ .-~
>m>~>m~
NI
o o
% 0.~
0 o 0
o o
0 ~,
"~ "H N
<-
< d ° o d D d d
.o ~ .o
0 0 0 0 © "~ 0
O"C 0 0 0 0
0. 0~ o ~ 0 ~ 0 . oo
0
~7
¢N
e~ +1~ ~ ~
m +1 ~ ~
~0
o "~
%
o.~ +1o+1.~ .~ .~ 7 7 +l 7
o 0 oo
<
C~
o ~
0
0 "-'~ o -- E
,..2 E
z ~ o~
G"
r¢3
O-,,.O
.=
e.
i ~ ~,o, ~ = ~ a-~ O
O
r.g3
e~
r~ r~
~ ~ =
o
~.. ~ ~ <~
,.0
d
,< <~ .~ < ~ ~ ..-
d I3
~ ~ ~ 0
0 0 0 0
o,.. o o o
o~
o -
+~ o +~ ~ ~. _ +l +l - ~ -~ +l
~'r- ~ ~, I
tg3
.=
~ ~ > =~ ~ .-
o ~ ~ .~ ".~_= o ,~ ._-~
z ,~ ~ ~ z ~ . ~ : ~ =~
136 O. T, R~m6 and I. Haapala
..,-t.
• ~ ~
¢-:..
,-6- %
0
-~ -~ ~ ~..a
~D~ d ~Dd~d ~D r,D ~D ~D ~Dd
0 0 0
N N
< ~ ~ ~
,~ ~ ¢,
N
~ .~
:~~ ~ L~
0
E E g.~g
+~ ~ ~
~D
Z ~-N
Q
,g
= ~ *a ° : .~
f~
Canada (Loveridge et al., 1987; Windley, 1993). Geochemically, however, these

granites are poorly known (Ronald F. Emslie, pers. commun., 1993) and so are not
included in Table 1.
The occurrences in the Grenville Province in eastern Canada and northeastern
U.S.A. [17] comprise three age groups, i.e., 1.15, 1.36, and 1.64 Ga, of which the
youngest is the most abundant. The rapakivi-related anorogenic granites of mid-
continental and southwestern U.S.A. [18] consist of three major age groups: 1.02
to 1.08, 1.34 to 1.41, and 1.41 to 1.49 Ga. The 1.41 to 1.49 Ga group is the most
wide-spread, the 1.34 to 1.41 Ga group is found mainly in central U.S.A., and the
1.02 to 1.08 Ga group comprises scattered plutons in southern Texas, Colorado,
and Ontario (Canada). The midcontinental occurrences are covered by younger
formations and thus their lithologic association is not known in detail. On the whole,
however, it appears that the midcontinental and southwestern complexes contain
only a minor amount of marie rocks (Anderson, 1983; Anderson and Bender, 1989)
as opposed to those in Labrador and the Grenville Province (Emslie, 1980; Emslie
and Hunt, 1990).
The currently known Phanerozoic rapakivi granite plutons occur in North
America. These are the Carboniferous to Devonian (0.33 to 0.40 Ga) plutons in
Maine [32, 33], and the 50 Ma old Spirit Mountain granite in southern Nevada
[34], which is spatially associated with Proterozoic anorogenic granites of southern
Nevada, California, and Arizona.
3.3 South America

In South America, rapakivi granites are found in Brazil, Venezuela, and Guyana.
As currently perceived, few mafic rocks are associated with these plutons. The
Parguaza batholith of Venezuela [19] is 1.55 Ga old and one of the largest ( > 30,000
km 2) rapakivi granite occurrences. The Rond6nian terrain in western Brazil [20]
consists of several rapakivi granite complexes that have been divided into two Rb-Sr
age groups, 0.95 to 1.05 Ga and 1.18 to 1.40 Ga. These complexes are best known
for their Sn-mineralization. In the Central Amazonian Province (Guyana Shield) in
northwestern Brazil [21] there are rapakivi granites that fall at least into two age
groups, 1.55 (also including plutons in Venezuela and Guyana) and 1.70 to 1.75 Ga.
In southeastern Brazil, near Silo Paulo [22] there is a late Proterozoic (0.59 Ga)
rapakivi-type granite.
3.4 Africa, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica

Three rapakivi granite occurrences are known from Africa. One of them is the
Gaborone-Kanye complex in southern Botswana and northern South Africa [-13,
which is the only known rapakivi occurrence of Archean age (2.78 Ga). It also
contains abundant felsic volcanites as well as some mafic rocks. The other two
occurrences in Sudan [-23] and Tanzania [--243 are presumably Proterozoic but their
ages and lithologic association are not known in detail.
In Asia, there are rapakivi granites at least in the Aldan Shield in eastern Siberia
[-253 and in the northwestern part of the Sino-Korean Craton in eastern China [-26].
Those in Siberia occur along a EW-trending belt, are roughly 1.70 to 1.90 Ga old,
and include both silicic and marie rocks. In eastern China, near Beijing there is a
138 O.T. Rgm6 and I. Haapala: One hundred years of Rapakivi Granite
small (25 km 2) 1.67 Ga old rapakivi granite complex (Shachang) as well as a

temporally and spatially associated anorthosite intrusion (Damiao). In northwest-
ern India there also is a rapakivi granite complex ([27]) the age of which is unknown.
Proterozoic rapakivi granites occur in north-central and south-central Austra-
lia. In the north, there are 1.67 and 1.66 Ga old rapakivi complexes in the Mt. Isa
[-28] and Tennant Creek [-29] Inlierso In South Australia, somewhat younger (1.58
to 1.60 Ga) rapakivi granites are present in the Mt. Painter-Roxby Downs area [30]
where they include the Olympic Dam ( F e - ) C u - U - A u - A g deposit. None are so far
known from the Precambrian craton exposed over most of the western part of the
continent.
Not much is currently known about rapakivi granites in Antarctica. A reconnais-
sance study (Katz and Waterhouse, 1970) reported presumably late Precambrian
rapakivi granites to occur frequently in the bedrock of the Transantarctic Moun-
tains in the southeastern Queen Maud Range (ca. 150°W, 86°S; [31]).
4. Petrography
Beside the conspicuous rapakivi texture, rapakivi granites exhibit a characteristic
mode of occurrence and lithologic association that, combined, distinguish them
from other granite suites. Typically they occur as multiple high-level batholiths and
stocks that sharply cut the surrounding metamorphic bedrock. They are often also
associated with mafic rocks (gabbros to anorthosites, ferrodiorites, diabase dykes,
basalts) and usually evidence no concurrent orogenic movements in their fabric.
Compared to the granitoids of typical calc-alkaline associations, the silicic rocks in
rapakivi granite complexes show less compositional variation and are characterized
by ubiquitous Fe-enriched mafic silicates and by high alkali feldspar content. This
section confines itself to the petrography of the silicic rocks of the rapakivi associa-
tion, first dealing with the classic Finnish rapakivi granites and thereafter with
rapakivi granites elsewhere, focusing on traits not well represented among the
Finnish granites.
4.1 Finnish rapakivi granites

The Finnish rapakivi granites comprise four large batholiths (Wiborg, Laitila,
Vehmaa, and Aland) and several smaller batholiths and stocks (Suomenniemi,
Ahvenisto, Onas, Bodom, Obbniis, Siipyy, Reposaari, Eurajoki, Kokem~iki, Fj/ils-
k/ir, K6karsfj/irden) transecting the 1.9 Ga Svecofennian orogenic crust of southern
Finland (Fig. 2). The latter consists mainly of 1.9 to 1.87 Ga synorogenic tholeiitic
and calc-alkaline supracrustal and plutonic rocks and 1.83 Ga late-orogenic S-type
granites (Nurmi and Haapala, 1986). The erosional level represents the upper parts
of the rapakivi granite intrusions. Rapakivi-age mafic and silicic, partly intermingled
volcanic rocks are known from the island of Suursaari (Hogland) at the southern
fringe of the Wiborg batholith and from roof pendants in the northeastern part of
the batholith (Vorma, 1975). According to Vorma, rapakivi-age volcanic and sub-
volcanic rocks probably formed most of the roof of the Wiborg batholith. In
addition, subvolcanic quartz-feldspar porphyry dykes are often associated with the
rapakivi granite plutons (T6rnroos, 1984; Bergman, 1986; Rgtm6, 1991), as are swarms
of tholeiitic diabase dykes (Laitakari, 1969; Ehlers and Ehlers, 1977; Riim6, 1991).
61o
Phanerozoic platform cover
Labrador
Grenville Province :::::
+ -::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
': ',. > + +X4+: \ L
Sea
580 .
Jotnian/post-Elsonian continental sedimentary i:i::::!i
7========================================:
~/ !i
rocks and basalts
': : : : : :-~>::-: UMIAKOVIK +-: :- "":>:.
Peralkaline granite (p) and volcanite (v) !:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:!:!:lu-P~) :!:!:!~
1302±22
Diabase dykes (Subjotnian/post-Elsonian) :::'::':NOTAKWANON:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:C : :': :':6':':':::::::::::::::::::::::':
:': :': :':':':':'~ (Sln-Nd)
::1411±48 {Sm-Nd) ::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Gabbro to anorthosite'
:::::.F?erglkal!r~ra~i~fi) ~']:1322+1 rtJ-Pbl ::
Ferrodiorite
Subjotnian/Elsonian :::::::::::::::LAKE .:::::
Monzonite
:::i:::i:i:i:i:i:i:i:'M~f'4Sf~'N
: :.; :.: :.:.:.:.:-: 1319±16 :.:
Rapakivi granite
Early Proterozoic (Svecofennian/Aphebian)
[ ~ Archean
:::::::::: 1463 U*Pb '::
REDWINE v~ v
1317±75 (Rb-Sr)~
, 1000 km,
~100 km~:i~ ~
2,; +',~~,~~~~~,~~~~S~~,~~,[ ~;~ ~~~v~~~~S~~~~ 61~
t
tj:i:i i i i i ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
i
s,~¥ ~, :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::
iiii!i!
{g-Pb~"........ : [::[::]]][[]:::[[[:[]:[: : :i:i:i&[ [ : [!]i]i[i:i:i[i.}~&r~e'~ykes':i:i: ::::::::::::::,:::: t :::[ : :::::::::::::::::::::

-" "-:'[':'[ : : [ : ] : , ,[.[.],],~.]•]'~*~':':'] ] [ 1635, 1645 166!
REPOSAARI _ ,., ~1:'::][::.[.:.1.:.:':-[':'[-1"['[':'[•:':'.~]1':'.:.: • (U-Pb) [']'1 [".'[':.
...... (U-Pb) e~..~qj:i;~.i:i:i:]]i:[:::]:::::[::]:]:i]i]i:i:i:~..~]::::::]i:i:i:!:i
&~;o~k~4~i~:~?:!iii?iii:!i~?:i:!:?:i: :
:1635-1640 (U-Pb)::[[:;;?.::::]::]]:::~
= = = (Sn-Be-Cu-Zn)
/~- ", • "'"'"""'"'"':'.'.'.:.
AiTILA :.:.[.[-:':'[ .":'1" '.'.• 1633-1645
.... ...~;.. (U-Pb}'~,:.[.:-
..... ~'.'.'.,
/ / ALAND" - -~x ~1b~1540--1570 (U'Pb) ..... :':':':':'''''' "'':':""" :~" [~.~
' lu-e~l'~66-'~76 ~ ~'" veh;~.'.6~o :::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~~" Lake Ladoga
_~-"~ ~ ,-~ . ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::,:::(s~:~n,:
~ t~ x \ ~,_,_,/,/" /
1630±10 ~,-~ ~ (Pb)

(U-Pb) Suursaari
1540-1577 "~ ~- KOKARSFJARDEN
(U.Pb) "'2¢ 1574_+14 (U-Pb) 24° Gulf of Finland
Fig. 2. a Showing the classic Subjotnian (1.54 to 1.65 Ga) rapakivi granite batholiths and
stocks, gabbroic and anorthositic bodies, and diabase dykes of southeastern Fennoscandia
(southern Finland and Russian Karelia). Isotopic ages (in Ma) of the occurrences (Vaasjoki,
1977; Vaasjoki et al., 1988, 1991, 1993; Idman, 1989; Suominen, 1991; Neymark et al., 1994)
and mineralization related to the rapakivi granite plutons are denoted. Modified from R~m6
(1991, fig. 1). b Map showing the Elsonian (1.29 to 1.46 Ga) rapakivi granite--gabbro-
anorthosite intrusions of central Labrador. Also shown are post-Elsonian diabase dykes and
high-level peralkaline granite suites that occur in conjunction with the Elsonian plutons.
Isotopic ages (in Ma) are from Meyers and Emslie (1977), Simmons and Simmons (1987), Hill
and Miller (1990, table 1 and references therein), Ryan et al. (1991), Emslie and Loveridge
(1992), and Birkett et al. (1992). Compiled after Emslie (1980, fig. 3), Halls and Fahrig (1987),
Hill and Miller (1990, fig. 1), and Emslie and Loveridge (1992, fig. 1). The inset illustrates the
location of southeastern Fennoscandia (a) and central Labrador (b) relative to the middle
Proterozoic supercontinent Laurentia-Baltica (Gower et al., 1991, fig. 1)
According to geophysical data, the rapakivi batholiths are subhorizontal sheet-like

bodies with a maximum thickness of about 10 km (Laur~n, 1970; Korja and Elo,
1990; Haapala and Riim6, 1992). Circular structures visible in topographic maps and
air photos (Bergman, 1986) may be related to cauldron subsidence.
The rock types in the Finnish rapakivi granite plutons range from subsolvus
hornblende granites to leucocratic topaz-bearing microcline-albite granites. Com-
pared to rapakivi granite suites in some other regions quartz-deficient rock types
(monzonite, syenite) are rare. Typically, the granites interpreted as representing the
early and main intrusive phases contain hornblende (hastingsite, hastingsitic horn-
blende), Fe-rich biotite, and fayalite and sometimes also ferroaugite, orthoferrosilite,
and pigeonite as the mafic silicates. A minor group of biotite granites occur as well.
Alkali feldspar is orthoclase microperthite in the most mafic granites and evolves
toward increasing ordering, higher exolution grade, and decreasing K-content as
the rocks become more siliceous (Vorma, 1971; Haapala, 1977). Alkali feldspar is
the most abundant mineral (usually about 50}/0) and occurs commonly as euhedral
to subhedral grains; only in some hornblende-bearing granites (e.g., tirilite, Tarkki
granite) plagioclase is abundant and is euhedral against alkali feldspar grains (Wahl,
1925; Vorma, 1971; Haapala, 1977). Plagioclase is usually oligoclase to andesine.
Typically, the mafic silicates occur in the interstices of early-crystallized alkali
feldspar, quartz, and plagioclase. Accessory minerals in the early and main intrusive
phases comprise fluorite, zircon, apatite, ilmenite, magnetite, anatase, and allanite
(monazite in biotite granites). Rapakivi texture is common in the larger plutons,
whereas in the smaller batholiths it is rare or absent.
Sharp intrusive contacts show that the youngest phases of the Finnish rapakivi
granites are felsic, porphyritic or equigranular microcline-albite granites that often
contain topaz and are associated with greisen-type Sn-Be-W-Zn-Pb mineralization
(Haapala, 1977, 1985, 1995; Eden, 1991). The main constituents in these granites are
quartz, microcline-perthite, albite, and dark mica (siderophyllite or fluorine-rich
siderophyllite). Characteristic accessory minerals are fluorite, monazite, bastnaesite,
itmenite, cassiterite, columbite, and thorite. Zircon, apatite, and magnetite are very
rare. Miarolitic cavities are common in these late-stage granites and they also show
evidence of marked subsolidus reactions.
Recently, a minor peralkaline hypersolvus intrusive phase was found in the
Suomenniemi complex in the northern part of the Wiborg rapakivi area (Fig. 2;
Riim6, 1991). It comprises alkali-feldspar syenite and alkali-feldspar quartz syenite
dykes that are somewhat younger (2°7pb/2°6pb age 1629 _+ 6 Ma) than the main
granites of the batholith (U-Pb ages 1641 _+ 1, 1641 _ 2, and 1639 -t- 6 Ma; Vaasjoki
et al., 1991). The dykes contain mesoperthite, albite, and aegirine-augite as the main,
and alkali amphibole, titanite, quartz, melanite garnet, zircon, and opaque minerals
as the minor constituents.
4.2 Rapakivi granite associations elsewhere

The characteristic petrographic features of the type Finnish rapakivi granites are to
a remarkable extent present in rapakivi granite associations around the world. Yet
there are features that are not present or well-represented among the Finnish
batholiths, such as the deeper-level monzonite-rapakivi granite associations of
Labrador that include substantial volumes of gabbroic and anorthositic rocks,
Precambrian rapakivi-related subvolcanic/volcanic caldera complexes of Missouri,
and subalkaline-peralkaline associations of Labrador, mid-continental U.S.A., and
Brazil.
4.2.1 Monzonite-rapakivi granite associations

It has long been known that the massif-type anorthosite complexes in northeastern
North America (Grenville Province and central Labrador) contain a distinct suite
of felsic igneous rocks spanning a relatively wide compositional range, the silicic
end of which includes biotite-hornblende and biotite granites akin to the classic
Finnish rapakivi granites (e.g., Emslie, 1978; Morse, 1982). The more mafic rocks of
this felsic suite typically are monzogranite, quartz monzonite, monzonite, and
sometimes syenite and quartz syenite. A characteristic feature of these rocks is the
preponderance of anhydrous mafic silicates, and, accordingly, they have been called
mangerites (orthopyroxene-bearing monzonite) and charnockites (orthopyroxene-
bearing granite).
Ernslie (1991) describes these AMCG (Anorthosite-Mangerite-Charnockite-
Rapakivi Granite) granitoids as a subset of the A-type granites but they span a wider
compositional range and contain early minerals indicative of a higher temperature
than that observed for A-type granites in general. In Fig. 2, the distribution of the
Elsonian (1.29 to 1.46 Ga) AMCG complexes in central Labrador is shown com-
pared to the corresponding Subjotnian (1.54 to 1.65 Ga) lithologic units of south-
eastern Fennoscandia. In Labrador, the major rock types are gabbros, anorthosites,
and other quartz-poor members of the AMCG granitoid suite whereas in southern
Finland the proportion of true granites is overwhelming. This basic difference may
simply be due to different general levels of erosion in Labrador and Finland
(cf. Ryan, 1991).
The AMCG suite of central Labrador is composed of several lithologically
distinct complexes. In the Harp Lake complex (Emslie, 1980), the gabbroic and
anorthositic rocks are clearly more abundant than the silicic rocks, whereas in the
Flowers River--Notakwanon River (Hill, 1982) and Makhavinekh (Ryan, 1991)
batholiths they occur in roughly equal amounts (Fig. 2). The Mistastin (Emslie et
al., 1980) and Umiakovik (Emslie and Loveridge, 1992) batholiths are predomi-
nantly granitic and show well-developed rapakivi texture. Typically, the deeper-level
mangeritic and charnockitic rocks are cut by the more silicic biotite-hornblende or
biotite granites. Compared to the Finnish biotite-hornblende and biotite granites,
the more mafic rock types contain less quartz and more mafic silicates (fayalite,
ferroaugite, ferropigeonite, ferrohypersthene, Fe-rich hornblende and biotite), and
their typical accessory minerals are zircon, apatite, Fe-Ti-oxides, allanite, and
fluorite. Equivalents of the Finnish late-stage topaz-bearing granites are rare. The
Harp Lake and other Elsonian plutons of central Labrador are cut by a swarm of
ENE-trending mafic dykes (Fig. 2b; Meyers and EmsIie, 1977; Halls and Fahrig,
1987) that, unlike the Subjotnian diabase dykes of southeastern Fennoscandia
(Fig. 2a), are not contemporaneous with the AMCG complexes (Ronald F. Emslie,
pers. commun., 1993).
Rapakivi granite-related monzonitic rocks have also been described in the
Wolf River batholith of Wisconsin where monzonites predate the main granites of
the intrusion (Anderson and Cullers, 1978), the Younger Granites of Rond6nia
(Brazil) where quartz monzonites and quartz monzodiorites intrude biotite granite
(Bettencourt and Dall'Agnol, 1987), and South Greenland where rapakivi-textured
orthopyroxene-amphibole and biotite-amphibole monzonites occur together with
norites (Harrison et al., 1990a). They are also known from the Laramie anorthosite
complex of Wyoming where orthopyroxene and hornblende monzonites are in-
truded by later biotite-hornblende granites (Fountain et al., 1981; Geist et al., 1989)
and from the Salmi batholith of Russian Karelia where monzonites and associated
quartz syenites occur along boundaries between rapakivi granites and gabbronor-
ires in the subsurface southeastern part of the batholith (Amelin et al., 1991;
Neymark et al., 1994).
4.2.2 Volcanic associations

Rapakivi granite-related volcanic suites have been reported from the Rond6nian
Tin Province in Brazil (Bettencourt and Dall'Agnol, 1987), from the Archean
rapakivi granite suite of Botswana-South Africa (Sibiya, 1988; Moore et al., 1992),
and from the U.S. mid-continent (Van Schmus et al., 1987). In southeastern Mis-
souri, 1.48 Ga old well-preserved ash-flow tufts are associated with caldera com-
plexes including subvolcanic plutons and later ring intrusives (Bickford and Mose,
1975; Kisvarsanyi, 1980). These are exposed over an area of 2500 km 2, of which
about half is a rhyolitic ignimbrite that reaches a thickness of more than one km.
The volcanic rocks include a bimodal association of basalt flows interlayered with
rhyolite, and they are pervasively altered by metasomatic processes related to
hydrothermal activity (Kisvarsanyi and Kisvarsanyi, 1991). Fine- to coarse-grained
biotite granite with drop quartz and scattered mantled ovoids is the most abundant
plutonic rock. More mafic biotite-amphibole granites are associated with the ring
intrusions, and muscovite-biotite granites were intruded during resurgent doming
of collapsed calderas. The ring intrusions are also associated with Fe-rich trachytes
and trachyandesites that are genetically related to magmatic and hydrothermal
Fe- and Cu-Fe-deposits (Kisvarsanyi and Kisvarsanyi, 1991).
4.2.3 Subalkaline-peralkaline associations

