COOLING SYSTEM

Definition:

Cooling System
Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy from one medium to another. Many
cooling applications use water as a medium to absorb heat, because water has a high
boiling point and high specific heat. Cooling system is used to reject heat from a
process or plant. It keeps the temperature of a structure or device from exceeding limits
imposed by needs of safety and efficiency. The cooling system serves three important
functions. First, it removes excess heat from the engine; second, it maintains the engine
operating temperature where it works most efficiently; and finally, it brings the engine up
to the right operating temperature as quickly as possible. Cooling systems are
employed in automobiles, industrial plant machinery, nuclear reactors, and many other
types of machinery. Cooling systems or thermal protection play the most important role
in ensuring reliable and highly economical operation of power plants. They cool the
hottest and most stressed components and maintain the calculated thermal stress level
of the parts.
The cooling agents customarily employed are air and a liquid (usually water or a
solution of water and antifreeze), either alone or in combination. In some cases, direct
contact with ambient air (free convection) may be sufficient; in other cases, it may be
necessary to employ forced-air convection, created either by a fan or by the natural
motion of the hot body. Liquid is typically moved through a continuous loop in the
cooling system by a pump.

The cooling system or the circulating water system provides a continuous supply
of cooling water to the main condenser to remove the heat rejected by the turbine and
auxiliary systems. In the main condenser, the cooling water becomes hot. This energy is
rejected to the atmosphere via cooling towers. The cooling towers are devices that
reject waste heat to the atmosphere by cooling a water stream to a lower temperature.
Cooling towers are built in places where a scarcity of water. Using cooling towers
reduces the cooling water requirement, and only makeup water is to be supplied. The
cooling towers significantly reduce the cooling water demand, but it is achieved at the
expense of large capital costs.
https://youtu.be/kASLz29cU1g
Main components of cooling system in power plants

 Pump – used for supplying heat exchangers with cooling water.

 Cooling water – water taken from a river, reservoir, lake or sea and used to liquefy
the water vapor in the condenser. It can be directly returned to its origin or reused
via the cooling tower.
 Condenser – Heat commuter composed by a set of tubes where cooling water
circulates. The water vapor going inside the condenser from the turbine is liquefied.
This conversion produces a vacuum that improves the turbine's performance.
 Turbine – A device that receives the water vapor from the vapor generators, whose
energy is transformed via the paddles into mechanical rotation power. There are
various sections for the expansion of the vapor. Its axis is solidly attached to the
alternator axis.
 Cooling Tower – A device that makes it possible to yield to the atmosphere, which
acts as a cold focus, part of the residual heat produced during the electricity
generation. It is used to cool the water that circulates inside the condenser and is
part of the plant's auxiliary cooling circuit.

The three main types of cooling system are:

1. Closed Recirculating System or Dry cooling towers. Operate by heat transfer

through a surface that separates the working fluid from ambient air, such as in a
tube to the air heat exchanger, utilizing convective heat transfer. They do not use
evaporation; hence the consumption of makeup water is minimal.

In closed recirculating systems or dry cooling towers, heat absorbed by the

cooling water is either transferred to a second coolant, or released into the
 atmosphere. Dry cooling towers conduct heat transfer through air-cooled heat
exchangers that separate the working fluid from the cooling air. Because there is
no direct contact between the working fluid and the ambient air, there is no water
loss in this system.
The word dry is used because the water is never exposed to the air, and as a
result, very little water is lost. Evaporation is not used in closed recirculating
cooling towers. Instead, cool air rushes over a series of small tubes containing
circulating coolant.
Average Temperature Change: 10-15° F (6-8° C)
Amount of Water Used: Negligible

These systems are classified into two types:

 Direct dry cooling systems.

Steam is condensed using ambient air, meaning no water is
consumed. Turbine exhaust steam is condensed directly through an air-
cooled condenser (ACC). A large-diameter piping is used at the turbine
outlet to accommodate the relatively low steam densities (compared with
water) and reduce the pressure drop through the route. The exhaust
steam flows inside the tubes of ACC and is condensed by transferring the
heat to the flowing air outside the surface of the heat exchanger.

 Indirect dry cooling systems.