The Proterozoic rapakivi granite suites are typically composed of metaluminous to
marginally peraluminous subsolvus granitoids, i.e. biotite-hornblende and biotite
granites and their high-temperature charnockitic and mangeritic equivalents. Per-
alkaline granites and syenites (usually hypersolvus with mesoperthite and alkaline
mafic silicates as their main constituents) typical of the Phanerozoic A-type granite
suites (Collins et al., 1982) are rare (Anderson, 1983; Emslie, 1991). The classic
Finnish rapakivi granites have only recently been reported to contain a minor suite
of peralkaline rocks (Riim6, 1991). Further occurrences of rapakivi granite with
peralkaline felsic rocks can be divided into two categories: (1) complexes where
peralkaline rocks occur as minor late-stage differentiates of subalkaline syenitic
rocks (e.g., Barker et al., 1975; Kornfiilt, 1976; Bettencourt and Dall'Agnol, 1987)
and (2) those where subalkaline granites are associated with substantial amounts of
generally somewhat younger peralkaline granites and felsic volcanic rocks (Coller-
son, 1982; Hill and Miller, 1990; Birkett et al., 1992).
According to Barker et al. (1975, 1976), the 1.02 Ga Pikes Peak batholith of
Colorado consists of a potassic trend (biotite and biotite-hornblende granites) that
forms 905/ooof the batholith and a minor sodic trend (alkali gabbro to gabbroic
syenite and syenite, quartz syenite, fayalite granite, and riebeckite granite). The 1.32
Ga (Rb-Sr age) Ragunda complex in east-central Sweden (Kornfiilt, 1976) is excep-
tional among the Fennoscan~dian rapakiva granites inasmuch as it contains, besides
approximately equal amounts of mafic and silicic rocks, a substantial volume
of syenite. Minor peralkaline alkali amphibole (riebeckite-arfvedsonite) -bearing
syenite and granite are associated with the syenite. In Brazil, peralkaline granites
are associated with late intrusive phases of rapakivi granite batholiths (Bettencourt
and Dall'Agnol, 1987).
Subalkaline rapakivi granites associated with a major volume of peralkaline
granite have been reported from the Flowers River area in east-central Labrador
(Fig. 2). Collerson (1982) distinguished three coeval felsic plutonic suites: (1)
peralkaline hypersolvus aegirine-alkali amphibole granite and associated syenite
(Rb-Sr whole rock ages 1262 + 7 Ma and 1257 _+ 36 Ma, respectively), (2) subalka-
line hypersolvus fayalite-pyroxene granite (Rb-Sr whole rock age 1261 _+ 87 Ma),
and (3) subalkaline subsolvus hornblende-biotite granite that commonly shows
rapakivi texture (Rb-Sr whole rock age 1262 ± 28 Ma). Hill and Miller (1990) also
describe contemporaneous volcanic rocks (predominantly subalkaline rhyolites) on
top of the peralkaline granite. Brooks in Hill (1982) reports a U - P b zircon age of
1271 _+ 15 Ma for the peralkaline granite; the Flowers River peralkaline suite is thus
slightly younger than the Elsonian (1.29 to 1.46 Ga) AMCG suites of central
Labrador in general (Emslie, 1980; Hill and Miller, 1990).
Reviewing of the middle Proterozoic anorogenic rock associations of central
Labrador, Hill and Miller (1990) list, in addition to the Flowers River suite, a number
of high-level felsic igneous complexes, such as the 1240 Ma ( U - P b age; Birkett et al.,
1992) Strange Lake peralkaline granite hosting significant Z r - Y - N b - B e - R E E
mineralization (Fig. 2b), the 1317_ 75 Ma (Rb-Sr whole rock age) Red Wine
intrusive suite showing both quartz-undersaturated and -oversaturated rocks, the
Upper North River pluton with peraluminous quartz-rich phases, the fluorite-rich
Manvers biotite granite, and the composite (mafic-felsic) Arrowhead pluton includ-
ing metaluminous quartz syenite and alaskite. These complexes are, in any one area,
younger than the spatially associated AMCG suites, but the age difference is variable
(from 300 Ma in northern Grenville Province to less than 50 Ma in central and
northern parts of the Nain Plutonic Suite; see Hill and Miller, 1990, Table 1 and
Fig. 2, and Emslie and Loveridge, 1992). Evidently, more detailed isotopic age data
are needed to constrain the interrelations of the AMCG suites and the peralkaline
high-level suites. Young peralkaline intrusions may turn out to be more common
in the predominantly subalkaline rapakivi granite complexes as more detailed
petrographic data are obtained from them. An example of this are the peralkaline
alkali-feldspar syenite dykes of the Suomenniemi complex (Riim6, 1991).
5. Bimodal character of magmatism

It is not yet fully known how characteristic the bimodal silicic-mafic association of
rapakivi granites is on a global scale. When rapakivi granite complexes are mapped
in detail, they are often reported to contain contemporaneous mafic rocks. In
144 O. T. R/ira6 and 1[.Haapala
addition to Fennoscandia and Labrador, gabbroic and/or anorthositic rocks are

known to be associated with rapakivi and related granites at least in Wisconsin
(Anderson and Cullers, 1978), Wyoming (Geist et al., 1990), New Mexico (Hewitt,
1959), South Greenland (Harrison et al., 1990a), the Ukraine (Esipchuk, 1991), Urals
(Podkovyrov, 1991), Botswana and South Africa (Sibiya, 1988), China (Xie, 1992;
Yu et al., 1994), and presumably also in Brazil (Dall'Agnol et al., 1994) and Sudan
(Kiister and Harms, 1991). Concurrent mafic dykes are known, aside from Fenno-
scandia, in Colorado and Missouri (Barker et al., 1975; Anderson, 1983; Lowell and
Hagni, 1989) and Botswana and South Africa (Sibiya, 1988).
5.1 Evidence for contemporaneity: petrography and isotopic ages
In many instances, mafic rocks occurring in close spatial association with rapakivi
granites show textural and structural features that unequivocally demonstrate them
to be coeval with the silicic rocks. Further confirmation is provided by isotopic age
determinations.
Gabbroic and anorthositic rocks associated with rapakivi granite complexes are
usually intruded by the silicic rocks. Evidence for these rocks being (roughly) coeval
with the rapakivi granites thus relies mainly on isotopic studies. In Finland where
the interrelations of rapakivi-related mafic and silicic magmas have been studied
lately in considerable detail (e.g., Riim6, 1991; Eklund, 1993; Salonsaari and
Haapala, 1994), field relations suggest that there are mafic dykes both older and
younger than the associated silicic dykes. Occasionally, composite silicic-mafic
dykes occur verifying that both end members were, at least partly, liquid at the same
time at the same place (e.g., Rgtm6, 1989, 1991). In Fig. 3, schematic diagrams
showing the structure of two composite dykes associated with the Suomenniemi
batholith (Fig. 2a) are presented. R~m6 concluded that the sequence of intrusion of
the mafic and silicic components were different in these dykes but that, in both cases,
the two components had coexisted as magmas (see caption of Fig. 3 for details).
It is generally believed to be difficult for two compositionally contrasted magmas
to mix completely and form homogeneous intermediate rocks (see Frost and
Mahood, 1987; Wiebe, 1991). When interaction of mafic and silicic magmas has
occurred the two components are often intermingled to form a hybrid rock in which
the two components are still easily discernible (Fig. 3; see also Wiebe, 1988). If
circumstances were favorable, however, they may have produced an intermediate
hybrid rock for which its mixed origin can only be established by detailed petro-
graphic studies (e.g., Salonsaari and Haapala, 1994).
In general, typical textural features of bimodal (silicic-mafic) mingled and/or
mixed complexes are mafic inclusions with lobed, and occasionally chilled, margins
within a felsic host (e.g., Wiebe, 1980; Harrison et al., 1990b; Ri~m6, 1991; Salonsaari
and Haapala, 1994), net-veined complexes (Wiebe, 1988), alkali feldspar and quartz
xenocrysts within a mafic host (Riim6, 1991; Lindber9 and Eklund, 1992; Salonsaari
and Haapala, 1994), mafic microgranular enclaves (Salonsaari, 1993), quartz pheno-
crysts mantled by amphibole (Eklund et al., 1989; Ri~m6, 1989; Salonsaari and
Haapala, 1994), alkali feldspar phenocrysts with various disequilibrium textures
(Stimac and Wark, 1992), and calcic plagioclase megacrysts within silicic ground-
mass (Haapala, 1989; Lindberg and Eklund, 1992).
~Oi=base ~O~a~-fo,dsparporphy~~Ming,~drock
. . . . . ._. _ o,=odeouot roekgra=to
~ ~ ~ ~ ] feldspar and quartz xenocrysts ]
~ ~ [zones of mingled rock (C) in

~ rw
which diabase with alkali feld ~
~ ~ ~ spstarandquartzxenocrystsand
Fcentral part (A) consist-1 ~quSkeletalplagioclase phenoerysts
ing of xenocryst-free forms globules surrounded by
ldiabase with scattered artz-feidsparporphyry matrix
5 meters
~ Biotiterapakivigra
Biotite-hornblende
mingled rock show- l" ::, ;~q rapakivi granite
Fig. 3. Sketch maps showing the structure of two composite diabase--quartz-feldspar

porphyry dykes related to the Suomenniemi rapakivi granite batholith, southeastern Fin-
land. Ram6 (1989) concluded that the sequence of intrusion of the silicic and mafic magmas
in the two dykes was different. In dyke (a), silicic magma intruded before marie magma, but
the marie magma was emplaced before the silicic magma in the fracture was completely
solidified. The hotter marie magma engulfed alkali feldspar and quartz phenocrysts from the
crystallizing silicic magma and formed the zones of mingled rock (C). In dyke (b), mafic
magma intruded first and was chilled against the surrounding rapakivi granites. The quartz-
feldspar porphyry was emplaced when the central part of the diabase was still partially liquid,
resulting in chilling of the residual mafic magma against the cooler silicic magma. Finally,
the silicic magma intruded the inner chilled zones of the diabase margins, mingling to some
extent with the still molten central parts of the margins
Isotopic ages confirming a close temporal association of marie rocks with

rapakivi granites have been reported from the rapakivi suites of Fennoscandia
(Welin and Lundqvist, 1984; Vaasjoki, 1977; Vaasjoki et al., 1991; Suominen, 1991;
146 O. T. Rfim6 and I. Haapala: One hundred years of Rapakivi Granite
Neymark et al., 1994), Grenville Province (McLelland and Chiarenzelli, 1990), South
Greenland (Gulson and Krogh, 1975), and China (Riim6 et al., 1993; Yu et al., 1994).
Even though the gabbroic and anorthositic rocks are intruded by the granitic rocks,
their isotopic ages are usually indistinguishable within the experimental error. New
U - P b data on the 1.64 Ga Ahvenisto complex of southeastern Finland, however,
point to a measurable (ca. 5 Ma) age difference between gabbroic rocks and quartz-
feldspar porphyry dykes of the complex (Vaasjoki et al., 1993). Similarly, Neymark
et al. (1994) report an age difference of about 20 Ma for the gabbroic rocks and
granites of the Satmi batholith in Russian Karelia. Vaasjoki et al. (1991) carried out
a detailed U - P b chronological study of the diabase dykes associated with the
rapakivi granites of southeastern Finland and found three episodes of diabase dyke
emplacement, i.e. at 1665, 1645, and 1635 Ma, partly overlapping the range of 1650
to 1625 Ma within which most of the rapakivi granites of the area fall.
5.2 Intermediate rock types

Beside silicic and mafic rocks, rapakivi granite-anorthosite complexes often contain
small amounts of characteristic intermediate rock types. Apart from the syenitic
rocks discussed in the section on petrography, these comprise rocks with low quartz
content and preponderance of plagioclase over alkali feldspar: ferrodiorites, mon-
zodiorites, and jotunites. Usually these rocks are, as judged from field relations,
temporally intermediate between gabbroic and anorthositic rocks and granites. In
the Harp Lake complex of Labrador (Emslie, 1980), ferrodiorites occur as small
intrusions and dykes along the contacts between granitoids and anorthosite. In the
Ahvenisto complex of southeastern Finland, comparable monzodioritic and quartz
monzodioritic rocks form net-veined systems with rapakivi granite (Vaasjoki et al.,
1993).
6. Geochemistry
In comparison with calc-alkaline granitoid suites, a prominent feature of rapakivi
granite batholiths is their limited mineralogical and compositional variation. For
instance, up to 80~o of the Finnish part of the Wiborg batholith (Vorma, 1976) and
about 70~ of the Wolf River batholith (Anderson and Cullers, 1978) consists of a
largely undifferentiated sequence of rapakivi granite (wiborgite) and related biotite-
hornblende granites. Equally typical of these complexes are, however, volumet-
rically minor occurrences of mafic fayalite (+_pyroxene)-bearing hornblende
granites (e.g., tirilite), various porphyritic or even-grained biotite granites, and
leucocratic, extremely fractionated topaz-bearing microcline-albite granites (Haa-
pala, 1977, 1985; Bettencourt and Dall'Aonol, 1987; Horbe et al., 1991; Riim6, 1991).
A larger compositional range is shown by the AMCG granitoids with their deeper-
level mangeritic members (McLelland and Whitney, 1990; Emslie, 1991).
Excluding the quartz-poor granitoids of the AMCG suites, granites in rapakivi
granite complexes show higher Si, K, F, Rb, Ga, Zr, Hf, Th, U, Zn, and REE (except
Eu), and lower Ca, Mg, A1, P, and Sr abundances than granitic rocks in general
(Vorma, 1976; Haapala, 1977; Anderson, 1983; Emslie, 1991; Riim6, 1991). Features
typical of the entire suite are high Fe/Mg, K/Na, total alkalies, and Zr, as well as
low A1 (Emslie, 1991). The rapakivi granites show the typical compositional features
.~ .~ O
~,+
N
§ " • • . ~ o ~ _ ,-~~ ~ ~ ~,~ , .~.~,~
O
~Z
~. Jr
~d~d~c~d~,~dc~dd~ c~c~c~ d - ~ c ~ . ~ ,~ --~'~~'~.~.~ ~n~ . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . ~ " "
, ~ ~ . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . ~ • .
d c ~ , - ~ , . - : ~ c ; d ~ , . . ~ c ~ c ~ c ~ c ~ ~ c ~ c ~ c ~ c ~ d ~ , - 4 - ~ ~ ' . ~ , ~ - o ~ : o . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . ,.6 ' "
• ~
~ O
~ c ~ c ~ . ~ c ~ o ~ i ~ , ~ c ; " " " c~ " " d ~ c ~ d c ~ '-~ ~ " ~ . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c ~ d ~ " " d . . ~ , - H . . . . o~ " ' c~,~c~ ' ' o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

•. ~
..r~
~
0 ~2s
,~c~ " ~ c ~ c ; . ~ . . . . ~ " " c~.-~cSc~e~ "-~ c~o~.~- . . . . . . . . . c~ " ' ~ ' " ~ , i , ~ ~ " ~ . - ~ NO'~
N ~.,l
I=° ~
oid~cS-;dcS--;c,i~oocS~5 c~c~ c;¢5oo.,~Hc~ c ~ ~ - ~ ',n . . . . . . o~ "c,id-; "~ . . . . ~.~-~ ~+~
"'~0~
~.~ ~
dc~,~o,-,ic~o,--~c,i~c~ddd c~'c~c~ c~-~doc,i "oi ~ o ~ . . . . . -~ ~- ~ : ~ 'c~ ' ~c~ " d ~ - ~ e i ~ ' - ~ . - - ~ ~z~
2
~e
o~
. ~ o E ~ o ~ c ~ - ~ . ~''~ ~''~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~ e = . ~ - ~ , ~ e ~ e ~ e~o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
•~ ,.~
AoAoo~_oooAo~Eo
~, ~..~--- ~
~.~ .~ e
~,~ ~ ,~
~ o ~.~
~ d o c ~ S c ~ c ; c S d - ~ o c ; d c ~ . . . . odcS~',-,~-~c; o~0o ' ~ c ~ o ' ~ - c ~ ~ '~ ,~ . . . . . . . . . . ~ -;
~ r. =
E
i •~ ~ <
M d ~ d M d N d ~ d d d d '
~ d ~ d d N ~ d 6 6 d
I
., =~o
~6~66~dd6d
~q
•~'~ ~'~ O
c~ ~ < o o~ o~ o 0~ o . ~ o+ 6
o~.~
of the Phanerozoic A-type granites and within plate granites (Nurmi and Haapala,
1986; Bettencourt and Dall'Agnol, 1987; Anderson and Bender, 1989; Amelin et al.,
1991; Emslie, 1991; Riim6 and Haapala, 1990). On a global scale, geochemical data
on these rocks are still rather sparse and scattered. Therefore, in the following
emphasis is placed on the classic Finnish rapakivi granites.
6.1 Geochemical study of the Finnish rapakivi granites

It was shown already by Sederholm (1891) that the Finnish rapakivi granites are
relatively enriched in Si, K, and F, and depleted in Mg, and that they have high
Fe/Mg and K/Na. The first trace element analyses of the rapakivi granites were
obtained by Sahama (1945). He showed that rapakivi granites are enriched in Zr,
LREE relative to HREE, Ba, Rb, Ga, Pb, and Th and impoverished in Sr (Table 2).
Subsequent geochemical studies (e.g., Vorma, 1976; Haapala, 1977; Rgtm6, 1991)
have shown that the Finnish rapakivi granites exhibit, from the earliest to the
latest intrusive phases (fayalite-biotite-hornblende granite--+ biotite-hornblende
granite --+ biotite granite --+ topaz-bearing granite) increase in Si, F, Ga, Rb, Sn, Nb,
and decrease in Ti, A1, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ca, Ba, Sr, Sc, and Zr. The youngest, usually
topaz-bearing granites are strongly anomalous with lowered K/Na, high F, Ga, Rb,
and Sn abundances and very low Ba and Sr contents. They also show flat REE-
patterns with very large negative Eu anomalies, in contrast to the LREE-enriched
pattern and the moderately negative Eu anomaly of the main rapakivi granite types.
6.2 Main geochemical features of the rapakivi granites

In order to present the salient points of the chemical composition of the type Finnish
rapakivi granites, we collected 194 analyses that cover 187 granites and silicic dyke
rocks (quartz-feldspar porphyries) and seven alkali-feldspar syenites, and compared
them to a set of 22 rapakivi-related peralkaline granites from Labrador, Colorado,
Sweden, and Brazil. The average compositions of the three rock groups are listed
in Table 2 and the complete data set is available from us.
6.2.1 Average compositions

The chemical characteristics of the Finnish rapakivi granites will be dealt with both
in terms of the entire data array and with reference to average compositions (Table
2). The latter include area-weighted mean compositions, based on areal percentage
and mean composition of different granite types, of the Wiborg (Finnish part) and
Laitila batholiths (cf. R~m6 and Haapala, 1990), as well as a hypothetical initial
magma composition of the Suomenniemi batholith (Rfim6, 1991; see also section
9). As the larger batholiths (Laitila and Wiborg) consist of a relatively undifferenti-
ated sequence of granitoid rocks and as they probably are relatively thin sheet-like
bodies, the area-weighted mean compositions may roughly approach the composi-
tion of their initial magmas.
Table 2 shows that the area-weighted mean compositions of the Wiborg and
Laitila batholiths are similar to each other (with Laitila having slightly lower Ca
and Na contents) and are somewhat less silicic (Wiborg 70.4~o SiO2, D.I. 84.1, Laitila
70.7~o SiO 2, D.I. 84.9) than the overall average (71.6 +_ 3.4% SiO2, D.I. 86.7). Vorma
(1976) presents an average composition for the Laitila batholith that is more silicic
(72.6 + 2.6~o SiO 2, D.I. 88.3) than the area-weighted mean. The former is biased by
the relatively large number of analyses on felsic late-stage granites that are volumet-
rically minor. Much of the Suomenniemi batholith, on the other hand, consists of
a relatively felsic biotite granite and its hypothetical initial magma composition is
also clearly more silicic (72.3~o SiO 2, D.I. 89.9) than the area-weighted means of the
Laitila and Wiborg batholiths. On the average, the peralkaline granites (72.8 _+ 3.1~o
SiO~, D.I. 90.1) differ from the subalkaline granites in being more leucocratic and
having higher Fe~O~ and N a and lower Mg, Ca, and P contents, whereas the
56 6O 64 68 72 76 80
1.3 I I I I I
c Wolf River
NCNK Laitila batholith o ,, bathofth
1.2 c
o.
Wiborg batholith ~o ~ o
z z c
1.1 O_o~oo~ ~ o o
PERALUMINOUS
1.0
METALUMINOUS
2 C 0 ••~ • •
0.9
2
A
0,8 c
Suomenniemibatholith o*
0.7
13
A K20+Na20
12 &
Suomennierni
batholith
11
Wiborg batholith
10
7 z / Wolf River o
....................... o
6
1.00
FeO* Lait#abatholith ~ g o o°~oo % o
FeO*+MgO • o . ,,o o"*% o % o o
o o oo \
o oo o o
0.95
• "" ,o ° o~ °o %
~ °°~o c ~ , 3 ~ . ~\ o o o
0.90
o o ii
Ao e c° e i/ e
0.85
o River
0,80 AIkah-fe/dsparsyenites(n=7) , o
/ o
t batholith
l • Peralkalinegranites(n=22) i Wiborg batholith
Wiborgbatholith
Suomenniemi
batho/ithSUthmfi~iemi CC
0,75 -
56 60 64 68 72 76 80
SiO2
Fig. 4. Analyses of the Finnish rapakivi granites and related silicic dyke rocks, alkali-feldspar
syenites, and various peralkaline granites plotted in a A/CNK vs. SiO2, b K20 + Na2 O vs.
SiO2, and e FeO*/(FeO* + MgO) vs. SiO2 variation diagrams. Also shown are the area-
weighted mean compositions of the Wiborg and Laitila batholiths (Table 2), initial magma
composition of the Suomenniemi and Wolf River batholiths (Table 2), as well as average
analyses (crosses) of the four main rock types in the Suomenniemi batholith (numbers refer
to the columns in Table 2). A/CNK denotes molecular A1203/(CaO + K20 + Na20) and
Fee* total iron as Fee. Line separating the alkaline and subalkaline fields in (b) is from
Irvine and Baragar (1971)
alkali-feldspar syenites (61.6 __ 2.1~ SiO2, D.I. 86.8) have higher F%O 3, Mg, Ca,
Na, and P and lower Si and FeO abundances than the subalkaline granites.
6.2.2 Al-saturation
The Finnish rapakivi granites and silicic dyke rocks straddle the peraluminosity-
metaluminosity boundary (Fig. 4a) and have an average A/CNK (molecular A1203/
[CaO + Na20 + K20]) of 0.99. The area-weighted mean of the Laitila batholith
is slightly oversaturated (A/CNK 1.05) and that of the Wiborg batholith and the
initial magma of the Suomenniemi batholith somewhat undersaturated (A/CNK
0.95 and 0.96, respectively). Rapakivi granites elsewhere also usually plot close to
the peraluminosity-metaluminosity boundary. A few rapakivi-related suites are
more strongly peraluminous with A/CNK around 1.1. This is the case with some of
the Proterozoic anorogenic granites of southwestern U.S.A. (Anderson and Bender,
1989), the rapakivi-textured monzonites of South Greenland (Harrisonet al., 1990a),
and some of the plutons in Mt. Isa Inlier in northwestern Queensland, Australia
(Wyborn et al., 1988). The alkali-feldspar syenites of the Suomenniemi complex are
clearly subaluminous (average A/CNK 0.82) as are the peralkaline granites (average
A/CNK 0.87).
6.2.3 Alkalinity
The Finnish rapakivi granites and related dyke rocks show high contents of alkalies
(Na20 + K20 ranges from 6.4 to 9.9 and averages 8.4) yet none of them is peralka-
Iine. Typical are also high K/Na; these range from 0.86 to 3.8 and average 2.0. In
the alkalies vs. silica diagram (Fig. 4b) they plot almost exclusively in the subalkaline
field, while their agpaitic index (molecular (Na20 + K20)/A1203) varies from 0.58
to 0.97 and averages 0.82. Alkali-enriched yet not peralkaline nature is typical of
many of the rapakivi-related granite associations (e.g., Anderson, 1983, fig. 7). On
the average, the peralkaline granites are slightly more alkalic (Na20 + K20 ranges
from 6.9 to 10.2 and averages 9.2) but only a few of them fall in the alkaline field in
Fig. 4b; the agpaitic index ranges from 0.86 to 1.32 and averages 1.08. By contrast,
the Finnish alkali-feldspar syenites plot distinctly in the alkaline field in Fig. 4b and
show an overall peralkaline character with agpaitic index varying from 0.79 to 1.13
and averaging 0.99.
6.2.4 Fe-enrichment
Fe-enriched nature (i.e., high Fe/Mg) is typical of the Finnish rapakivi granites
and alkali-feldspar syenites (Fig. 4c). For the former, Fe/(Fe + Mg) vary from 0.79
to 1.00 (average 0.92) and for the latter from 0.88 to 0.93 (average 0.91). The
peralkaline granites are even more Fe-enriched: their Fe/(Fe + Mg) vary from 0.90
to 1.00 and average 0.97. The area-weighted means and the Suomenniemi initial
magma composition all have Fe/(Fe + Mg) greater than 0.9 (Table 2, Fig. 4c). Such
high figures have commonly been reported for rapakivi granites worldwide (see
Anderson, 1983; Bettencourt and Dall'Agnol, 1987). The more strongly peralumi-
nous granites of South Greenland (Brown et al., 1992), southwestern U.S.A.
(Anderson and Bender, 1989), and northwestern Queensland (Wyborn et al., 1988)
have lower Fe/(Fe + Mg), generally on the order of 0.75 to 0.85.
6.2.5 Trace elements

The Finnish rapakivi granites are enriched in many of the large ion lithophile
elements (LILE) relative to various granite averages (e.g., Turekian and Wedepohl,
1961). For instance, they show high abundances o f F (0.04 to 1.53%, average 0.35%),
Rb (120 to 1090 ppm, average 355 ppm), U (1.3 to 24 ppm, average 6.8 ppm), Th
(5.8 to 143 ppm, average 41 ppm), Pb (23 to 133 ppm, average 48 ppm), and LREE
(total LREE, La through Sm, averages 464 ppm). Very characteristic are also high
abundances of Zn (16 to 470 ppm, average 100 ppm), Ga (11 to 120 ppm, average
29 ppm), Nb (21 to 100 ppm, average 46 ppm), Y (12 to 164 ppm, average 95 ppm),
Zr (24 to 1184 ppm, average 384 ppm), Hf (0.5 to 37 ppm, average 13 ppm), Li (22
to 480 ppm, average 82 ppm), and Sn (2 to 140 ppm, average 28 ppm) as well as low
contents of Sr (10 to 223 ppm, average 85 ppm). Typical are also high Ga/A1
(10000*Ga/A1 varies from 1.76 to 15.1 and averages 4.2) as well as high ranges of
Rb/Sr (0.65 to 86, average 9.8) and Rb/Ba (0.06 to 97, average 2.1); the highest values
are found in the topaz-bearing granites.
The Finnish rapakivi granites are enriched in LREE relative to HREE
([La/Yb]N averages 9.24) and have negative Eu anomalies (average Eu/Eu* = 0.26).
In Fig. 5, chondrite-normalized REE patterns are shown for a set of 33 analyses
(as 4- lo- about the average pattern that has a total REE abundance of 519 ppm),
and for the area-weighted mean of the Laitila batholith ([La/Yb]N = 8.62,
Eu/Eu* = 0.35) and the initial magma of the Suomenniemi batholith ([La/Yb]N =
11.8, Eu/Eu* = 0.29). The overall mean composition and the Laitila and Suo-
menniemi patterns show roughly similar levels of REE abundances and negative
Eu anomalies but the initial magma of the Suomenniemi batholith is more enriched
in LREE.
1000
IlnitialmagmaoftheSuomenniemi ]
!~!~-'t~'~2,~, b!ahto/Ohti: (La/Yb)N=11.8,Eu/Eu*=0.29~
~ / ~T o ~ p a z - b ~ granit . . . . . . ge.' ]
Fig. 5. Chondrite-normalized
100
rare earth element composi-
tion of the Finnish rapakivi
o
granites and related silicic
0 dyke rocks (as _ 1~ about
/AmreanWeighptedt'
X ~ ° -"() ~ !~;t+,..... ,....... / .......
the average of 33 analyses)
rr
batholith: I ~ )~r. 'l syeniteaverage; compared to that of average
10 (La/Yb)N=8.62 , i ",-'4tI \ (La/Yb)N=8.45,^ alkali-feldspar syenite and
Eu/EE*=0.35 X ~'1~ IEa/Ee+=0.46(n=zjj
I \ \ average topaz-bearing rapa-
Rapakivigranitesendsilicicdyke] kivi granite, area-weighted
V rocks averageof33analyses: I
(La/Yb)N=9.24,Eu/Eu*=0.26 J mean of the Laitila bath-
olith, and the initial magma
I [ I I I I I [ I I i I of the Suomenniemi bath-
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy No Er Tm Yb Lu olith (Table 2)
The late-stage topaz-bearing granites differ from the average rapakivi granite
composition in having higher F (0.39 to 1.53~o, average 0.80~o), Y (59 to 162 ppm,
average 117 ppm), U (7 to 24 ppm, average 12 ppm), Pb (32 to 133 ppm, average 84
ppm), Li (25 to 480 ppm, average 153 ppm), and Ga (20 to 120 ppm, average 48
ppm) abundances and lower contents of Zr (24 to 327 ppm, average 127 ppm), Sr
(< 10 to 100 ppm, average 28 ppm), Ba (10 to 540 ppm, average 183 ppm), and total
REE (average 224 ppm). Characteristic are also very high Rb/Sr, Rb/Ba, and
10000*Ga/A1 (averages 32.7, 10.1, and 6.4, respectively). The topaz-bearing granites
are also less enriched in LREE (average 166 ppm) and show flat REE patterns
(average [La/Yb]N = 1.41) with very pronounced negative Eu anomalies (average
Eu/Eu* = 0.07).
Compared to the silicic rocks, the alkali-feldspar syenites are markedly impov-
erished in F (0.02 to 0.13~o, average 0.06~o) and show higher abundances of Sc (9.5
to 23 ppm, average 15 ppm) and Hf(16 to 30 ppm, average 22 ppm). Also the Rb/Sr,
Rb/Ba, and 10000*Ga/A1 are clearly lower in the alkali-feldspar syenites, averaging
2.6, 0.24, and 2.66, respectively. The peralkaline granites differ from the subalkaline
granites in having distinctly lower Sr (1 to 110 ppm, average 34 ppm), Ba (6 to 671
ppm, average 127 ppm), U (1 to 3 ppm, average 2.3 ppm), Th (6 to 24 ppm, average
15 ppm), and Pb (7 to 31 ppm, average 19 ppm) abundances. On the other hand,
they are strongly enriched in Zn (40 to 660 ppm, average 263 ppm), Zr (100 to 6010
ppm, average 1840 ppm), Be (20 to 75 ppm, average 34 ppm), and REE (La + Yb
averages 429 ppm, whereas for the subalkaline granites their sum is 111 ppm). As
regards fractionation of REE, they are less enriched in LREE than the subalkaline
granites ([La/Yb]N averages 5.04). Compared to the alkali-feldspar syenites, they
have higher F (averages 0.27 vs. 0.06~), Y (226 vs. 99 ppm), and Zr (1840 vs. 582
ppm) abundances and lower contents of Sr (34 vs. 121 ppm) and Ba (127 vs.
1239 ppm).
Many of the trace element characteristics of the Finnish rapakivi granites are
shared by subalkaline rapakivi granite associations elsewhere. Especially typical are
high F and Zr and low Sr abundances, high total REE contents and the LREE-
enriched chondrite-normalized patterns with negative Eu anomalies (see Anderson,
1983; Amelin et al., 1991; EmsIie, 1991; Horbe et al., 1991; Riim6 et al., 1992).
6.2.6 Tectonomagmatic affinities

The Finnish rapakivi granites and alkali-feldspar syenites are plotted in the agpaitic
index vs. Ga/A1 (Fig. 6a) and (K20 + Na20)/CaO vs. Zr + Nb + Ce + Y (Fig. 6b)
discrimination diagrams of Whalen et al. (1987). In Fig. 6a the samples plot exclu-
sively into the A-type field, while in Fig. 6b some of the most fractionated topaz-
bearing granites fall into the field of fractionated felsic granites (FG) due to their
low Zr and LREE abundances. In Fig. 6a, the peralkaline granites and alkali-
feldspar syenites identify themselves as A-type granites. A-type geochemical charac-
ter seems to be a most typical feature of the rapakivi granites worldwide (e.g.,
Anderson, 1983; Bettencourt and Dall'Agnol, 1987; Sibiya, 1988; Emslie, 1991; Brown
et al., 1992; Riim6 et al., 1992). In Figs. 6c and d, the data are plotted in the Nb vs.
Y and Rb vs. Y + Nb diagrams of Pearce et aI. (1984), in which most of them fall
in the field of within plate granites. This is observed also for rapakivi suites elsewhere
(e.g., Anderson and Bender, 1989; Amelin et al., 1991; Ryan, 1991).
1.4 50
A4ype Agpaitic Index (K20+Na~)/CaO
granite
1.2
FG
AI • PERALKALINE
1.0 SUBALKALINE batho#th 10
a
0.8 "M-,I-, 8 o~f\,, o o oO o OGT
and S-type l° ° "
0.6 gramtes I ' 'on/t/2olmagma
0.4 • ! 1
30 100 Zr+Nb+Ce+Y (ppm) lOOO 300o
10000*Ga/AI lO
400 2000
.,... , . " "
1000
WPG ,.'" syn-COLG WPG
-n
lOO ~T
:L~:' u~@l • "0
¢3. • ~ ~c~.( Suomenniemi/
' ~ batholith
100
z
lO
VAG o ~
d 10
i I I Illll I I i I I II 7
10 100 1000 20 100 1000
g (ppm) Y+Nb (ppm)
Fig. 6. Analyses of the Finnish rapakivi granites and related silicic dyke rocks (open circles),
alkali-feldspar syenites (triangles), and various peralkaline granites (closed circles) plotted
in a agpaitic index (molecular (K20 + NazO)/AlzO3) vs. 10000*Ga/A1 and b (except
peralkaline granites) (K20 + Na/O)/CaO vs. Zr + Nb + Ce + Y diagrams of Whalen et al.
(1987), and c Nb vs. Y and d Rb vs. Y + Nb tectonomagmatic discrimination diagrams of
Pearce et al. (1984). FG denotes fractionated felsic granites, OGT unfractionated M-, I-,
and S-type granites, ORG ocean ridge granites, VAG volcanic and granites, syn-COLG
syncollision granites, and WPG within plate granites. Composition of the initial magma of
the Suomenniemi batholith is also shown
7. Conditions of crystallization
The mode of occurrence and general textural characteristics indicate that the
rapakivi granites are usually epizonal intrusives, but many of the rapakivi complexes
also contain subvolcanic and volcanic phases. The scarcity of source rock restites
is indicative of high magma temperature. The normative composition of undifferen-
tiated rapakivi granites with a high orthoclase component is compatible with
generation of the magmas in a HzO-deficient environment at pressures of 7 to 10
kb, corresponding to a depth of 25 to 36 km (Anderson and Cullers, 1978; Ri#n6,
1991). This interpretation is based on old and partly preliminary experimental data
(see Luth, 1969), but recent more detailed studies of crystallization of granitic melts
with variable activities of H 2 0 (Johannes and Holtz, 1990) confirm the earlier data.
The bulk chemical composition of the most strongly fractionated intrusive phases
register conditions at the epizonal to volcanic levels of emplacement. The earliest
154 O. T. Rfim6 and I. Haapala
mineral phases are intratelluric megacrysts (possibly accompanied by minor restitic
material), whereas the groundmass of porphyritic granites and quartz-feldspar
porphyry dykes represents rapid in situ crystallization at the level of emplacement.
The rarity of pegmatites and miarolitic cavities and the occurrence of biotite and
amphibole as anhedral grains filling the interstices between quartz and feldspar
crystals indicate that the early and main intrusive phases crystallized from H20-
undersaturated magmas. Only in the latest intrusive phases is there good petro-
graphic evidence (miarolitic cavities, pegmatite pockets and veins, hydrothermal
alteration and mineralization, various subsolidus reactions) for a separate fluid
phase.
Various experimentally calibrated methods have been developed to determine,
utilizing coexisting mineral assemblages, the intensive parameters of crystallization
(T, P, fn2o, and fo2) of granitic magmas. The main difficulty in applying these
methods for rapakivi granites is that the rapakivi granites usually consist of dis-
equilibrium mineral assemblages (minerals crystallized in different generations,
amphibole and biotite commonly later than feldspars and early quartz, etc.). More-
over, the minerals have probably been partially reequilibrated during the slow
cooling under plutonic conditions, and subsolidus reactions may have markedly
changed the mineral compositions. Thus, methods based on the composition of
coexisting minerals must be applied with great care. In favorable circumstances,
however, they can be used to place constraints on the crystallization conditions of
the rapakivi granites.
Because of subsolidus reequilibration, the two-feldspar geothermometer (Stor-
mer, 1975; Fuhrman and Lindsley, 1988) can be used to obtain only minimum
temperatures of crystallization. Applying the diagrams of Stormer (1975), Haapala
(1977) estimated a temperature of 750°C at 2 kb for the fayalite-biotite-hornblende
granite of the Eurajoki stock, southwestern Finland. For the wiborgites of the
Wiborg batholith, two-feldspar temperatures ranging from 750°C (core of the
ovoids) to 650 to 580°C (margin of the ovoids) have been reported (Lintala et al.,
1991; Rundquist et al., 1991). The association quartz-fayalite(-magnetite) in some
rapakivi granites of Finland suggests low oxygen fugacity during crystallization.
Wones (1980) published two-feldspar temperatures of 775 to 550°C for the biotite
rapakivi granite of the Lucerne pluton, Maine, obtaining 'the best estimation of the
feldspar mantling effect' at about 675°C at 1 kb. Correspondingly, Ayuso (1984)
listed a large temperature range (800 to 450°C) for the granites of the Bottle Lake
complex, Maine, and, from the intersection of biotite stability curves and granite
minimum melting curve, estimated the emplacement conditions as 780 to 720°C, 1.8
to 1 kb, and fo2 between the N i - N i O and hematite-magnetite buffer curves.
Anderson and Cullers (1978) and Anderson (1980) used whole rock chemical
compositions and various mineral assemblages (combinations of pyroxenes, fayalite,
hornblende, biotite, magnetite, ilmenite, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, and quartz) to
estimate the intensive parameters of crystallization of monzonites (mangerites) and
granites of the Wolf River batholith, Wisconsin. Anderson (1980) concluded that
the monzonites equilibrated at confining pressures of 5.6 to 8.7 kb (21 to 32 km, i.e.,
at the same depth where the granite magmas were formed by crustal fusion), at
temperatures of 900 to 1000°C and fo~ slightly below the quartz-fayalite magnetite
buffer. Combining various geothermometers and oxygen barometers, Anderson
(1980, 1983) showed that the granites of the Wolf River batholith finally crystallized
at pressures of 0.5 to 1.0 kb (less than 3.8 km), temperatures of 640 to 790°C and fo2
subparallel to and slightly below the quartz-fayalite-magnetite buffer curve.
8. Origin of the mantled ovoids