Steam is condensed in conventional water-cooled condensers, but the
cooling water is kept in a closed systems. The turbine exhaust steam is
condensed in a surface heat exchanger called condenser where the heat
of the exhaust steam is transferred to the cold water pumped from the air-
cooled heat exchanger located inside the cooling tower. The cooling water
gains the heat in the condenser and is pumped back to the heat
exchanger inside the cooling tower. Air is introduced to flow across the
exterior surface of the heat exchanger to cool the hot water inside the heat
exchanger tubes. The cooled water inside the heat exchanger tubes is
then pumped back to the condenser. The turbine exhaust is condensed by
 the circulating water rather by the ambient air directly; hence, it gets the
name of indirect cooling.

In a dry cooling tower, air can be introduced either by mechanical draft

or by natural draft to move the air across the ACC. Increasing volumetric
flow rate of air through heat exchangers improves the performance of the
cooling system which ultimately depends on the air dry bulb temperature.
Although dry cooling has advantages for water conservation and
environmental protection, it suffers from lower efficiency when ambient air
temperature is high. Thus, new technologies in increasing CST power
plant production during high ambient temperatures are required.

2. Open Recirculating System or Wet cooling tower or Evaporative Cooling

Tower (or open circuit cooling towers). It operates on the principle of evaporative
cooling. Evaporative cooling is the addition of water vapor into the air, which
causes a lowering of the temperature of the air and the water. The energy
needed to evaporate the water is taken from the remaining mass of water, thus
reducing its temperature. The cooling water from the plant is pumped to a height
of about 10 m and distributed over the cooling tower fill, cascading down the fill to
the well at the bottom. Inside the wet cooling tower, fills are added to increase
the contact surface and contact time between air and water to provide better heat
transfer.
This system reuse cooling water in a second cycle rather than immediately
discharging it back to the original water source. Most commonly, wet-recirculating
systems use cooling towers to expose water to ambient air. Some of the water
evaporates; the rest is then sent back to the condenser in the power plant.
Because wet-recirculating systems only withdraw water to replace any water that
is lost through evaporation in the cooling tower, these systems have much lower
water withdrawals than once-through systems, but tend to have appreciably
higher water consumption.
Open recirculating cooling systems save a tremendous amount of fresh water
compared to the alternative method, once-through cooling. The quantity of water
discharged to waste is greatly reduced in the open recirculating method, and
chemical treatment is more economical. However, open recirculating cooling
systems are inherently subject to more treatment-related problems than once-
 through systems: Cooling by evaporation increases the dissolved solids
concentration in the water, raising corrosion and deposition tendencies.
The relatively higher temperatures significantly increase corrosion potential.
The longer retention time and warmer water in an open recirculating system
increase the tendency for biological growth.
Airborne gases such as sulfur dioxide, ammonia or hydrogen sulfide can be
absorbed from the air, causing higher corrosion rates.
Microorganisms, nutrients, and potential foulants can also be absorbed into the
water across the tower.

3. Once- Through Cooling System. The cooling systems that uses water's cooling
capacity a single time. These systems use large volumes of water and typically
discharge the once-through water directly to waste. Large volumes of water are
necessary for even the smallest once-through systems; therefore, a plentiful water
supply at a suitably low temperature is needed. It transfer heat to a continuously
running supply of cold water, which is then discharged into the sewer. Typical OTC
appliances include air conditioners, refrigerators and ice machines. They are often
used in small commercial cooling applications, as they are inexpensive to install.
However, the costs associated with constantly running water through the unit are
often higher than alternative cooling methods.

Cooling systems that use a water's cooling capacity a single time are called
once-through cooling systems. These systems use large volumes of water and
typically discharge the once-through water directly to waste. Large volumes of
water are necessary for even the smallest once-through systems; therefore, a
plentiful water supply at a suitably low temperature is needed. It transfer heat to a
continuously running supply of cold water, which is then discharged into the
sewer. Because of the large volumes involved, once-through cooling systems
often use water from rivers, lakes, or (occasionally) well networks. The only
external treatment generally applied to a once-through system is mechanical
screening to protect downstream equipment from serious damage due to foreign
 material intrusion. Evaporation is negligible, so no significant change in water
chemistry occurs.
 It uses cool water that circulates only once through the entire system and
returned to the receiving body of water. Power utility services often uses this type
of system.
 In Power Industry, Cooling water is drawn from a local source e.g. ocean, lake,
river or other).
 Passed through the condenser tubes, and returned to the environment at a
higher temperature.
 It contains two main water cycle:
 Boiler Water Cycle- it is used to create steam via the energy source
such as fossil fuel combustion, fission chain reaction, heat exchange
with deep rocks or a heat transfer fluid and convey it to an electricity-
generating turbine.
 Cooling Water Cycle– to cool and condense the after-turbine steam.
This condensation decreases the volume of the expanded steam,
creating a suction vacuum which draws it through the turbine blade.
Then to discharge surplus heat to the environment.