The rapakivi texture of wiborgite, i.e., the mantling of rounded (ovoidal) alkali
feldspar megacrysts by plagioclase (Fig. 7), has long attracted petrologists and large
number of theories have been presented for its origin. It should be emphasized that
any acceptable model has to explain not only the presence of the mantled ovoids,
but also several other petrographic characteristics of the rapakivi granites. These
are briefly reviewed below.
In the Finnish type areas, represented by the Wiborg batholith, the mantled
alkali feldspar megacrysts are nearly always ovoidal in shape, but in some other
areas euhedral or nearly euhedral mantled crystals are common. The alkali feldspar
ovoids may consist of single crystals, Carlsbad twins, or more complex intergrowths
of several crystals. In some rapakivi plutons (e.g., the Shachang pluton in China and
the Jaala--Iitti complex in southeastern Finland; see Yu et al., 1993, and Salonsaari
and Haapala, 1994) the large alkali feldspar ovoids are composed of several sec-
torially intergrown crystals, whereas the smaller euhedral megacrysts are commonly
single crystals or Carlsbad twins. In such cases, the ovoidal shape could be caused
Fig. 7. Photograph of wiborgite showing, beside mantled alkali feldspar ovoids, a granitic
inclusion rimmed by plagioclase. Erratic boulder from the Wiborg rapakivi granite area,
southeastern Finland. Found by Atso Vorma in Inkoo, Deger6, 20 km west of the Obbn~is
rapakivi granite pluton (Fig. 2a) (Mineralogical Museum of the Geological Survey of
Finland)
partly by the radial intergrowth. Not infrequently, the ovoids contain mineral
inclusions (plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, biotite, zircon) in one or several concen-
tric zones. In addition to, or instead of, the ordinary mantles, plagioclase may form
one or several continuous or discontinuous zones inside the alkali feldspar mega-
crysts. Concave quartz inclusions, often associated with plagioclase, are common
within the ovoids. The composition of the alkali feldspar (perthite) is commonly
within the range Ors0_80Abz0_50An0. 5_4 and plagioclase within the range An10-40
(Vorma, 1971; Emslie, 1991; Stimac and Wark, 1992). Mantled and unmantled ovoids
with different internal textures often occur side by side in the same outcrop (e.g.,
Ryan, 1991). Occasionally, rounded granitic enclaves mantled by plagioclase are
found in wiborgite (Wahl, 1925; Vorma, 1976; Fig. 7).
The plagioclase mantle may consist of a single oligoclase-andesine crystal in
optical continuity with the albite lamellae of the perthite ovoid, or of several differ-
ently oriented plagioclase grains. Plagioclase inclusions are common in the outer
part of the ovoids, adjacent to the mantle, and often they have the same orientation
as the mantle and perthite albite, Patchy compositional variation in characteristic
of the plagioclase mantles in some dark wiborgites of the Wiborg batholith. The
mantles may consist of plagioclase only, but often they contain inclusions of
drop quartz or quartz vermicules, sometimes also other minerals. In the hybrid
hornblende-rich granite of the Jaala-Iitti complex, the rounded alkali feldspar
megacrysts are mantled by a micrographic plagioclase-quartz intergrowth (Sa-
lonsaari and Haapala, 1994), differing markedly from the normal plagioclase man-
tles on alkali feldspar ovoids in wiborgites. Occasionally, there are broken alkali
feldspar ovoids where the plagioclase mantles are thinner or absent on the broken
surfaces.
Several rapakivi studies interpreted the ovoidal shape of the alkali feldspar
megacrysts as being due to continuous crystallization from high viscosity melt rather
than to resorption. Sederholm (1891, 1928) writes: 'Every thought of resorption in
so great a measure and with such a regularity appears a priori untenable. Moreover,
neither the outer ring, nor the inner rings ever show any cavities that might be
ascribed to corrosion, but have always regular shapes. The ovoidal shape seems to
have existed during all the time of the growth of the crystal'. Others (e.g., Hibbard,
1981; NekvasiI, 1991; Stimac and Wark, 1992) have explained the ovoidal shape as
a product of magmatic resorption. In detail, the boundary between the mantle and
ovoid is often quite irregular and corrosion or replacement reactions are, indeed, in
many cases obvious.
Sederholm (1928) also explained the plagioclase mantles by crystallization from
a viscous melt. Because of slow diffusion, local decrease of potassium and increase
of calcium and sodium concentrations around the growing alkali feldspar ovoids
led to the crystallization of the plagioclase rims. Another interesting old model is
that of Popoff (1897) who suggested that sinking of newly formed alkali feldspar
crystals to levels of higher temperature and different composition in the magma
chamber caused partial remelting of the crystals and their coating by plagioclase
and other minerals. Convective circulation in the magma chamber could lead to the
development of multiple mantles; it could also explain the occurrence of megacrysts
of different size, form, and internal texture in many rapakivi granites.
Exsolution of albitic plagioclase from the alkali feldspar and its migration to the
grain boundaries has been suggested as one mechanism for formation of the rapakivi
texture (Gates, 1953; Dempster et al., 1991). Although exsolution can well produce
interstitial albite and myrmekite rims between two alkali feldspar grains (e.g.,
Haapala, 1977), it is not likely to produce oligoclase-andesine shells around alkali
feldspar ovoids or multiple mantles or inclusion zones, not to mention plagioclase
mantles around granitic enclaves (Fig. 7).
Several authors have suggested that the mantled ovoids are formed as a result
of magma mixing or assimilation (Volborth, 1973; Hibbard, 1981; Bussy, 1990;
Stimac and Wark, 1992). There is good field and experimental (Wark and Stimac,
1992) evidence that this mechanism, whereby alkali feldspar crystals are brought
into a mafic magma, can produce plagioclase-rich shells around corroded alkali
feldspar grains. Repeated mixing could explain the multiple zones of plagioclase and
other minerals. It is, however, difficult to understand how such huge volumes of
homogeneous wiborgite as in the Wiborg batholith could be formed by magma
mixing alone.
Stability changes related to pressure decrease in the ascending HzO-
undersaturated granitic magma have been suggested to be the reason for the
formation of the plagioclase-mantled ovoids (Whitney, 1975; Nekvasil, 1991). Mod-
eling the crystallization of an alkali feldspar- and plagioclase-saturated and HzO-
undersaturated granitic magma, Nekvasil (1991) suggested that decompression of
the ascending and slowly cooling (5-10°C/kb) magma causes partial dissolution of
the alkali feldspar megacrysts and quartz crystals, but allows crystallization of
plagioclase leading to the formation of mantled ovoids. Some authors (e.g., Cherry
and Trembath, 1978; Abbott, 1978) have suggested that degassing related to the
ascent of the granitic magma would increase the stability field of plagioclase and
cause rapid crystallization producing mantled alkali feldspar megacrysts. Nekvasil
(1991) points out that H20-saturation and degassing prior to or during ascent of
the magma would result in rapid crystallization of the matrix (pressure quench
phenomenon) and would not be accompanied by partial resorption of either alkali
feldspar or quartz.
It is probable that several mechanisms can produce plagioclase rims around
alkali feldspar megacrysts. Small changes in physical conditions (P, T, a,2o) and/or
in chemical composition (increase in calcium and mafic components) change the
stability fields of feldspars so that plagioclase becomes the only crystallizing phase
and nucleates on the alkali feldspar megacrysts. Rapid decrease of pressure and
magma mixing or other changes in composition (accumulation of crystals in compo-
sitionally stratified magma chambers) can also explain the porphyritic texture and
corrosion of alkali feldspar and quartz crystals. We consider these mechanisms the
most cogent in explaining the origin of the rapakivi texture. However, many petro-
logical questions still remain and detailed petrographic and mineralogic studies are
needed to constrain the conditions of crystallization and to understand which
mechanism in each case is the most realistic one.
9. Petrogenesis
The magmatic origin of the rapakivi granites is considered axiomatic today, yet in
a number of relatively recent papers (e.g., Backlund, 1938; Sudovikov, 1967) trans-
formistic views are entertained. Sharp intrusive contacts of rapakivi granite plutons,
ubiquitous magmatic textures and mineral assemblages, as well as spatially and
temporally associated subvolcanic and volcanic suites render such views very diffi-
cult to defend. Regarding the petrogenesis of rapakivi granites, current topics of
debate cover the source of the silicic magmas (mantle and/or crust?), composition
and petrology of their protoliths, as well as processes that control their magmatic
evolution (partial melting, fractional crystallization, magma mixing etc.). Under-
standing these items in detail will have an important bearing on the study of the
evolution of the continental crust especially in the Proterozoic. Isotopic and geo-
chemical data on rapakivi granites and related silicic and mafic rocks are summa-
rized below, and the models advanced to explain their genetic interrelations, the
nature of their protoliths, and magmatic evolution are discussed.
9.1 Isotopic constraints on rhe origin of rapakivi granites and related rocks
9.1.1 Sr isotopes
Sr isotopic data are available for rapakivi granites and related silicic rocks from
numerous North American occurrences, as well as for rapakivi granites of Vene-
zuela, Brazil, South Greenland, Finland, Sweden, Russian Karelia, China, and Aus-
tralia. These data and the isotopic evolution of mantle and continental crust are
plotted in a 87Sr/86Sri vs. age diagram in Fig. 8. The Sr isotopic data on North
American rapakivi granite suites comprise a total of 64 initial 87Sr-86Sr ratios that
range from 0.7000 to 0.7488 and average at 0.7087 +_ 0.0095 (lo). About three
quarters of these fall above the average subcontinental mantle evolution, whereas
most of the remainder plot between the two mantle evolution lines. The two data
points below the evolution of the Rb-depleted mantle are somewhat uncertain due
to possible disturbance of the Rb-Sr system (Anderson, 1983). For other areas, the
data are few and plot, excluding the very low initial ratio (0.7004 ___0.0019) of the
Venezuelan Parguaza rapakivi granite (Gaudette et al., 1978) and the relatively low
initial ratio (0.7024 _ 0.0020) of the rapakivi-textured monzonites of South Green-
land (Dempster et ai., 1991), clearly above the evolution line of the average sub-
continental mantle. For the classic Finnish rapakivi granites, only one poorly-
constrained initial ratio (0.706 _ 0.003) is available (Suominen, 1991).
It should be noted that comparison of the data points with the evolution depicted
for mantle and crust should be considered only tentative, because the Rb-Sr isotopic
system is easily affected by open-system processes. However, in terms of the crude
models of Fig. 8, the bulk of the Sr isotopic data favor a crustal origin for the rapakivi
and related granites, but variable amounts of mantle contribution in some of the
suites can not be ruled out. This could be the case for the 1.55 Ga Parguaza rapakivi
granite (Gaudette et at., 1978).
9.1.2 Nd isotopes
Nd isotopic data are available especially for the Fennoscandian and North Ameri-
can rapakivi granites, and also for the suites in South Greenland, China, and
Australia. These data (a total of 94 analyses) are shown in an end VS. age diagram in
Fig. 9. Compared to the Sr evolution diagram in Fig. 8, Fig. 9 constrains the origin
of the various granites more unequivocally. For example, the diagram distinguishes
between granites within Proterozoic crust and those with which Archean crust is
associated. The Finnish rapakivi granites plot within the evolution of the 1.9 Ga
0.715
• Fennoscandia(U~Pbzircon)
7
,q /
• North America (U-Pb zircon) 0.713
o NorthAmerica(Rb-Srwhole rock) * ~ ~ " 2

j. - 0.711
X South Greenland (U-Pb zircon) ~
• SouthAmerica(U-Pbzircon) ,~¢o~ ~/zY 0.709

¢.n-'
• Chin,:U-Phzi~on) ./ • • ,/ . .
0.707 "~
• A,,,t,'alia~U-Pbzircon) ~ • ~ 8; .... 0~. O~
0.705 - '
/ cru,,
o "+ 0.703
/ - Average Subcontinental Mantle / "4-0.701

- -- • Rb-depletedMantle I
o
i I I I I
I
I 0,699
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5
Age (Ga)
Fig. 8. Strontium isotopic composition (77 data points) of rapakivi granites from Fennoscan-
dia (Kornfgllt, 1976; Welin and Lundqvist, 1984; Halliday et al., 1988; Suominen, 1991; Neymark
et al., 1994), North America (Heath and Fairbairn, 1969; Bickford and Mose, 1975; Van
Schmus et al., 1975; Barker et al., 1976; Emslie, 1978; Anderson, 1983, and references therein;
Geist et al., 1989; Emslie and Loveridge, 1992), South Greenland (Dempster et al., 1991),
South America (Gaudette et al., 1978; Macambira et al., 1987; Janasi and Ulbrich, 1991),
China (Yu et al., 1994), and Australia (Wyborn et al., 1988) plotted in 878r/86Sri vs. age
diagram. Also shown are the evolution lines for average subcontinental mantle (ending at a
present-day 878r/86Sr of 0.704; Faure, 1986) and Rb-depleted mantle (present-day 878r/a6Sr
of 0.702), both starting at BABI (Basaltic Achondrite Best Initial; Papanastassiou and
Wasserburg, 1969) composition (878r/86Sr = 0.699) 4.7 Ga ago. In addition, hypothetical
evolution lines for Sr extracted from the average subcontinental mantle to form continental
crust at 3.0 and 1.9 Ga are shown: the lines with steep slopes represent typical continental
crust with a Rb/Sr of 0.15, the lines with gentle slopes denote lower continental crust with
a smaller Rb/Sr of 0.04. Isotopic methods for the ages used to calculate the initial 878r-S6Sr
ratios are indicated
crust, whereas the Russian Karelian rapakivi granites that occur along the contact
between Proterozoic and Archean provinces (see Fig. 2a), fall clearly below the
evolution of the 1.9 Ga crust. This relationship appears to hold also for the N o r t h
American granites, excluding granitic plutons associated with the Laramie anortho-
site complex that occurs on the flank of the Archean W y o m i n g Province (Geist et
al., 1989, 1990). These granites show initial N d isotopic compositions that conform
to the long-term evolution of an early to middle Proterozoic protolith, and led Geist
et al. (1989) to conclude that the contact between the W y o m i n g Province and
surrounding Proterozoic crust dips away from the Laramie complex and Archean
material was thus not available in the source of the granites. It is also worth noting
that the Finnish and Russian Karelian rapakivi granites do not differ m u c h from
each other in terms of their initial Sr isotopic composition (Fig. 8), even though their
end values are very different.
The majority of data points in Fig. 9 plot clearly below the depleted mantle
evolution line. Samples with N d isot'opic ratios indicating p r o n o u n c e d long-term
160 O.T. R/im6 and I. Haapala
+8
+4
Depleted Mantle
~'Na
........... \ ~ "~ ~%o
Australia (Proterozoic) ~.0 Ga CrusU
, h, , .,8
3.5 3 2.5 2 1 .S 1 0.5
Age (Ga)
Fig. 9. Neodymium isotopic composition (94 data points) of rapakivi granites from Fenno-
scandia (Rgtm6, 1991; Neymark et al., 1994), North America (DePaolo, 1981; Nelson and
DePaolo, 1985; Bennett and DePaolo, 1987; Geist et al., 1989, 1990; EmsIie and Loveridge,
1992), South Greenland (Patchett and Bridgwater, 1984), China (R~m6 et al., 1992), and
Australia (Wyborn et al., 1988) plotted in eNa VS. age diagram. Also depicted is the evolution
of LREE-depleted mantle (DePaolo, 1981) and Chondritic Uniform Reservoir (CHUR,
DePaolo and Wasserbur9, 1976), as well as that of post-Archean average Australian Shale
(PAAS) denoting Archean crust separated from the depleted mantle 3.0 Ga ago (cf. Patchett
and Bridgwater, 1984). The vertical bar at center illustrates the initial composition of the 1.9
Ga Svecofennian crust of southern Finland with ~Nd values ranging from -- 1.2 to + 4.4
(Huhma, 1986; Patchett and Kouvo, 1986), while the two arrows constrain its time-
integrated evolution. Age of the crust hosting the various rapakivi granite occurrences is
indicated
LREE-depletion are found in central U.S.A. (Colorado, Missouri) and Australia

(northwestern Queensland). The high end values of some of the American granites
(up to +4.5 at 1.5 Ga) require a young source material derived from a depleted
mantle. The Australian rapakivi granites are also found within Proterozoic crust
and could have, as far as N d isotopes are concerned, two distinct sources (mantle
and crust). The rapakivi-textured monzonites of South Greenland were emplaced
into the 1.8 Ga Ketilidian crust that shows a N d isotopic evolution similar to that
of the 1.9 Ga crust in Fig. 9 (cf. Patchett and Bridgwater, 1984). These rocks are, in
terms of their long-term N d isotopic evolution, like the Finnish rapakivi granites.
Recently, N d isotopic data have also been acquired for the 1.67 Ga old Shachang
rapakivi granite near Beijing, China (Riim6 et al., 1992, 1993). This granite intruded
the Archean Sino-Korean craton (Fig. 1) and plots between the evolution of the 1.9
Ga and 3.0 Ga crusts in Fig. 9.
9.1.3 Pb isotopes
Detailed Pb isotopic data are currently available for the Finnish and Russian
Karelian rapakivi granites. These are plotted, together with scattered analyses on
15.9
m • • X
Average Crustal Lead ~m x
15.7
\
15.5
tl. Plumbotectonics / / ~ -- --
g Model Mantle ~ ~ o Fennoscandia(feldspar)
,~ 15.3 I
/ / / . . o=o
hA=.r
.(fo,dopoO
15.1 /A! \ x=o=ho,.o,.od(
ol.r,*l
lie °~B'- Plumbotectonics o China(feldspar) ,
// ModelLowerCrust "Chi.a(wholerock)
14.9 " " I f I i i Y

14 15 15 17 18 19 20 21
2~pb / 2°4pb
Fig. 10. Lead isotopic composition of rapakivi granites (34 whole rocks, 42 feldspar fractions)
from Fennoscandia (Rgtm6, 1991; Neymark et al., 1994), North America (Van Sehmus et al.,
1975), South Greenland (Kalsbeek and Taylor, 1985), and China (our unpublished data, see
also Ri~m6 et al., 1993) plotted in z°7pb/2°4pb vs. 2°6pb/2°gpb diagram. Also shown are
growth curves for average crustal lead (/~2 = 9.74; Stacey and Kramers, 1975), plumbotecto-
nics model lower crust (/~2 = 8.77; Zartman and Haines, 1988), and plumbotectonics model
mantle (/~e = 9.49; Zartman and Haines, 1988), calculated according to the two-stage lead
evolution model of Stacey and Kramers (1975)
the suites of South Greenland, North America, and China, in a 2°Tpb/2°4pb vs.
2°6pb/2°4pb diagram in Fig. 10. Fennoscandian rapakivi granite whole rocks and
feldspar fractions fall into two distinct groups. The Finnish data (as well as the few
analyses from North America and South Greenland) swarm around and along the
continuation of the average crustal Pb growth curve, while the Russian Karelian
data plot considerably below mantle evolution, close to the model lower crust
growth curve. The latter is true also for the Chinese samples. This bimodality of the
data is in agreement with the nature of the crustal environments where the com-
plexes occur: those within Proterozoic domains follow the higher long-term U/Pb
evolution, those associated with Archean crustal domains are characterized by
retarded Pb isotopic evolution.
9 . 1 . 4 0 and H isotopes
Oxygen isotopic data on rapakivi granites are relatively few. Barker et al. (1976)
reported 6180 values ranging from + 7.7 to + 9.5%0 for the silicic rocks of the Pikes
Peak batholith of Colorado, and considered these as indicative of assimilation of
country rocks with somewhat higher 6180 values than that is usually observed for
magmatic rocks (cf. Taylor and Sheppard, 1986) For the Qernertoq granite of South
Greenland, Dempster et al. (1991) presented relatively high 618 0 values for feldspar
(+ 7 to + 11.5%o) and biotite (+ 4.6 to + 8.1%o) fractions, concluding that the rocks
were not subsequently affected by meteoric-hydrothermal systems. Relatively high
162 O. T. R/im6 and k Haapala
6180 vMues (+8.5 to + t0.8%o) were reported for the Wiborg batholith by Hoefs
and Epstein (1969).
For hydrogen isotopes, 6 D values reported for whole rock samples range from
- 1 2 0 to -86%0 (Pikes Peak batholith, Barker et al., 1976), for feldspar fractions
from - 1 0 5 to -56%0 (Qernertoq granite, Dempster et al., 1991), for biotite from
- 9 6 to -54%0 (Qernertoq granite, Dempster et al., 1991) and -81.1 to -65.7%0
(Finnish rapakivi granites, Kuroda et al., 1978), and for hornblende from -82.6 to
-62.7 (Qernertoq granite, Dempster et al., 1991) and - 1 1 9 to - 1 0 0 (Finnish
rapakivi granites, Kuroda et al., 1978). These 6D values fall in the lower part and
somewhat below the range of 6D values encountered for most igneous rocks (cf.
Taylor and Sheppard, 1986) and are suggestive of only minor, if any, meteoric-
hydrothermal alteration. Kuroda et al. (1978) noted that the large difference in 6D
values between hornblende and biotite in the Finnish rapakivi granites is indicative
of a H20-poor magma.
9.1.5 Isotopic characteristics of the mafic rocks associated with rapakivi granites
Isotopic studies have been carried out on the mafic rocks associated with rapakivi
granites mainly in North America and Fennoscandia. Papers on North American
occurrences deal primarily with anorthositic and gabbroic rocks of the Grenville,
Churchill, and Nain Provinces (Heath and Fairbairn, !969; Emslie, 1978, and refer-
ences therein; Patchett et al., 1981; Basu and Pettingill, 1983; Anderson, 1983, and
references therein; Ashwal et al., 1986; Olson, 1992) but some data also exist on the
Laramie complex in Wyoming (Geist et al., 1990) and the Pikes Peak batholith in
Colorado (Barker et al., 1976). Isotopic data on the mafic rocks associated with the
Fennoscandian rapakivi granites are found in Welin and Lundqvist (1984), Rgtm6
(1991), Suominen (1991), and Neymark et al. (1994).
Initial 8~Sr-86Sr ratios of the mafic rocks associated with rapakivi granites are
generally on the order of 0.703 to 0.705, in line with their predicted mantle origin.
Mafic rocks occurring in complexes situated within early Proterozoic crust show
initial Nd isotopic compositions that differ marginally from those of the associated
silicic rocks. For instance, in southeastern Finland the average end (1.64 Ga) value
of 19 mafic rocks (anorthosite to gabbro, diabase dykes) is - 0 . 2 +_ 0.7 (la), whereas
the average end value of 22 silicic rocks is - 1.4 _+ 0.6 (la) (Riim6, 1991). Comparable
differences have been measured for the 1.75 Ga old rapakivi-textured monzonites
and associated norites of South Greenland (Patchett and Bridgwater, 1984). The
rapakivi-age diabase dykes of southeastern Finland show end values from -- 1.2 to
+ 1.6 (Riim6, 1991, fig. 33); these correlate positively with the fractionation index
(e.g., Mg/Fe) of the dykes and can be accounted for by combined assimilation-
fractional crystallization processes. Initial end values ofmafic rocks from complexes
associated with Archean domains are clearly more negative. For instance, the mafic
rocks of the 1.45 Ga Harp Lake complex intruding Archean rocks of the Churchill
and Nain Provinces have more negative initial end values (averaging --4.0) than
rocks from Mealy Mountains complex (averaging + 2.6 at 1.65 Ga) situated within
the Proterozoic Grenville Province (Ashwal et al., 1986) More negative still are the
initial (1.56 Ga) end values of the gabbroic and anorthositic rocks of the Salmi
batholith in Russian Karelia (Neymark et ak, 1994). They range from - 8.2 to - 6.5
and are indistinguishable from those of the granites of the batholith.
Pb isotopic composition of the mafic rocks of the rapakivi granite association

also vary according to the age of the enclosing crust. In areas of Proterozoic crust,
they have 2°7pb-Z°6pb ratios that fall along the growth curve of average crustal Pb
(Ashwal et al., 1986; Riim6, 1991), whereas those within Archean domains are
considerably less radiogenic (Ashwal et al., 1986; Neymark et al., 1994). This differ-
ence can be explained by assimilation of Archean low U/Pb lower crust. In south-
eastern Finland, the diabase dykes define a secondary isochron with an apparent
age consistent with the age of the surrounding early Proterozoic bedrock (Riim6,
1991).
It should be noted in this context that controversy regarding the origin of the
Finnish rapakivi granites and the contemporaneous mafic rocks was introduced by
the Hf isotopic studies of Patchett et al. (1981) that demonstrated similar enf values
ranging from 0 to + 3 for the granites and the mafic rocks. The implication was that
the silicic and mafic rocks were derived from the same source, which was more
probably the mantle than the crust. Rgtm6 (1991), working on the same rock types
concluded that this controversy was probably due to sampling, as the rapakivi-age
mafic rocks analysed by Patchett et al. (1981) were those that have similar end values
as the rapakivi granites.
9.1.6 Comments
The Nd, Sr, and Pb isotopic data available for rapakivi granites suggest a crustal
origin for most of them. The data also demonstrate the sensitivity with which these
rocks reflect the isotopic composition of their source. This is exceptionally clearly
shown by the very low 2°Tpb-z°4Pb and 2°6pb-2°gpb ratios of the Russian
Karelian and Chinese rapakivi granites (Fig. 10), explained as indicative of an
Archean lower crustal source component with a very low long-term U/Pb (Rgtm6,
1991; Neymark et al., 1994; Riim6 et al., 1993). The initial Sr isotopic composition
of the mafic rocks of the rapakivi granite association indicate a mantle source for
these rocks. The relatively radiogenic Pb isotopic compositions ofmafic rocks within
complexes in Proterozoic crust and the unradiogenic compositions of those asso-
ciated with Archean domains, as well as the unradiogenic Nd isotopic compositions
are not directly attributable to depleted mantle domains, but need to be explained
either by crustal contamination (e.g., Ashwal et al., 1986; Rfim6, 1991) or by invoking
enriched mantle sources (cf. Hamilton and Morse, 1988; Neymark et al., 1994).
9.2 Protolith composition and magmatic evolution

As rapakivi granites are, in terms of their mode of occurrence, petrography, and
geochemistry, similar to subalkaline A-type granites, it is appropriate to consider
their origin in the broader context of what is known about the petrogenesis of the
A-type granites. A number of mechanisms have been put forward to explain the
generation of A-type granite magmas. These include fractionation of mantle-derived
magma, reaction of mantle-derived magma with crustal rocks, liquid immiscibility,
thermogravitational diffusion in liquid state, fractionation of I-type magma or
syenitic magma, and melting of deep continental crust (Barker et al., 1975; Loiselle
and Wones, 1979; Harris and Marriner, 1980; Collins et al., 1982; Anderson, 1983;
Clemens et al., 1986; Whalen et al., 1987; Eby, 1990; Creaser et al., 1991). Of these,
164 O. T. R~m6 and I. Haapala
liquid immiscibility, thermogravitational diffusion, and fractionation of I-type or

syenitic magma are considered to be of minor importance only (e.g., Collins et al.,
1982; Anderson, 1983; Clemens et al., 1986).
The majority of the isotopic data currently available are compatible with a
crustal protolith for the subalkaline A-type granites. The generation of primary
subalkaline A-type magmas is considered to take place through vapor-absent melt-
ing of protoliths in the lower crust. A major issue of controversy today is whether
the protolith was melt-depleted (Collins et al., 1982; Clemens et al., 1986; Whalen
et al., 1987), or non-depleted but otherwise relatively water-deficient (Anderson,
1983; Emslie and Hunt, 1990; Creaser et al., 1991). In complexes where peralkaline
granites and/or syenites occur together with subalkaline granites (e.g., Barker et al.,
1975; Kornfiilt, 1976; Collerson, 1982; Whalen and Currie, 1990), the presence of a
(variable) mantle component in the felsic rocks can not be ruled out.
9.2.1 Origin of rapakivi and related granites by anatexis

Those in favor of deep crust anatexis as the mechanism to produce rapakivi granite
magmas generally invoke mafic underplating as the means of introducing the
thermal energy required for melting (e.g., Bridgwater and Windley, 1973; Emslie,
1978, 1980; Anderson, 1983; Haapala, 1985; Wyborn et al., 1988; Dempster et al.,
1991; Rgtm6, 1991). As the rapakivi magmas are hot, dry, and fluorine-rich relative
to granitic magmas in general, the melting is thought to be initiated by vapor-absent
breakdown of F-enriched water-bearing mafic silicates (mica, amphibole).
Experimental and geochemical data indicate that vapor-absent breakdown of
mica and amphibole in quartzo-feldspathic rocks produces HzO-undersaturated
leucogranitic melts with temperatures around 850 to 1000°C (e.g., Clemens et al.,
1986; Johannes and Holtz, 1990; Creaser and White, 1991). At such high tempera-
tures, relatively small amounts of water in the source are needed to produce rela-
tively large amounts of melt if the bulk composition of the source is favorable; for
example, a quartzo-feldspathic rock with 0.5 wt-~o H20 can yield 35~o melt at 900°C
(Johannes and Holrz, 1990; see also Clemens and Vielzeuf, 1987). The amount of
melt produced in vapor-absent melting is strongly dependent on source lithology,
and can vary from < 10 to > 50}/0; especially fertile sources for granitic melts are
biotite-bearing pelites and biotite- and hornblende-bearing intermediate and mafic
rocks (Clemens and Vielzeuf, 1987). Recent modeling of pelite-derived granites by
Harris and Inger (1992) suggests that those formed in vapor-absent reactions such as
(1) Biotite + Plagioclase + A12SiOs + Quartz ~ Garnet + K-feldspar + Melt
yield a smaller melt fraction (<0.3) with higher Rb/Sr, lower Sr/Ba, and more
pronounced negative Eu anomaly than in those formed in vapor-present reactions
such as
(2) Biotite + Plagioclase + A12SiO5 + Quartz + Vapor ~ Garnet + Melt
Although not necessarily directly applicable to rapakivi granites, the majority of
which are metaluminous or slightly peraluminous, it is interesting to note that the
postulated initial rapakivi granite melts rather show the characteristics of the melt
produced in reaction 1 (cf. Table 2). Vapor-absent breakdown of mica and amphi-
bole, and the refractory nature of any calcic plagioclase would generate melts with
the typical high (Na + K)/Ca of A-type granites (Clemens et al., 1986). Residual
plagioclase may also be needed for the high Ga/A1 of A-type granites (Collins et al.,
1982).
Many studies of A-type granites have considered that the water-deficient source
needed for these rocks was a melt-depleted (granulitic) residue left over by previous
extraction of a granitic melt (e.g., Collins et al., 1982; Clemens et al., 1986; Eby, 1990;
Whalen et al., 1987). This would be consistent with the proposed halogen-rich nature
of the protolith and also with the observation that the Phanerozoic A-type granites
tend to intrude spatially associated I-type granites (Collins et al., 1982). According
to Collins et al., the residue remaining after extraction of an I-type granite melt from
a dioritic lower crustal source consists of quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, orthopyr-
oxene, apatite, and zircon while clinopyroxene, F-rich amphibole and mica, titanite,
and magnetite may also occur. Creaser et al. (1991), however, noted that I-type melt
production is more likely to give residues in which K-feldspar and biotite are
unlikely constituents and in which the Fe/Mg is probably too low to produce the
very high Fe/Mg typical of A-type granites. An alternative to the concept of melt-
depleted protolith is thus that A-type granites derive from relatively dry protoliths
that were not melted under the conditions that produced I-type granites.
Studies dealing with the Precambrian anorogenic granites in North America
favor an immature, quartzo-feldspathic tonalitic-granodioritic source, rather than
a melt-depleted granulitic protolith (Anderson and Cullers, 1978; Cullers et al., 1981;
Anderson, 1983; Anderson and Bender, 1989; Emslie and Hunt, 1990; Emslie, 1991).
Owing to their high initial temperatures, A-type granite melts are generally consid-
ered to be restite-poor (Collins et al., 1982; Clemens et al., 1986; Whalen et al., 1987).
Regarding the Finnish rapakivi granites (Matti Vaasjoki, pers. commun., 1992) and
mangerite-charnockite suites associated with massive anorthosites of the Grenville
Province (Emslie and Hunt, 1990), this is in line with the scarcity of isotopically
detected inherited zircon components. In this respect it is interesting to note that
Neymark et al. (1994) report 2°TPb//°6pb ages of 1.6 to 1.8 Ga for a zircon popula-
tion extracted from alkali feldspar ovoids of the 1.54 Ga old Salmi batholith of
Russian Karelia.
9.2.2 Multiple protoliths: mantle vs. crust controversy

The intimate temporal and spatial association of rapakivi granites with anorthositic
and gabbroic rocks and mafic dykes suggests a genetic connection between these
rock types. Earlier, rapakivi granites and associated anorthosites were thought to
be comagmatic, e.g., deriving from a common dioritic parent magma (Philpotts,
1966), anorthosites representing earlier plagioclase cumulates and rapakivi granites
later precipitates (see also discussion in Vorma, 1976, p. 89). This is generally not
favoured by the isotopic data (e.g., Morse, 1982) or by the primary mineral assem-
blages and potential source materials of the mafic and silicic suites (Ashwal, 1993,
p. 168). A widely-accepted view is that the mafic and silicic rocks were not co-
magmatic, but were generated by the same geological process (e.g., Emslie, 1980;
Anderson, 1983; Haapala and Ri~m6, 1990).
The petrogenesis of the rapakivi granite-related peralkaline-subalkaline associa-
tions is still somewhat controversial. Traditionally, peralkaline rhyolitic and trachy-
tic magmas have been considered to be derived by crystal fractionation from mafic
parent magmas (e.g., Carmichael et al., 1974) or by partial melting of a syenite or
alkali basalt (Bailey and Schairer, 1966). It has also been suggested that anatexis in
the presence of halide-rich volatiles (Harris and Marriner, 1980) is required to yield
peralkaline A-type magmas. Peralkaline compositions might also develop within
low-Ca felsic anatectic magmas if their F content is relatively low to destabilize early
amphibole and to render plagioclase the first phase to fractionate (Collins et al.,
1982; Clemens et al., 1986). Early fractionation of plagioclase would effectively
deplete Ca in the melt and eventually lead, together with early crystallization of
alkali feldspar and the overall high Na/K of the magma, to a hypersolvus condition
and peralkaline trend. Also important may be the F/C1 in the protolith and the way
this ratio changes during magmatic evolution: systems with high F/C1 may develop
subalkaline and those with low ratios peralkaline residual liquids (Christiansen et
al., 1983). A non-magmatic explanation for the association of subalkaline and
peralkaline granite in the Nigerian Mesozoic granites was presented by Bowden and
Kinnaird (1978) (as referred to in Bowden et al., 1979, fig. 2) who considered it to
form from a subalkaline granite through subsolidus recrystallization.
Multiple sources for the felsic rocks in rapakivi-related suites have been pro-
posed by several authors. For the Pikes Peak batholith of Colorado, Barker et al.
(1975, 1976) devised a reaction melting model according to which mafic mantle-
derived magma first reacts with granulitic lower crust to form a quartz syenite
magma that in turn reacts with intermediate crust and produces subalkaline gran-
ites, the latter being about one-to-one mixtures of primitive quartz syenite and older
crustal rocks. Kornf~It (1976) interpreted the origin of the gabbroic rocks, quartz
syenite and subalkaline granites of the Ragunda complex in Sweden according to
the model of Barker et ak. Collerson (1982) presented a similar model for the origin
of associated peralkaline granites and subalkaline rapakivi granites in Labrador,
concluding that the peralkaline granites represent fractionates of a crustally contam-
inated mantle-derived mafic magma and that the subalkaline granites are crust-
derived. Whalen and Currie (1990) considered the peralkaline-subalkaline associa-
tion in the Topsails A-type suite of western Newfoundland a result of a crust-derived
magma undergoing fractional crystallization, wallrock assimilation, and mix-
ing with mafic magma. On the other hand, Itorbe et al. (1991) considered the
peraluminous-peralkaline nature of the mineralized apogranite facies of the metalu-
minous rapakivi granites of the Pitinga Mine, northeastern Brazil, to have resulted
from various subsolidus autometasomatic processes (albitization, microclinization,
greisenization).
The intermediate rocks (ferrodiorite, monzodiorite, jotunite) that occur in minor
amounts in anorthosite-rapakivi granite complexes have been interpreted as highly
fractionated residual liquids of mafic magma related to (Wiebe, 1980; Morse, 1982;
Johanson, 1989) or independent of (Emslie, 1978) the gabbroic and anorthositic
rocks, or as partial melts of mafic to intermediate crustal protoliths (Duchesne,
1984), but could also be of hybrid origin (see Anderson and Cullers, 1978, and
McLelland and Whitney, 1990).
9.2.3 The Suomenniemi batholith: a case study

The Suomenniemi batholith, which is a satellite appendage of the Wiborg batholith
(Fig. 2a), has recently been the subject of detailed mapping and geochemical and
isotopic work (Riim6, 1991). It covers an area of approximately 365 km 2, is about

3 km thick, was emplaced at a high crustal level, and cuts sharply across the
surrounding early Proterozoic metamorphic bedrock. The granites of the Suo-
menniemi batholith have U-Pb zircon ages around 1640 Ma and they are thus
slightly older than the 1630 Ma granites dated from the northern fringe of the
Wiborg batholith (Vaasjoki et al., 1991). The batholith is cut by slightly younger
(ca. 1635 Ma) silicic and mafic dyke rocks (Fig. 11; Rgtm6, 1991; Vaasjoki et al., 1991).
There are four main rock types in the batholith: biotite granite, hornblende
granite, biotite-hornblende granite, and topaz-bearing granite (Fig. 11). The more
mafic granites (hornblende granite, biotite-hornblende granite) are found in the
southern and southeastern parts of the batholith while the more felsic granites
(biotite granite, topaz-bearing granite) occur in its northern, northwestern, and
western parts (Fig. 11). In addition to these, there are various minor rock types such
as hornblende-clinopyroxene-fayalite granite, alkali-feldspar syenite, and gabbroic
rocks. The hornblende-clinopyroxene-fayalite granite and alkali-feldspar syenite
comprise younger, volumetrically very minor intrusive phases compared to the main
~ EMI B.
\ \
\
\,
.ornb,ende gran,te B,ot, e hornblende gran, e Biotite gran,te Topaz beariog granite
m Ftornblende-cljnopyroxene-fayalitgranite
e [~ Alkali-feldsparsyenitedyke ~ Diabasedyke
~ Quartz-feldsparporphyrydyke ~ Silicic-basiccompositedyke ~ Gabbro-anorthositebody
Fig. 11. Simplified geological map of the Suomenniemirapakivi granite batholith, southeast-
ern Finland. The widths of the dyke rocks are exaggerated. Modified from Riim6 (1991,
appendix 4)
168 O. T. R/im6 and ~. Haapala
granite types. The main granite sequence hornblende granite--biotite-hornblende

granite--biotite granite--topaz-bearing granite shows continuous trends in chemi-
cal variation diagrams (Riim6, 1991, fig. 37) and could reflect the compositional
range of an evolving magma. Average chemical analyses for these granites are
presented in Table 2 and Fig. 4.
Modeling the chemical evolution of the main granite sequence, Rgtm6 (1991)
concluded that the chemical variability of the granites could best be assessed by
fractional crystallization models (R~m6, 1991, pp. 77-85). Using both major and
trace element modeling and assuming that slight autometasomatic changes affected
the abundances of certain trace elements (e.g., Sr and Rb) in the most evolved
topaz-bearing granites, the measured compositional trends of the granite sequence
were reproduced by choosing a relatively silicic initial magma, the composition of
which is close to the average composition of the biotite granites (Table 2; Figs. 4
through 6). This initial magma underwent fractionation of alkali feldspar, quartz,
ctinopyroxene, fayalite, and Fe-Ti-oxide (in the ratio 68/15/3/2/2), with trace
amounts of apatite, zircon, and allanite, to yield the composition of the most
fractionated topaz-bearing granite with 64~o of the residual liquid remaining. In
this model the hornblende granites and biotite-hornblende granites are cumulus-
enriched rocks whereas the biotite granites and topaz-bearing granites represent
various stages in the evolution of the residual liquid (Riim6, 1991, figs. 39c and d).
Using the initial magma composition (Table 2) of the Suomenniemi batholith,
trace element batch melting models were devised in order to get a rough idea of the
nature of the protolith of the batholith (Riim6, 1991, pp. 94-99). The hypothetical
initial magma composition in terms of its F, Rb, Sr, Ba, Zr, and REE abundances
could best be produced by about 20~o melting of an intermediate to silicic
(granodioritic) protolith, assuming that the melting started by vapor-absent break-
down of F-enriched mica and/or amphibole.
The fractional crystallization model of the Suomenniemi batholith places some
constraints on the overall geochemical evolution of the rapakivi granites. For
instance, the hypothetical initial magma is metaluminous (with A/CNK of 0.96;
Table 2), the late-stage fractionates of it peraluminous (A/CNK up to 1.12; Ri~m6,
1991, p. 152), and the cumulus-enriched early precipitates less aluminous than the
initial magma (average A/CNK 0.89). Hence, the typical trend of rapakivi granites
from metaluminous to peraluminous with increasing silica (Fig. 4a) may be the result
of fractionation of mainly alkali feldspar, quartz, and a subaluminous mafic silicate,
at least when the initial magma composition is close to the peraluminosity-
metaluminosity boundary (cf. Zen, 1986; Emslie, 1991).
9.2.4 Further notes on the magmatic evolution of the rapakivi granites

The initial magmas of rapakivi and related granite complexes have been usually
thought to lie between alumina undersaturation and oversaturation (Anderson,
1983). For the Wolf River batholith of Wisconsin, Anderson and Cullers (1978)
ended up with a marginally peraluminous (A/CNK = 1.03; Table 2, Fig. 4a) initial
magma that could have been formed by 15 to 30~o melting of a tonalitic to grano-
dioritic source at a depth of 25 to 36 km. According to Cullers et al. (1981) and
Bickford et al. (1981), the Knoblick and Silvermine granites of the St. Francois
terrane of Missouri could have been produced by about 30~ melting of quartz
diorite, greywacke or metagreywacke to yield a somewhat less silicic, marginally

peraluminous (A/CNK = 1.03; Table 2) initial magma. A still less silicic initial
magma composition has been postulated for the granitoid rocks of the Harp Lake
complex of central Labrador. Emslie (1980) considered the adamellites (66.3~ aver-
age SiO2; Table 2) to represent anatectic melts from the lower crust and the
associated granite pluton (73.6~o SiO2) a late-stage differentiate of the adamellite
magma. More strongly peraluminous compositions have been suggested for the
rapakivi-textured monzonites of South Greenland (Harrison et al., 1990a) and some
Precambrian anorogenic granites in southwestern U.S.A. (Anderson and Bender,
1989). In these cases sedimentary protoliths are invoked, the degrees of partial
melting to produce the initial magmas are suggested to be higher, and Fe/Mg and
the contents of LIL elements in the resulting peraluminous melts are observed to
be lower than in the "normal" metaluminous-marginally peraluminous magmas.
While the granite succession of the Suomenniemi batholith seems to represent
a continuum of rock compositions related to each other by fractional crystallization,
the Eurajoki complex in southeastern Finland, studied in detail by Haapala (1977),
is composed of two, contrasting intrusive phases: an older mafic fayalite-bearing
biotite-hornblende granite (Tarkki granite) and a younger felsic topaz-bearing
two-mica granite (V/ikk~ir/i granite). Compositionally, these are close to the horn-
blende and topaz-bearing granites of the Suomenniemi batholith, respectively (Ta-
ble 2). According to Haapala (1977) the Tarkki granite was already cooled and
fractured when the V~ikk/irfi granite was emplaced into it and the two granites thus
probably sampled an evolving magma source deeper in the crust.
Although subalkaline A-type granites in general are relatively undifferentiated
relative to I- and S-type granite suites (Whalen et al., 1987), fractional crystallization
has been considered to be an important factor controlling their magmatic evolution
(Anderson and Cullers, 1978; Bickford et al., 1981; Cullers et al., 1981; Collerson,
1982; Anderson, 1983; Wyborn et al., 1988; Eby, 1990; Whalen and Currie, 1990;
Emslie, 1991). Feldspar is usually considered a major fractionating phase and
fractionation of a strongly subaluminous mineral (e.g., hornblende) is deemed neces-
sary to produce the typical peraluminous trend for residual liquids (Anderson, 1983;
Emslie, 1991). Fractionation of minor phases such as zircon, apatite, and allanite or
monazite, liquid-state differentiation catalyzed by HREE alkali-fluoride complexes,
and autometasomatic processes have been proposed to be responsible for the
anomalous trace element characteristics of the late-stage topaz-bearing rapakivi
granites (Nurmi and Haapala, 1986; Horbe et al., 1991; Riirn6, 1991; see also Bowden
and Kinnaird, 1984). It should be noted that caution is to be exercised in assessing
the igneous petrogenesis of volcanic/subvolcanic rapakivi complexes pervasively
altered by hydrothermal processes (see Horbe et al., 1991).
The fact that silicic and mafic magmas occur together in rapakivi granite
complexes implies that mixing of these magmas may also control the magmatic
evolution of rapakivi granites. Eklund et al. (1994), for example, suggest magma
mixing to be an important process in relating rapakivi granites and associated
gabbroic and anorthositic rocks of the Aland batholith in southwestern Finland. In
bimodal igneous systems with highly contrasting end members such as basalt and
rhyolite, interaction of the components results, in most cases, in quenching of basalt
against the cooler silicic melt, in which case hybridization (mixing) is largely pre-
vented (Frost and Mahood, 1987). According to Frost and Mahood, homogeniza-
tion of a bimodal system is likely only if the compositional difference of the end
members is less than 10~ SiO2, or if the mass fraction of the mafic component is
greater than 0.5. Sparks and Marshall (1986) note further that complete hybridiza-
tion is feasible only if the end members behave as liquids at the same temperature,
and that when the proportion of the silicic magma is large, complete hybridization
can occur with evolved (Fe-rich) mafic magmas only.
The interrelations of silicic and mafic magmas in some of the bimodal systems
of the Finnish rapakivi granite complexes contour with these experimental results.
In the two composite dykes described in Fig. 3, more mingling (and mixing) of the
end members is observed in the dyke showing the greater proportion of the mafic
component (Fig. 3a), and, on the other hand, more complete mixing was presumably
prevented by the large compositional gap between diabase and quartz-feldspar
porphyry ( > 2 0 ~ SiO2; Ram;C, 1991). In contrast, in the Jaala-Iitti complex that
shows more advanced mixing of comparable end members, interaction of the
components probably took place deeper in the crust (Salonsaari and Haapala, 1994)
where there was a large reservoir ofmafic magma continuously available and where
chilling of the mafic magma against the silicic magma was not so efficient as in the
upper (cooler) parts of the crust. Certain disequilibrium features in the more mafic
granite phases of the Wiborg batholith and the/~land batholith (Eklund et al., 1994),
e.g., calcic plagioclase phenocrysts, also suggest that mixing of mafic and silicic
magmas may have been involved in their evolution. It is, however, also possible that
such calcic plagioclase grains are of restitic origin.
10. Tectonic setting and relation to crustal evolution

10.1 Tectonic settin9
The common occurrence of rapakivi granite complexes along roughly linear intra-
continental zones of considerable extent (Fig. 1) and the fact that the rapakivi
granites share many of the features of the demonstrably rift-related Phanerozoic
A-type granites (cf. Loiselle and Wones, 1979; Collins et al., 1982) have led many
researchers to relate rapakivi granites to Proterozoic continental (incipient or
aborted) rifting events (e.g., Bridgwater and Windley, 1973; Emslie, 1978; Morse,
1982; Anderson, 1983; Haapala and Riim6, 1990). It has also been suggested that
the formation of some of these rocks may (Morse et al., 1988; Hill and Miller, 1990)
or may not (Emslie and Hunt, 1990; Haapala and Riim6, 1990) have been related
to advancement of a single mantle plume beneath the continental crust. Although
the overall tectonic setting of the rapakivi granite complexes is yet to be established
in detail, field and geophysical studies in Finland have provided considerable
progress in this respect.
The swarms of diabase (as well as minor quartz-feldspar porphyry) dykes tempo-
rally and spatially associated with the Finnish rapakivi granite batholiths (Fig. 2a)
clearly demonstrate that the tectonic setting during their emplacement was exten-
sional. The dyke swarms coeval with the older (1.62 to 1.65 Ga) eastern Finnish
rapakivi granites have an overall WNW-strike that roughly coincides with that of
the Jotnian (1.3 to 1.4 Ga) sandstone-filled graben in southwestern Finland, whereas
most of the dyke swarms associated with the younger (ca 1.57 Ga) western Finnish
rapakivi granites strike almost perpendicular to this. This shows that the extension
direction varied with time or area, possibly in relation to concurrent convergent

tectonics in southern Scandinavia (cf. Gower et al., 1991).
Important new constraints on the tectonic setting of the Fennoscandian rapakivi
granites have been provided by deep seismic sounding studies (Luosto et al., 1990;
Korja et al., 1993). The results of these investigations show that the rapakivi granite
complexes and the diabase dyke swarms are situated in areas where the continental
crust is relatively thin. This is well established for the Wiborg batholith where the
crust is 15 to 20 km thinner than in the surrounding areas. Moreover, beneath the
Wiborg batholith the mantle forms a dome-like structure that protrudes into the
crust. In this structure, there are two 'Moho boundaries', at depths of 40 and 50 km,
probably outlining a mafic underplate, and within the overlying crust, the Conrad
discontinuity bulges upwards. Korja et al. (1993) considered this as evidence for
vertical growth and extensional thinning of the crust in conjunction with mafic
underplating. This is in agreement with studies that relate the origin of the rapakivi
granites to the rising of mantle material eventually causing anatexis of the lower
parts of the continental crust (e.g., Bridgwater et al., 1974; Emslie, 1978; Anderson,
1983; Haapala, 1985; Wyborn et al., 1988; Riim6 and Haapala, 1990).
10.2 Relation to crustal evolution

Rapakivi granites and related igneous rocks represent the most important continen-
tal silicic intraplate magmatism, as regards volume, in geological history and,
consequently, have important bearings to the evolution of the continental crust.
This is reinforced by the fact that, as currently perceived, the majority of rapakivi
granites is overwhelming Proterozoic (1.7 to 1.0 Ga). There is still debate concerning
the relation of rapakivi granites to orogeny and the overall (global) cause (or causes)
that brought about the voluminous intracratonic magmatism.
A fundamental question is whether the igneous activity was anorogenic or
orogenic. The former relates the generation of the rapakivi granites to partial
melting and magma production in the mantle, followed by fusion of lower parts of
the continental crust because of the heat provided by mantle magmas, and genera-
tion of anatectic granitic liquids that finally are emplaced at upper crustal levels as
rapakivi granite complexes (Kranck, 1969; Bridgwater and Windley, 1973; Bridg-
water et al., 1974; Emslie, 1978; Anderson, 1983; Haapala, 1985; Riim6, 1991). The
latter postulate considers the partial melting of the lower crust as a result of tectonic
thickening Of orogenic crust (Vorma, 1976; Van Schmus and Bickford, 1981;
Windley, 1991) or relates it to later accretion (Lindh and Gorbatschev, 1984; Nelson
and DePaolo, 1985; Van Schmus, 1993). For example, when the maximum age of
the Finnish rapakivi granites was considered to be around 1.70 Ga, Vorma (1976)
suggested that the formation of the rapakivi granite magma took place during the
compressional stage of the 1.9 to 1.87 Ga Svecokarelian orogeny, and that it was
emplaced into the upper crust during the subsequent distensional post-orogenic
stage. Haapala (1985), Nurmi and Haapala (1986), Haapala and Riim6 (1990), and
R~m6 (1991) considered, however, the Finnish rapakivi granites as anorogenic and
generated by heat derived from mantle-derived magmas, now represented by gab-
broic and anorthositic rocks and diabase dykes at the present level of exposure.
The Proterozoic rapakivi granites are almost invariably located in crustal prov-
inces formed in the Early Proterozoic. Some of the Fennoscandian (Riim6, 1991;
Neymark et al., 1994), North American (Emstie, 1978; Geist et al., 1989), Siberian
(Latin and Neymark, 1992), and Amazonian (Dall'Agnol et al., 1994) rapakivi com-
plexes occur in Archean crust but nevertheless close to Proterozoic crustal provinces
(Fig. 1). An exception to this is the 1.67 Ga Shachang rapakivi granite near Beijing;
it occurs within the Archean Sino-Korean craton and is not known to be associated
with early Proterozoic orogenic belts (Riim6 et al., 1993). In general, early Proter-
ozoic crust seems to have been necessary for the formation of most Proterozoic
rapakivi granite occurrences, implying that some causal relations between early
Proterozoic orogenic belts and rapakivi granite suites may exist (HaapaIa and Ri~m6,
1990, 1992).
On a global scale, the Proterozoic rapakivi granite complexes typically occur in
metamorphic terranes that were formed a few hundred Ma prior to granite emplace-
ment. For example, the Finnish rapakivi granites are 200 to 350 Ma younger that
the Svecofennian crust (Vaasjokiet al., 1991; Haapala and Riim6, 1992), the rapakivi
granites of the midcontinental U.S.A. are 100 to 250 Ma younger than their orogenic
host (Van Schrnus et al., 1987), and the rapakivi granites of the Mt. Isa Inlier in
northeastern Australia postdate their early Proterozoic basement by about 150 Ma
(McCulloch, 1987; Wyborn et al., 1988). Accordingly, if anorogenic rocks are defined
as those emplaced >100 Ma after orogenic events (Condie, 1991), most of the
rapakivi granites fall in this category. An exception to this are the rapakivi-textured
monzonites of South Greenland. According to Gulson and Krogh (1975) the
Ketilidian metamorphic crust of South Greenland was formed only about 50 Ma
before the intrusion of these monzonites. Harrison et al. (1990a), Dempster et al.
(1991), and Brown et al. (1992) argued that the peak of metamorphism was even
closer to the ages of the monzonites and interpret their emplacement as synorogenic,
having occurred along ductile extensional shear zones. Windley (1991), by analogy
to the Himalayan orogenic belt, interpreted the rapakivi granites of South Green-
land as having been emplaced within thrust-thickened crust. This was considered
unlikely by Brown et al. (1992) who favored a back-arc environment instead.
Although the anorogenic origin of rapakivi granites seems favored, the ultimate
causes that produced most of these rocks during a fairly restricted time interval in
the Proterozoic are only vaguely understood. The profuse nature of this magmatism
during the Proterozoic has resulted in the concept of a single event that is unique
in the geological history, For example, Bridgwater and Windley (1973) suggested
that the emplacement of these rocks was due to global-scale mantle activity and
crustal rifting and coined the expression 'anorthosite event'. Later, Windley (1989)
considered the rapakivi granites of northwestern North America as early manifesta-
tions of the Grenvillian Wilson cycle with an overall duration of 500 Ma. Focusing
on the crust-upper mantle system, Anderson and Bender (1989) formulated a crustal
overturn model and related the genesis of the anorogenic granites to chemical
instability of the newly generated and vertically undifferentiated juvenile crust-
mantle system, and suggested that the unstable setting will eventually result in
considerable crustal reorganization leading to the emplacement of anatectic granitic
magmas within the upper parts of the juvenile crust. In line with this, Haapala and
Riim6 (1992) suggested that, regarding the Fennoscandian rapakivi granites, the
Svecofennian orogeny may have resulted in unstable domains in the subcontinental
mantle (e.g., late relics of subducted oceanic crust) that may have contributed to the
onset of melting in the upper mantle and the subsequent crustal anatexis. This model
can be expanded to include younger, far-located subduction zones in accretionally

growing continents.
A hypothesis that has merit in explaining the voluminous middle Proterozoic
rapakivi-related anorogenic magmatism was presented by Hoffman (1989) who
suggested that the assembly of an early Proterozoic supercontinent (Laurentia-
Baltica) that affected the thermal state of the underlying mantle and promoted
large-scale mantle upwellings (superswells) and extensive partial melting in the
upper mantle, leading to anatectic melting in the continental crust and generation
of anorogenic granites. According to Hoffman (1989), prior to the Middle Proter-
ozoic, the total mass of the continental crust may have been inadequate to produce
supercontinents large enough to promote superswells, and, after the Middle Proter-
ozoic, the mantle would have been cooler and thus incapable of causing major
melting episodes.
11. Conclusions
The numerous rapakivi plutons in Precambrian cratonic areas in different parts
of the world show that rapakivi magmatism has played an important role in the
evolution of the Proterozoic continental crust. Although relevant information on
the rapakivi granites is still fragmentary and each rapakivi pluton has its own special
character, generalized conclusions regarding the age, geotectonic setting, magmatic
association, petrography, geochemistry, metallogeny (Haapala, 1995), and petro-
genesis of the rapakivi granites can be made.
(1) Most of the rapakivi granites are early to middle Proterozoic (mainly 1.0 to
1.75 Ga) but Archean (2.8 Ga), late Proterozoic (0.57 to 0.59 Ga), and Phaner-
ozoic (0.05 to 0.4 Ga) occurrences are also known. The rapakivi granites in the
Aldan shield (Siberia) are 1.7 to 1.9 Ga old, those in the Ukraine and the
rapakivi-textured monzonites of South Greenland are dated at about 1.75 Ga.
1.5 to 1.7 Ga rapakivi granites are known from southeastern Fennoscandia,
central Labrador and the Grenville Province, Venezuela, Amazonas (Brazil),
northern and southern Australia, and China. The ages of the rapakivi granites
and related anorogenic granites of the Trans-North American belt extending
from Labrador to southern California are between 1.0 to 1.46 Ga, and comprise
three groups: 1.02 to 1.08, 1.34 to 1.41, and 1.41 to 1.49 Ga. In Rond6nia,
Amazonian Craton, the ages of the rapakivi granites range from 0.95 to 1.4 Ga
(Rb-Sr age groups 0.95 to 1.05 and 1.18 to 1.4 Ga). Typically, rapakivi granites
intrude 0.1 to 0.35 Ga older early Proterozoic metamorphic crust; in a few cases
Archean crust. An exception are the rapakivi monzonites of South Greenland
that are < 0.05 Ga younger than the surrounding orogenic province.
(2) Graben structures and swarms of subparallel diabase dykes indicate exten-
sional setting during the emplacement of the rapakivi granites. Typically, the
rapakivi plutons are epizonal or subvolcanic intrusions and range from small
stocks to huge batholiths (up to 40,000 km2). The plutons are often zoned
(centered plutons or ring complexes) suggesting a cauldron subsidence em-
placement mechanism. Seismic soundings and gravimetric models indicate that
the rapakivi batholiths of southeastern Fennoscandia are subhorizontal sheet-
like intrusions (laccoliths) located in areas of relatively thin crust (i.e., in areas
where mantle bulges up).
174 O. T. R~rn6 and I. Haapala
(3) Rapakivi magmatism is commonly (perhaps regularly) bimodal (mafic-felsic).

The mafic members are gabbros, norites, anorthosites, diabase dykes, and
basalts, the felsic members subalkaline (often rapakivi-textured) granites and
monzonites, quartz-feldspar porphyry dykes, rhyolites, and rare syenites and
peralkaline granites. Intermediate rocks (ferrodiorites, monzodiorites, jotu-
nites) are found in some areas. The relative amounts of the mafic and felsic
members vary markedly, obviously in concert with the general level of erosion
in any one area. In Finland, central and western U.S.A., and Brazil the amount
of mafic rocks is small, whereas in Labrador the mafic rocks predominate.
Intermediate rocks and monzonites are present in complexes where mafic rocks
are abundant. Syenitic rocks occur in some rapakivi complexes, often in associ-
ation with mafic plutonic rocks. Peralkaline granites (and syenites) are found,
together with subalkaline granites, among the late intrusive phases in some
rapakivi complexes in the Amazonia, Fennoscandia, and presumably also in
Labrador.
(4) Geochemically, the rapakivi granites are metaluminous to slightly peralumi-
nous rocks characterized by higher Si, Fe/Mg, F, K, Zn, Ga, Rb, Zr, Hi', Th,
U, and REE (except Eu), and lower Ca, Mg, A1, P, and Sr abundances than
granitic rocks in general. In discrimination diagrams they plot in the field
of A-type granites and within-plate granites. The typical evolutionary trend
fayalite-biotite-hornblende granite ---, biotite-hornblende granite ~ biotite
granite ~ topaz-bearing microcline-albite granite is marked by gradual in-
crease in Si, F, Ga, Rb, Sn, and Nb, and decrease in Ti, A1, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ca,
Ba, Sr, Sc, and Zr. Area-weighted mean compositions of the sheet-like intrusives
(e.g., the Wiborg batholith) probably approach the composition of their initial
magmas.
(5) Rapakivi granite complexes host important Sn-polymetallic and Fe-Cu de-
posits. Greisen-, skarn-, and vein-type Sn ( - W - B e - Z n - P b - A g ) deposits are
associated with geochemically and mineralogically specialized topaz-bearing
microcline-albite granites (e.g., in Brazil, Missouri, Finland, and Russian
Karelia). The latter show the same petrographic, mineralogical, and geochemi-
cal peculiarities as Phanerozoic tin granites. Important Fe-Cu or ( F e - ) C u - U -
Au-Ag deposits occur in conjunction with rapakivi granite complexes in south-
eastern Missouri and South Australia (the Olympic Dam deposit).
(6) The rapakivi granites crystallized generally from high-temperature restite-poor
magmas at a low confining pressure, aH2o, and ao2. Petrographic and mineral-
ogical features indicate a multiphase crystallization history. The mantling of
the ovoidal perthite megacrysts by plagioclase can be explained by alternating
feldspar stabilities related to changes in magma composition (mixing or inter-
mingling of magmas, gravitative settling of megacrysts in compositionally
layered magma chambers), pressure, temperature, and all2o.
(7) The initial Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic composition of the rapakivi granites is, in
most cases, compatible with a lower crustal (early Proterozoic and/or Archean)
protolith. Isotopic composition of the mafic rocks associated with rapakivi
granites in Proterozoic crustal provinces is generally compatible with a mantle
origin. In complexes that occur in conjunction with Archean crust the mafic
rocks usually show very unradiogenic Nd and Pb isotopic ratios, indicative of
crustal contamination or an enriched mantle source.
(8) Petrochemical models suggests that the protolith of many subalkaline granites
was an intermediate to acid igneous or metaigneous rock in the middle or lower
parts of the crust. The protolith underwent partial melting initiated by break-
down of mafic F-enriched hydrous silicates (biotite, amphibole) to produce
metaluminous/marginally peraluminous initial magmas whose subsequent
evolution was largely controlled by fractionation of feldspars, quartz, and
subalkaline marie silicates. Mixing of marie and silicic magmas may have been
important in the formation of some of the intermediate rocks, and a mantle
component may have contributed to some of the peralkaline rocks associated
with the subalkaline granites. The late-stage topaz-bearing microcline-albite
granites show marked subsolidus reactions and are occasionally thoroughly
hydrothermally altered. Stable isotope (O, H) data suggest that meteoric-
hydrothermal alteration was probably very restricted.
(9) The mode of occurrence, tectonic setting, age relations, magmatic association,
and chemical and isotopic composition of the rapakivi granites are compatible
with a model postulating that the generation of rapakivi granites and asso-
ciated marie rocks involves partial melting of both upper mantle and lower/
middle continental crust. Enhanced partial fusion and upwelling of mantle
material caused partial melting of the felsic-intermediate crust producing
rapakivi granite magmas. Derivatives of the mantle magmas are diabase dykes,
gabbros, and anorthosites, and probably also some intermediate rocks
(ferrodiorites).
(10) Although the overall status of the rapakivi magmatism is anorogenic, its
indirect causal connection to orogeny, via formation of early Proterozoic
orogenic crust, is obvious in most cases. Establishment of an early/middle
Proterozoic supercontinent could have been the reason for the formation of
most of the Proterozoic rapakivi granites. The possibility of convergent pro-
cesses causing chemical changes in the mantle eventually leading to crustal
melting and rapakivi magmatism should form the subject of future studies.
Acknowledgments
It has been a great pleasure for us to meet and discuss with rapakivi granite researchers of
different countries at the inaugural stage of the rapakivi granite IGCP Project. In this
context, we would like to express our thanks especially to R. F. Emslie and A. B. Ryan for
providing us with the latest data on rapakivi occurrences in Canada and L. J. Robb for those
of southern Africa. W. W. Boyd, Jr., A. Kohl, and J. Tarney reviewed the manuscript and
their comments improved (and shortened) it substantially. We would also like to express
our sincere gratitude to E. F. Stumpfl for his editorial comments. R. Fagerstr6m drafted
most of the figures.
References
Abbott RN Jr (1978) Peritectic relations in the system An-Ab-Or-Qz H20. Can Mineral
16:245-256
Amelin Yu, Beljaev A, Larin A, Neymark, L, Stepanov K (1991) Salmi batholith and
Pitk~iranta ore field in Soviet Karelia. IGCP Project 315 Symposium Rapakivi Granites
176 O.T. R/im6 and I. Haapala
and Related Rocks Excursion Guide (edited by Haapala l, Ram60T, Salonsaari PT).
Geol Surv Finland Guide 33, 57 pp
Anderson JL (1980) Mineral equilibria and crystallization conditions in the late Precambrian
Wolf River rapakivi massif, Wisconsin. Am J Sci 280:289-332
Anderson JL (1983) Proterozoic anorogenic granite plutonism of North America. In: Medaris
LG Jr, Byers CW, Mickelson DM, Shanks WC (eds) Proterozoic geology: selected papers
from an international Proterozoic symposium. Geol Soc Am Mem 161:133-154
Anderson JL, Bender EE (1989) Nature and origin of Proterozoic A-type granitic mag-
matism in the southwestern United States of America. Lithos 23:19-52
Anderson JL, Cullers RL (1978) Geochemistry and evolution of the Wolf River batholith, a
late Precambrian rapakivi massif in North Wisconsin, U.S.A. Precambrian Res 7: 287-
324
Ashwal LD (1993) Anorthosites, minerals and rocks 21. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New
York Tokyo, 422 pp
Ashwal LD, Wooden JL, Emslie RF (1986) Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes in Proterozoic intrusives
astride the Grenville Front in Labrador: implications for crustal contamination and
basement mapping. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 50:2571-2585
Ayuso RA (1984) Field relations, crystallization, and petrology of reversely zoned granitic
plutons in the Bottle Lake complex, Maine. US Geol Surv Prof Pap 1320, 58 pp
Backlund HG (1938) The problems of the rapakivi granites. J Geol 46:339-396
Bailey DK, Schairer JF (1966) The system Na/O-A1203-Fe203-SiO 2 at 1 atmosphere, and
the petrogenesis of alkaline rocks. J Petrol 7:114-170
Barker F, Wones DR, Sharp WN, Desborough GA (1975) The Pikes Peak batholith, Colorado
Front Range, and a model for the origin of the gabbro-anorthosite-syenite-potassic
granite suite. Precambrian Res 2:97-160
Barker F, Hedge CE, Millard H T Jr, O'Neil JR (1976) Pikes Peak batholith: geochemistry
of some minor elements and isotopes, and implications for magma genesis. In: Epis RC,
Weimer RJ (eds) Studies in Colorado field geology. Prof Contrib Colorado School of
Mines 8:44-56
Basu AR, PettingilI HS (1983) Origin and age of Adirondack anorthosites re-evaluated with
Nd isotopes. Geology 11:514-518
Bennert VC, DePaolo DJ (1987) Proterozoic crustal history of the western United States as
determined by neodymium isotopic mapping. Geol Soc Am Bull 99:674-685
Bergman L (1986) Structure and mechanism of intrusion of postorogenic granites in the
archipelago of southwestern Finland. Acta Acad Aboensis Ser B 46 (5), 74 pp
Bettencourt JS, Dall'Agnol R (1987) The Rondonian tin-bearing anorogenic granites and
associated mineralization. International Symposium on Granites and Associated miner-
alizations (ISGAM), Salvador, Balia, Brazil, January 21-31, 1987. Excursion Guide,
pp 49-86
Bickford ME, Mose DG (1975) Geochronology of Precambrian rocks in the St. Francois
Mountains, southeastern Missouri. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 165, 48 pp
Bickford ME, Sides JR, Cullers RL (1981) Chemical evolution of magmas in the Proterozoic
terrane of the St. Francois Mountains, southeastern Missouri 1. Field, petrographic, and
major element data. J Geophys Res 86 B11:10365-10386
Birkett TC, Miller RR, Roberts A, Mariano AN (1992) Zirconium-bearing minerals of the
Strange Lake intrusive complex, Quebec-Labrador. Can Mineral 30:191-205
Bowden P, Kinnaird JA (1984) The petrology and geochemistry of alkaline granites from
Nigeria. Phys Earth Planet Inter 35:199-211
Bowden P, Bennett JN, Whitley JE, Moyes AB (1979) Rare earths in Nigerian Mesozoic
granites and related rocks. In: Ahrens LH (ed) Origin and distribution of the elements,
2rid ed. Pergamon, Oxford, pp 479-491
Bridgwater D, Windley BF (1973) Anorthosites, post-orogenic granites, acid volcanic rocks
and crustal development in the North Atlantic Shield during the mid-Proterozoic. Geol
Soc S Africa Spec Publ 3:307-317
Bridgwater D, Sutton J, Watterson J (1974) Crustal down-folding associated with igneous
activity. Tectonophysics 21:57-77
Brown PE, Dempster T J, Harrison TN, Hutton D H W (1992) The rapakivi granites of S
Greenland--crustal melting in response to extensional tectonics and magmatic under-
plating. Trans Royal Soc Edinburgh Earth Sci 83:173-178
Bussy F (1990) The rapakivi texture of feldspars in a plutonic mixing environment: a
dissolution-recrystallization process? Geol J 25:319-324
Carmichael ISE, Turner F J, Verhoogen J (1974) Igneous petrology. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 739 pp
Chattopadhyay B, Chattopadhyay S, Bapna VS (1994) Geology and geochemistry of the
Degana pluton--a Proterozoic rapakivi granite in Rajasthan, India. Mineral Petrol 50:
69-82
Cherry ME, Trembath L T (1978) The pressure quench formation of rapakivi texture. Contrib
Mineral Petrol 68:1-6
Christiansen EH, Burt DM, Sheridan MF, Wilson R T (1983) The petrogenesis of topaz
rhyolites from the western United States. Contrib Mineral Petrol 83:16-30
Clemens JD, Vielzeuf D (1987) Constraints on melting and magma production in the crust.
Earth Planet Sci Lett 86:287-306
Clemens JD, Holloway JR, White A JR (1986) Origin of an A-type granite: experimental
constraints. Am Mineral 71:317-324
Collerson KD (1982) Geochemistry and Rb-Sr geochronology of associated Proterozoic
peralkaline and subalkaline anorogenic granites from Labrador. Contrib Mineral Petrol
81:126-147
Collins W J, Beams SD, White A JR, Chappell B W (1982) Nature and origin of A-type granites
with particular reference to southeastern Australia. Contrib Mineral Petrol 80:189-200
Compston W, Crawford AR, Bofinger VM (1966) A radiometric estimate of the duration of
sedimentation in the Adelaide geosyncline, South Australia. J Geol Soc Australia 13(1):
229-276
Condie KC (1989) Plate tectonics and crustal evolution, 3rd ed. Pergamon Press, Oxford,
476 pp
Condie KC (1991) Precambrian granulites and anorogenic granites: are they related? In:
Haapala I, Condie KC (eds) Precambrian granitoids--petrogenesis, geochemistry and
metallogeny. Precambrian Res 51:161-172
Creaser R (1990) Sr isotope discordance patterns in hydrothermally altered Porterozoic
granites. 7th Intern Conf Geochron Cosmoehron Isot Geol (Abstract Vol). Geol Soc
Australia Abstracts 27:22
Creaser RA, White A JR (1991) Yardea dacite--large-volume, high-temperature felsic volca-
nism from the middle Proterozoic of South Australia. Geology 19:48-51
Creaser RA, Price R C, Wormald RJ (1991) A-type granites revisited: assessment of a residual-
source model. Geology 19:163-166
Cullers RL, Koch R J, Biekford ME (1981) Chemical evolution of magmas in the Proterozoic
terrane of the St. Francois Mountains, southeastern Missouri 2. Trace element data.
J Geophys Res 86 Bll: 10388-10401
Dall'Agnol R, Lafon JM, Maeambira MJB (1994) Proterozoic anorogenic magmatism in
the Central Amazonian Province, Amazonian Craton: geochronological, petrological
and geochemical aspects. Mineral Petrol 50:113-138
Dempster T J, Hutton DHW, Harrison TN, Brown PE, Jenkin GRT (1991) Textural evolu-
tion of the rapakivi granites, south Greenland--Sr, O and H isotopic investigations.
Contrib Mineral Petrol 107:459-471
DePaolo DJ (1981) Neodymium isotopes in the Colorado Front Range and crust-mantle
178 O.Y. R/im6 and I. Haapala
evolution in the Proterozoic. Nature 291:193-196

DePaolo DJ, Wasserbur9 GJ (1976) Nd isotopic variations and petrogenetic models. Geo-
phys Res Lett 3:249-252
Duchesne JC (1984) Massif anorthosites: another partisan review. In: Brown WL (ed) Feld-
spars and feldspathoids. D Reidel, pp 411-433
Eby GN (1990) The A-type granitoids: a review of their occurrence and chemical characteris-
tics and speculations on their petrogenesis. Lithos 26:115-134
Eden P (1991) A specialized topaz-bearing rapakivi granite and associated mineralized
greisen in the Ahvenisto complex, SE Finland. Bull Geol Soc Finland 63(1): 25-40
o
EhIers C, Ehlers M (1977) Shearing and multiple intrusion in the diabases of Aland archipel-
ago, SW Finland. Geol Surv Finland Bull 289, 31 pp
Eklund 0 (1993) Coeval contrasting magmatism and magma mixing in Proterozoic post-
and anorogenic granites, Aland, SW Finland. Department of Geology, Abo Akademi
University, Abo, Finland, 57 pp
Eklund O, Lindber9 B, Johanson B (1989) Origin of ocellar textures in postorogenic granitoids
and related mafic dykes, Aland, southwestern Finland. In: Haapala I, Kiihk6nen Y (eds)
Symposium Precambrian Granitoids Abstracts. Geol Surv Finland Spec Pap 8:40
Eklund O, Fr6jd6 S, Lindber9 B (1994) Ma~gma mixing, the petrogenetic link between
anorthositic suites and rapakivi granites, Aland, SW Finland. Mineral Petrol 50:3-19
Emslie RF (1978) Anorthosite massifs, rapakivi granites, and late Proterozoic rifting of
North America. Precamb Res 7:61-98
Emslie RF (1980) Geology and petrology of the Harp Lake complex, central Labrador: an
example of Elsonian magmatism. Geol Surv Canada Bull 293:136 pp
Emslie RF (1991) Granitoids of rapakivi granite--anorthosite and related associations. In:
metallogeny. Precamb Res 51:173-192
Emslie RF, Hunt PA (1990) Ages and petrogenetic significance of igneous mangerite-
charnockite suites associated with massif anorthosites, Grenville province. J Geol 98:
213-231
EmsIie RF, Loveridge WD (1992) Fluorite-bearing Early and Middle Proterozoic granites,
Okak Bay area, Labrador: geochronology, geochemistry, and petrogenesis. Lithos 28:
87-109
Emslie RF, Cousens B, Hamblin C, Bielecki J (1980) The Mistastin batholith, Labrador-
Quebec: an Elsonian composite rapakivi suite. Geol Surv Can Curr Res Part A, pp
95-100
Esipchuk KYe (1991) Rapakivi granites of the Ukrainian shield: phases and facies. In:
Haapala I, R 6 m 6 0 T (eds) Symposium on Rapakivi Granites and Related Rocks (Ab-
stract Volume). Geol Surv Finland Guide 34:16
Faure G (1986) Principles of isotope geology, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York Chichester, 589 pp
Fountain JC, Hodge DS, Hills FA (1981) Geochemistry and petrogenesis of the Laramie
anorthosite complex, Wyoming. Lithos 14:113-132
Frost TP, Mahood GA (1987) Field, chemical, and physical constraints on mafic-felsic
magma interaction in the Lamarck granodiorite, Sierra Nevada, California. Geol Soc
Am Bull 99:272-291
Fuhrman ML, Lindsley DH (1988) Ternary-feldspar modeling and thermometry. Am Mineral
73:201-215
Gates RM (1953) Petrogenetic significance of perthite. Geol Soc Am Mem 52:55-69
Gaudette HE, Mendoza V, Hurley PM, Fairbairn H W (1978) Geology and age of the
Parguaza rapakivi granite, Venezuela. Geol Soc Am Bull 89:1335-1340
Geist DJ, Frost CD, Kolker A, Frost BR (1989) Geochemical study of magmatism across a
major terrane boundary: Sr and Nd isotopes in Proterozoic granitoids of the southern
Laramie Range, Wyoming. J Geol 97:331-342
Geist DJ, Frost CD, Kolker A (1990) Sr and Nd isotopic constraints on the origin of the
Laramie Anorthosite Complex, Wyoming. Am Mineral 75:13-20
Gower CF, Ryan AB, Rivers T (1991) Mid-Proterozoic Laurentia-Baltica: an overview of
its geological evolution and a summary of the contributions made by this volume. In:
Gower CF, Rivers T, Ryan AB (eds) Mid-Proterozoic Laurentia-Baltica. Geol Ass Can
Spec Pap 38:1-20
Gulson BL, Krogh TE (1975) Evidence of multiple intrusion, possible resetting of U-Pb ages,
and new crystallization of zircons in the post-tectonic intrusions ('Rapakivi granites')
and gneisses from South Greenland. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 39:65-82
Haapala I (1977) Petrography and geochemistry of the Eurajoki stock, a rapakivi-granite
complex with greisen-type mineralization in southwestern Finland. Geol Surv Finland
Bull 286, 128 pp
Haapala I (1985) Metallogeny of the Proterozoic rapakivi granites of Finland. In: Taylor
RP, Stron9 DF (eds) Granite-related mineral deposits: geology, petrogenesis, and tec-
tonic setting. Extended Abstracts of Papers Presented at the Canadian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy Conference on Granite-Related Mineral Deposits, Sept 15-17,
1985. Halifax, Canada, pp 123-131
Haapala 1 (1989) The Eurajoki stock. In: Ehlers C, Haapala I (eds) Rapakivi granites and
postorogenic granites of southwestern Finland. Symposium Precambrian Granitoids--
Petrogenesis, geochemistry and metallogeny, Excursion A1. Geol Surv Finland Guide
27:35-38
Haapala I (1995) Metallogeny of the Rapakivi Granites. Mineral Petrol (in press)
HaapaIa I, R ~ m 6 0 T (1990) Petrogenesis of the Proterozoic rapakivi granites of Finland.
In: Stein H J, Hannah JL (eds) Ore-bearing granite systems: petrogenesis and mineralizing
processes. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 246:275-286
Haapala I, Riim60 T (1992) Tectonic setting and origin of the Proterozoic rapakivi granites
of southeastern Fennoscandia. Trans R Soc Edinburgh: Earth Sci 83:165-171
Halliday AN, Luukkonen E J, Bowes DR (1988) Rb-Sr whole-rock isotopic study of late
Archaean and early Proterozoic granitoid intrusions, Kainuu, Eastern Finland. Bull
Geol Soc Finland 60:107-113
Halls HC, Fahri9 WF (eds) (1987) Geological Survey of Canada Map 1627A. Supplement
to: Mafic dyke swarms. Geol Ass Can Spec Pap 34, 503 pp
Hamilton MA, Morse SA (1988) 2.3 Ga source enrichment of Labrador anorthosites
and gabbros. Geol Ass Can--Min Ass Can--Can Soc Petrol Geol Progr Abst 13:
A51
Harpum JR (1961) Granitic and metamorphic associations in Tanganyika. In: Sorgenfrei T
(ed) Report of the twenty-first session Norden. 21st Intern Geol Congr Part XXVI,
pp 42-53
Harris NBW, Inger S (1992) Trace element modelling of pelite-derived granites. Contrib
Harris NBW, MarrinerGF (1980) Geochemistry and petrogenesis of a peralkaline granite
complex from the Midian mountains, Saudi Arabia. Lithos 13:325-337
Harrison TN, Brown PE, Dempster T J, Hutton DHW, Beeker SM (1990a) Granite mag-
matism and extensional tectonics in Southern Greenland. Geol J 25:287-293
Harrison TN, Reavy R J, Finch AA, Brown PE (1990b) Co-existing mafic and felsic magmas
in the early Proterozoic rapakivi granite suite of Southern Greenland. Bull Geol Soc
Denmark 38:53-58
Heath SA, Fairbairn H W (1969) Sr87/Sr 86 ratios in anorthosites and some associated rocks.
In: Isachsen Y W (ed) Origin of anorthosites and related rocks. NY State Mus Sci Serv
Mem 18:99-110
Hewitt CH (1959) Geology and mineral deposits of the Northern Big Burro Mountains--
Redrock area, Grant county, New Mexico. New Mexico Inst Min Tech Bull 60, 151 pp
t80 O. T. Rfim6 and I. Haapala
Hibbard MJ (1981) The magma mixing origin of mantled feldspars. Contrib Mineral Petrol
76:158-170
Hill JD (1982) Geology of the Flowers River--Notakwanon River area, Labrador. Min Dev
Div, Dept Mines and Energy, Gov Newfoundland and Labrador, Rep 82-6, 148 pp
Hill JD, Miller RR (1990) A review of middle Proterozoic epigenic felsic magmatism in
Labrador. In: Gower CF, Rivers T, Ryan AB (eds) Mid-Proterozoic Laurentia-Baltica.
Geol Ass Can Spec Paper 38:417-431
Hoefs J, Epstein S (1969) O18/O 16 ratios of minerals from migmatites, rapakivi granites and
orbicular rocks. Lithos 2:1-8
Hoffman PF (1989) Speculations on Laurentia's first gigayear (2.0 to 1.0 Ga). Geology 17:
135-138
Horbe M A, Horbe A C, Costi H T, Teixeira J T ( 1991) Geochemical characteristics of cryolite-
tin-bearing granites from the Pitinga Mine, northwestern Brazil--A review. J Geochem
Explor 40:227-249
Huhma H (1986) Sm-Nd, U-Pb and Pb-Pb isotopic evidence for the origin of the Early
Proterozoic Svecokarelian crust in Finland. Geol Surv Finland Bull 337, 48 pp
Idman H (1989) The Siipyy granite--a new rapakivi occurrence in Finland. Bull Geol Soc
Finland 61:123-127
lrvine TN, Baragar WRA (1971) A guide to the chemical classification of the common
volcanic rocks. Can J Earth Sci 8:523-548
Janasi VA, Ulbrich HHGJ (1991) Late Proterozoic magmatism in the state of S~.o Pauto,
southeastern Brazil. In: Haapala I, Condie KC (eds) Precambrian granitoids--
petrogenesis, geochemistry and metallogeny. Precamb Res 51:351 374
Johannes W, Holtz F (1990) Formation and composition of H20-undersaturated granitic
melts. In Ashworth JR, Brown M (eds) High temperature metamorphism and crustal
anatexis. Unwin Hyman, London, pp 87-104
dohanson BS (1989) M onzodioritic rocks of the gabbro-anorthosite complex associated with
the Ahvenisto rapakivi granite batholith, southern Finland. In: Haapala I, Kiihk6nen Y
(eds) Symposium Precambrian Granitoids (Abstracts). Geol Surv Finland Spec Pap 8:74
Kalsbeek F, Taylor PN (1985) Isotopic and chemical variation in granites across a
Proterozoic continental margin--the Ketilidian mobile belt of South Greenland. Earth
Planet Sci Lett 73:65-80
Kanerva I (1928) Uber das Rapakivigebiet yon Vehmaa im siidwestlichen Finnland. Fennia
50 (40), 25 pp
Katz HR, Waterhouse BC (1970) Geological reconnaissance of the Scott Glacier area,
south-eastern Queen Maud Range, Antarctica. NZ J Geol Geophys 13:1030-1037
Kisvarsanyi EB (1980) Granitic ring complexes and Precambrian hot-spot activity in the St.
Francois terrane, Midcontinent region, United States. Geology 8:43 47
Kisvarsanyi EB, Kisvarsanyi G (199t) Alkaline granite ring complexes and metallogeny in
the middle Proterozoic St. Francois Terrane, southeastern Missouri, U.S.A.. In: Gower
CF, Rivers T, Ryan AB (eds) Mid-Proterozoic Laurentia-Baltica. Geol Ass Canada Spec
Pap 38:433-446
Korja A, Elo S (1990) Crustal and upper mantle structure of the Wiborg batholith, SE
Finland. Abstracts of the second symposium on the Baltic shield held in Lund, Sweden,
June 5-7, 1990, p 57
Korja A, Korja T, Luosto U, Heikkinen P (1993) Seismic and geoelectric evidence for
collisional and extensional events in the Fennoscandian Shield--implications for
Precambrian crustal evolution. Tectonophysics 219:129-152
Kornfiilt KA (1976) Petrology of the Ragunda rapakivi massif, central Sweden. Sveriges
Geologiska Unders6kning Ser C 725, 111 pp
Kranck EH (1969) Anorthosites and rapakivi, magmas from the lower crust. In: Isachsen
YW (ed) Origin of anorthosite and related rocks. NY State Mus Sci Serv Mem 18:93-97
Kuroda Y, Yamada T, Fujimoto K, Suzuoki T, Matsuo S (1978) Hydrogen isotope study

on biotite and hornblende from Finnish granitic rocks. Geochem J 12:259-263
Kiister D, Harms U (1991) Late Proterozoic/early Paleozoic rapakivi-granitoids in NE-
Africa. Evidence for Pan-African crustal consolidation. In: Haapala I, R i i m 6 0 T (eds)
Symposium on Rapakivi Granites and Related Rocks (Abstract Volume). Geol Surv
Finland Guide 34:31
Laitakari 1 (1969) On the set of olivine diabase dikes in H/ime, Finland. Bull Comm G6ol
Finlande 241, 65 pp
Latin A, Neymark L (1992) Trans-Siberian Proterozoic (1.7 to 1.9 Ga) anorogenic
anorthosite-rapakivi-like granite-acid volcanic belt. 29th Intern Geol Congr Abst Vol
2/3, p 563
Laurdn L (1970) An interpretation of the negative gravity anomalies associated with the
rapakivi granites and the Jotnian sandstone in southern Finland. Geologiska F6renin-
gens i Stockholm F6rhandlingar 92:21-34
Lindber9 B, Eklund 0 (1992) Mixing between basaltic and granitic magmas in a rapakivi
related quartz-feldspar porphyry, Aland, SW Finland. Geologiska F6reningens i Stock-
holm F6rhandlingar 114(1): 103-112
Lindh A, Gorbatschev R (1984) Chemical variation in a Proterozoic suite of granitoids
extending across a mobile belt-craton boundary. Geol Rundschau 73 (3): 881-893
Lintala J, Haapala I, Boyd W W Jr (1991) Rapakivi textures from the Wiborg batholith. In:
Haapala I, R i i m 6 0 T (eds) Symposium on Rapakivi Granites and Related Rocks
(Abstract Volume). Geol Surv Finland Guide 34:33
Loiselle MC, Wones DR (1979) Characteristics and origin of anorogenic granites. Geol Soc
Am Abst Progr 11:468
Loveridge WD, Eade KE, Roddick JC (1987) Radiogenic age and isotopic studies: report 1.
Geol Surv Canada Pap 87-2:67-71
Lowell GR, Hagni RD (1989) Alteration and mineralization of the Einstein vein, Silver Mine
district, Missouri. In: Brown VM, Kisvarsanyi EB, Hagni RD (eds) "Olympic Dam-type"
deposits and geology of Middle Proterozoic Rocks in the St. Francois Mountains
Terrane, Missouri. Soc Econ Geol Guidebook Ser 4:133-155
Lundqvist Th (1979) The Precambrian of Sweden. Sveriges Geologiska Unders6kning C
768, 87 pp
Luosto U, Tiira T, Korhonen H, Azbel I, Burmin V, Buyanov A, Kosminskaya I, Ionkis V,
Sharov N (1990) Crust and upper mantle structure along the DSS Baltic profile in SE
Finland. Geophys J Int 101: 89-110
Luth WC (1969) The systems NaA1Si3Os-SiO 2 and KA1Si3Os-SiO 2 to 20 kb and the
relationship between H 2 0 content, Pn2o, and Ptota~in granitic magmas. Am J Sci 267A:
325-341
Luukkonen EJ (1988) The structure and stratigraphy of the northern part of the late Archean
Kuhmo Greenstone Belt, eastern Finland. In: Marttila E (ed) Archean geology of the
Fennoscandian Shield. Proceedings of a Finnish-Soviet Symposium in Finland, July
28-August 7, 1986. Geol Surv Finland Spec Pap 4:71-96
Macambira MJB, Teixeira JT, Daoud WEK, Costi H T (1987) Geochemistry, mineraliza-
tions and age of tin-bearing granites from Pitinga, northwestern Brazil. Revista Brasileira
Geosei 17(4): 562-570
McCulloch M T (1987) Sm-Nd isotopic constraints on the evolution of Precambrian crust
in the Australian continent. In: Kr6ner A (ed) Proterozoic lithospheric evolution. AGU
Geodyn Ser 17:115-130
McLelland JM, Chiarenzelli J (1990) Isotopic constraints on emplacement age of anorthosi-
tic rocks of the Marcy masiff, Adirondack Mts., New York. J Geol 98:19-41
McLelland J, Whitney P (1990) Anorogenic, bimodal emplacement of anorthositic, char-
nockitic, and related rocks in the Adirondack Mountains, New York. In: Stein H J,
Hannah JL (eds) Ore-bearing granite systems: petrogenesis and mineralizing processes.

Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 246:301-315
Meyers RE, Emslie RF (1977) The Harp dikes and their relationship to the Helikian
geological record in central Labrador. Can J Earth Sci 14:2683-2696
Miyashiro A, Aki K, Sen96r A M C (1982) Orogeny. Wiley, Chichester New York, 242 pp
Moore M, Robb L J, Davis DW, Grobler DF, Jackson MC (1992) U-Pb zircon dates from
an Archaean rapakivi granite--anorthosite--rhyolite complex in the Witwatersrand
Hinterland, southern Africa. Econ Geol Res Unit, Univ Witwatersrand, Inform Circ 260,
I5 pp
Morse SA (1982) A partisan review of Proterozoic anorthosites. Am Mineral 67:1087-1100
Morse SA, Olson KE, Hamilton MA (1988) Massif anorthosite as a key to Proterozoic
megatectonics. Geol Ass Can, Min Ass Can, Can Soc Petroleum Geol, Joint Ann Meeting
Progr Abst 13:A87
Nekvasil H (1991) Ascent of felsic magma and formation of rapakivi. Am Mineral 76:
1279-1290
Nelson BK, DePaolo DJ (1985) Rapid production of continental crust 1.7 to 1.9 b.y. ago:
Nd isotopic evidence from the basement of the North American mid-continent. Geol Soc
Am Bull 96:746-754
Neymark LA, Amelin JV, Latin AM (1994) Pb-Nd-Sr isotopic and geochemical constraints
on the origin of the 1.54-1.56 Ga Salmi rapakivi granite-anorthosite batholith (Karelia,
Russia). Mineral Petrol 50:173-193
Nurmi PA, Haapala I (1986) The Proterozoic granitoids of Finland: granite types,
metallogeny and relation to crustal evolution. Bull Geol Soc Finland 58:203-233
Olson KE (1992) The petrology and geochemistry of mafic igneous rocks in the anorthosite-
bearing Adirondack Highlands, New York. J Petrol 33:471-502
Papanastassiou DA, Wasserburg GJ (1969) Initial strontium isotopic abundances and the
resolution of small time differences in the formation of planetary objects. Earth Planet
Sci Lett 5:361-376
Patchett P J, Bridowater D (1984) Origin of continental crust of 1.9-1.7 Ga age defined by
Nd isotopes in the Ketilidian terrain of South Greenland. Contrib Mineral Petrol 87:
311-318
Patchett J, Kouvo 0 (1986) Origin of continental crust of 1.9-1.7 Ga age. Nd isotopes and
U-Pb zircon ages in the Svecokarelian terrain of South Finland. Contrib Mineral Petrol
92:1-12
Patchett P J, Kouvo O, Hedge CE, Tatsumoto M (1981) Evolution of continental crust and
mantle heterogeneity: evidence from Hf isotopes. Contrib Mineral Petrol 78:279-297
Pearce JA, Harris NBW, Tindle AG (1984) Trace element discrimination diagrams for the
tectonic interpretation of granitic rocks. J Petrol 25:956-983
Philpotts AR (1966) Origin of anorthosite-mangerite rocks in southern Quebec. J Petrol 7:
1-64
Podkovyrov VN (1991) The Berdiaush rapakivi, models of crystallization and initial
metasomatic transformations. In: Haapala I, Rgtm60T (eds) Symposium on Rapakivi
Granites and Related Rocks (Abstract Volume). Geol Surv Finland Guide 34:38
Popoff B (1897) Ellipsoidische Einsprenglinge des finl/indischen Rapakiwigranites. Trav Soc
Imp Nat St Petersbourg 27:1-50 (in Russian with German abstract)
R i i m 6 0 T (1989) Silicic-basic magmatism associated with rapakivi granites: petrography
and petrology of composite diabase-quartz porphyry dykes and K-feldspar diabases
in the Suomenniemi complex, southeastern Finland. In: Haapala I, Kiihk6nen Y (eds)
Symposium Precambrian Granitoids (Abstract). Geol Surv Finland Spec Pap 8: 105-106
Ri~m60T (1991) Petrogenesis of the Proterozoic rapakivi granites and related basic rocks
of southeastern Fennoscandia: Nd and Pb isotopic and general geochemical constraints.
Geol Surv Finland Bull 355, 161 pp
RSm60T, Haapala I (1990) The rapakivi granites of eastern Fennoscandia: a review with
insights into their origin in the light of new Sm-Nd isotopic data. In: Gower CF, Rivers
T, Ryan AB (eds) Mid-Proterozoic Laurentia-Baltica. Geol Ass Can Spec Pap 38:
401-415
Riim6 0T, Haapala I, Vaasjoki M, Huhma H, Yu J, Gao M (1992) General and Nd isotope
geochemistry of the Shachang rapakivi granite complex, Beijing, China. 29th Intern Geol
Congr Abst Vol 2/3, p 562
Riim6 0T, Haapala I, Vaasjoki M, Yu J, Fu H (1993) The Shachang rapakivi granite
complex, eastern China: petrology and Nd, Pb, and Sr isotope geochemistry. Geol Soc
Am Abst Progr 25(3): 73-74
Rundquist ND, Belyaev AM, Suteliffe RH (1991) On the problem of the formation of ovoids
in granites: evidence from mineral composition. In: Haapala I, Rgtm60T (eds) Sympo-
sium on Rapakivi Granites and Related Rocks (Abstract Volume). Geol Surv Finland
Guide 34:44
Ryan B (1991) Makhavinekh Lake pluton, Labrador, Canada: geological setting, subdivi-
sions, mode of emplacement, and a comparison with Finnish rapakivi granites. In:
metallogeny. Precamb Res 51:193-225
Ryan B, Krogh TE, Heaman L, Sehiirer U, Philippe S, Oliver G (1991) On recent geochrono-
logical studies in the Nain Province, Churchill Province and Nain Plutonic Suite.
north-central Labrador. Curr Res Newfoundland Dept Mines Ener Geol Surv Branch,
Rep 91-1, pp 257-261
Sahama ThG (1945) On the chemistry of the east Fennoscandian rapakivi granites. Bull
Comm G6ol Finlande 136:15-67
Salonsaari P T (1993) Disintegration and recrystallization of magmatic mafic enclaves in
rapakivi granites of southeastern Finland. Geol Soc Am Abst Progr 25(3): 77
Salonsaari PT, Haapala I (1994) The Jaala-Iitti rapakivi complex. An example of bimodal
magmatism and hybridization in the Wiborg rapakivi batholith, southeastern Finland.
Savolahti A (1956) The Ahvenisto massif in Finland. Bull Comm G6ol Finlande 174, 96 pp
Sederholm JJ (1891) Ueber die finnlgndischen Rapakiwigesteine. Tschermak's Mineral
Petrogr Mitt 12:1-31
Sederholm JJ (1928) On orbicular granites, spotted and nodular granites etc. and on the
rapakivi texture. Bull Comm G6ol Finlande 83, 105 pp
Sibiya VB (1988) The Gaborone granite complex Botswana, southern Africa: an atypical
rapakivi granite-massif anorthosite association. Free University Press, Amsterdam, 449
PP
Simmons, Simmons (1987) Petrogenetic implications of Pb- and Sr-isotopic compositions
for rocks from the Nain anorthosite complex, Labrador. Geol Soc Am Abstr Prog 19:
845
Sobral J M (1913) Contributions to the geology of the Nordingr~ region. Thesis, University
of Uppsala, Sweden, 177 pp
Sparks RSJ, Marshall LA (1986) Thermal and mechanical constraints on mixing between
mafic and silicic magmas. J Volcan Geotherm Res 29:99-124
Stacey JS, Kramers JD (1975) Approximation of terrestrial lead isotope evolution by a
two-stage model. Earth Planet Sci Lett 26:207-221
Stewart DB (1959) Rapakivi granite from eastern Penobscot Bay, Maine. 20th Intern Geol
Congr Res Sec 11A, pp 202-203
Stimac JA, Wark DA (1992) Plagioclase mantles on sanidine in silicic lavas, Clear Lake,
California. Implications for the origin of the rapakivi texture. Geol Soc Am Bull 104:
728-744
Stormer JC Jr (1975) A practical two feldspar geothermometer. Am Mineral 60:667-674
Sudovikov NG (1967) Problem of rapakivi and late-orogenic intrusions. Nauka Press,

Moscow Leningrad, pp 1-118 (in Russian)
Suominen V (1991) The chronostratigraphy of SW Finland with special reference to the
Postjotnian and Subjotnian diabases. Geol Surv Finland Bull 356, 100 pp
Taylor HP Jr, Sheppard SMF (1986) Igneous rocks. I. Processes of isotopic fractionation
and isotope systematics. In: Valley JW, Taylor HP, O'Neil JR (eds) Stable isotopes in
high temperature geological processes. Min Soc Am Rev Mineral 16:227-271
Tdrnroos R (1984) Petrography, mineral chemistry and petrochemistry of granite porphyry
dykes from Sibbo, southern Finland. Geol Surv Finland Bull 326, 43 pp
Turekian KK, Wedepohl KH (1961) Distribution of elements in some major units of the
Earth's crust. Geol Soc Am Bull 72:175-192
Vaasjoki M (1977) Rapakivi granites and other postorogenic rocks in Finland. Their age
and the lead isotopic composition of certain associated galena mineralizations. Geol Surv
Finland Bull 294, 64 pp
Vaasjoki M, Pihlaja P, Sakko M (1988) The radiometric age of the Reposaari granite and
its bearing on the extent on the Laitila rapakivi batholith in western Finland. Bull Geol
Soc Finland 60:129-134
Vaasjoki M, Riim60T, Sakko M (1991) New U-Pb ages from the Wiborg rapakivi area:
constraints on the temporal evolution of the rapakivi granite--anorthosite--diabase
dyke association of southeastern Finland. In: Haapala I, Condie KC (eds) Precam-
brian granitoids--petrogenesis, geochemistry and metallogeny. Precamb Res 51: 227-
243
Vaasjoki M, RSm5 0T, Alviola R, Johanson BS (1993) Petrography and new U-Pb age data
on the Ahvenisto rapakivi granite complex, southeastern Finland. Geol Soc Am Abst
Progr 25(3): 86
Van Schmus WR (1993) Re-examination of models for the origin of granite-rhyolite prov-
inces in the midcontinent region, USA. Geol Soc Am Abstr Progr 25(3): 87
Van Schmus WR, Bickford ME (1981) Proterozoic chronology and evolution of the mid-
continent region, North America. In: Kr6ner A (ed) Precambrian plate tectonics. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, pp 261-296
Van Schmus WR, Medaris LG Jr, Banks PO (1975) Geology and age of the Wolf River
Batholith, Wisconsin. Geol Soc Am Bull 86:907-914
Van Schmus WR, Bickford ME, Zietz I (1987) Early and middle Proterozoic provinces in
the central United States. In: KrSner A (ed) Proterozoic lithospheric evolution. AGU
Geodyn Ser 17:43-68
Velikoslavinskiy DA, Birkis AP, Bogatikov OA, Bukharev VP, Velikoslavinsky SD,
Gordienko LI, Zinozhenko OV, Kivisilla J J, Kirs JE, Kononov YV, Levitsky YF, Nijn
MI, Puura VA, Khvorov MI, Shustova LE (1978) Anorthosite-rapakivi suite. Nauka,
Leningrad, 296 pp (in Russian)
Volborth A (1973) Geology of the granite complex of the Eldorado, Newberry, and northern
Dead Mountains, Clark County, Nevada. Nev Bur Mines Geol Bull 80, 40 pp
Vorma A (1971) Alkali feldspars of the Wiborg rapakivi massif in southeastern Finland.
Bull Comm G6ol Finlande 246:72 pp
Vorma A (1975) On two roof pendants in the Wiborg rapakivi massif, southeastern Finland.
Geol Surv Finland Bull 272, 86 pp
Vorma A (1976) On the petrochemistry of rapakivi granites with special reference to the
Laitila massif, southwestern Finland. Geol Surv Finland Bull 285, 98 pp
Wahl W (1925) Die Gesteine des Wiborger Rapakiwigebietes. Fennia 45 (20), 127 pp
Wark DA, Stimac JA (1992) Origin of mantled (rapakivi) feldspars: experimental evidence
of a dissolution- and diffusion-controlled mechanism. Contrib Mineral Petrol 111:
345-361
Welin E, Lundqvist T (1984) Isotopic investigations of the Nordingr5 rapakivi massif,
north-central Sweden. Geologiska F6reningens i Stockholm F6rhandlingar 106(1): 41

49
Wernick E, Godoy AM, Galembeck TMB (1991) The Sgo Francisco, Sorocaba and Itu
rapakivi complexes (late Precambrian, state of S~.o Paulo, Brazil): geological, petro-
graphic, and chemical aspects. In: Haapala I, R ~ m 6 0 T (eds) Symposium on Rapakivi
Granites and Related Rocks (Abstract Volume). Geol Surv Finland Guide 34:61
Whalen JB, Currie KL (1990) The Topsails igneous suite, western Newfoundland; Fractiona-
tion and magma mixing in an "orogenic" A-type granite suite. In: Stein H J, Hannah JL
(eds) Ore-bearing granite systems: petrogenesis and mineralizing processes. Geol Soc Am
Spec Pap 246:287-299
Whalen JB, Currie KL, Chappell B W (1987) A-type granites: geochemical characteristics,
discrimination, and petrogenesis. Contrib Mineral Petrol 95:407-419
Whitney JA (1975) The effects of pressure, temperature, and Xn2o on phase assemblages in
four synthetic rock compositions. J Geol 83:1-30
Wiebe RA (1980) Commingling of contrasted magmas in the plutonic environment: examples
from the Nain anorthositic complex. J Geol 88:197-209
Wiebe RA (t988) Structural and magmatic evolution of a magma chamber: the Newark
Island layered intrusion, Nain, Labrador. J Petrol 29:383-411
Wiebe RA (1991) Commingling of contrasted magmas and generation of mafic enclaves in
granitic rocks. In: Didier J, Barbarin B (eds) Enclaves and granite petrology, develop-
ments in petrology 13. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 393-402
Windley BF (1989) Anorogenic magmatism and the Grenvillian Orogeny. Can J Earth Sci
26:479-489
Windley BF (1991) Early Proterozoic collision tectonics, and rapakivi granites as intrusions
in an extensional thrust-thickened crust: the Ketilidian orogen, South Greenland.
Tectonophysics 195:1-10
Windley BF (1993) Proterozoic anorogenic magmatism and its orogenic connections. J Geol
Soc Lond 150:39-50
Wones DR (1980) Contributions of crystallography, mineralogy, and petrology to the geol-
ogy of the Lucerne pluton, Hancock County, Maine. Am Mineral 65:411-437
Wyborn LAI, Page RW, McCulloch M T (1988) Petrology, geochronology and isotope
geochemistry of the post-1820 Ma granites of the Mount Isa Inlier: mechanisms for the
generation of Proterozoic anorogenic granites. Precamb Res 40/41:509-541
Xie G (1992) Geochemical characters and tempo-spatial distribution of Miyun rapakivi
granite and Damiao anorthosite, North China, and their tectonic implications. 29th
Intern Geol Congr Abst Vol 2/3, p 564
Yu J, Fu H, Zhan9 F, Wan F (1994) Petrogenesis of potassic alkaline volcanics associated
with rapakivi granites in the Proterozoic rift of Beijing, China. Mineral Petrol 50:83-96
Zartman RE, Haines SM (1988) The plumbotectonic model for Pb isotopic systematics
among major terrestrial reservoirs--a case for bi-directional transport. Geochim Cos-
mochim Acta 52:1327-1339
Zen E (1986) Aluminum enrichment in silicate melts by fractional crystallization: some
mineralogic and petrographic constraints. J Petrol 27:1095-1117
Authors' address: Dr. O. T. Ri~rn6 and Prof. Dr. I. Haapala, Department of Geology,
University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 11 (Snellmaninkatu 3), FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland.

One Hundred Years of Rapakivi Granite

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

One Hundred Years of Rapakivi Granite

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

One Hundred Years of Rapakivi Granite

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mineralogy and Petrology (1995) 52:129-185

One hundred years of Rapakivi Granite

Department of Geology, University of Helsinki, Finland

Received March 17, 1993;

metallogeny (Haapala, 1995), to present an up-to-date review of what is known

2. Rapakivi granite and rapakivi texture

3. Distribution in space and time

3.1 The Ukraine and Fennoscandia

3.2 North America and Greenland

~D~ d ~Dd~d ~D r,D ~D ~D ~Dd

Canada (Loveridge et al., 1987; Windley, 1993). Geochemically, however, these

3.3 South America

3.4 Africa, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica

small (25 km 2) 1.67 Ga old rapakivi granite complex (Shachang) as well as a

4.1 Finnish rapakivi granites

Early Proterozoic (Svecofennian/Aphebian)

{g-Pb~"........ : [::[::]]][[]:::[[[:[]:[: : :i:i:i&[ [ : [!]i]i[i:i:i[i.}~&r~e'~ykes':i:i: ::::::::::::::,:::: t :::[ : :::::::::::::::::::::

1630±10 ~,-~ ~ (Pb)

According to geophysical data, the rapakivi batholiths are subhorizontal sheet-like

4.2 Rapakivi granite associations elsewhere

4.2.1 Monzonite-rapakivi granite associations

4.2.2 Volcanic associations

4.2.3 Subalkaline-peralkaline associations

5. Bimodal character of magmatism

addition to Fennoscandia and Labrador, gabbroic and/or anorthositic rocks are

5.1 Evidence for contemporaneity: petrography and isotopic ages

~ ~ [zones of mingled rock (C) in

ldiabase with scattered artz-feidsparporphyry matrix

Fig. 3. Sketch maps showing the structure of two composite diabase--quartz-feldspar

Isotopic ages confirming a close temporal association of marie rocks with

5.2 Intermediate rock types

d c ~ , - ~ , . - : ~ c ; d ~ , . . ~ c ~ c ~ c ~ c ~ ~ c ~ c ~ c ~ c ~ d ~ , - 4 - ~ ~ ' . ~ , ~ - o ~ : o . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . ,.6 ' "

~ c ~ c ~ . ~ c ~ o ~ i ~ , ~ c ; " " " c~ " " d ~ c ~ d c ~ '-~ ~ " ~ . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

c ~ d ~ " " d . . ~ , - H . . . . o~ " ' c~,~c~ ' ' o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.1 Geochemical study of the Finnish rapakivi granites

6.2 Main geochemical features of the rapakivi granites

6.2.1 Average compositions

6.2.5 Trace elements

6.2.6 Tectonomagmatic affinities

8. Origin of the mantled ovoids

o NorthAmerica(Rb-Srwhole rock) * ~ ~ " 2

• SouthAmerica(U-Pbzircon) ,~¢o~ ~/zY 0.709

/ - Average Subcontinental Mantle / "4-0.701

........... \ ~ "~ ~%o

Australia (Proterozoic) ~.0 Ga CrusU

LREE-depletion are found in central U.S.A. (Colorado, Missouri) and Australia

14.9 " " I f I i i Y

Pb isotopic composition of the mafic rocks of the rapakivi granite association

9.2 Protolith composition and magmatic evolution

liquid immiscibility, thermogravitational diffusion, and fractionation of I-type or

9.2.1 Origin of rapakivi and related granites by anatexis

9.2.2 Multiple protoliths: mantle vs. crust controversy

9.2.3 The Suomenniemi batholith: a case study

isotopic work (Riim6, 1991). It covers an area of approximately 365 km 2, is about

granite types. The main granite sequence hornblende granite--biotite-hornblende

9.2.4 Further notes on the magmatic evolution of the rapakivi granites

diorite, greywacke or metagreywacke to yield a somewhat less silicic, marginally

10. Tectonic setting and relation to crustal evolution