Cooling towers

Cooling towers are indispensable for cooling process water and keeping
equipment from overheating. They are useful in industrial facilities such as oil refineries,
chemical plants and thermal power stations, and they are common in manufacturing
facilities and many buildings

Cooling Towers and How They Work

A cooling tower is a heat rejection device. It works by bringing air and water into
contact to cool the water and release unwanted heat into the atmosphere. Cooling
towers are useful in industrial processes because industrial equipment tends to
generate tremendous amounts of heat. Facilities need reliable ways to dissipate that
heat to keep their working environments cool and reduce the risk of breakdowns and
fire.

Hot industrial process water flows toward the cooling tower and enters at the top.
The water then flows down through the cooling tower. As it does, equipment within the
tower spreads the water out over a large surface area, often by converting the water
into small droplets or thin films that have a larger surface area than deep water in a
tank. The increased water-to-air contact boosts heat transfer through evaporation.

The water flows through the cooling tower, losing heat along the way, until it
reaches the sump at the bottom. The sump sends most of the cold water back to cool
the hot machinery. When heat transfer from the equipment heats the water again, the
water flows back to the cooling tower, and the process repeats.

Essential Components of Cooling Towers

 Fans: A cooling tower may contain large fans that circulate significant volumes of
air. They may push or pull air through the tower, and they may be axial or
centrifugal depending on the specific needs of the application.
 Drift eliminators: Drift eliminators help keep the water secure in the tower. They
point the airflow in multiple directions to prevent it from whisking water away.
 Inlets and outlets: Inlets and outlets in the cooling tower take in cool air from the
environment and release the warm air after it has absorbed the water's heat.
 Spray nozzles: Spray nozzles in the cooling tower can also be useful in increasing
the surface area of the water.
 Fill: Fill, also called wet deck or surface. Its purpose is to allow water to collect on it,
thereby maximizing the surface area of the water and facilitating heat transfer
between the water and the air. Fill can come in a couple of different types. Film-type
fill increases the water's surface area by spreading it into a thin film. Splash-type fill
increases the water's surface area by breaking a falling stream of water into smaller
droplets.
 Distribution basin: The distribution basin, or hot water basin, is often used in
crossflow cooling towers. A distribution basin takes the place of the spray nozzles
by distributing the hot water evenly throughout the tower.
 Collection basin: The collection basin, or cold water basin, sits at the bottom of the
tower to collect the water after it has cooled.

Types of Cooling Towers

1. Crossflow cooling towers

Crossflow cooling towers use a splash fill that allows in-flowing to air move
in a horizontal path over the stream of water from the upper reservoirs. Crossflow
systems are some of the more expensive equipment types, but they are also
some of the easiest to maintain. However, these cooling systems are more
vulnerable to frost than others.

2. Counterflow cooling towers

In a counterflow system, the in-flowing air travels in a vertical path over
the splash fill as the water streams down from the reservoir above. Counterflow
systems are usually smaller than their crossflow counterparts. These cooling
 towers are more expensive due to the fact that more energy is needed to push
the air upward against the down-flowing water.

3. Hyperbolic cooling towers

Hyperbolic systems are well-built and require a minimal amount of
resources. Though they require few resources, these cooling towers are able to
efficiently manage large-scale tasks within big chemical or power plants.
Hyperbolic systems use a chimney stacking technique that allows the cooler,
outside air to push the damp, warmer air inside the tower. Splash fill is placed
around the bottom of the tower and the water that sprays over it is cooled by the
passage of upward-flowing air.

4. Induced draft cooling towers

Induced draft or mechanical draft cooling towers use some type of
mechanical pressure, like a fan system, to push air upward inside the tower.
Induced draft systems can also force air into the tower with a blow-through or pull
it out through a draw-through.

5. Passive draft cooling towers

Passive or natural draft cooling towers combine the upward motion of
warmed air with a steep chimney architecture to organically pull air throughout
the tower. Although passive draft systems may have either a counter or crossflow
transport design, hyperbolic towers are always passive draft.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

The cooling water from the condenser of a power plant enter a wet cooling tower at
40°C at a rate of 40 kg/s. The water is cooled at 30°C in the cooling tower at 1 atm
(101.325 kPa), 22°C and 16°C, dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature, respectively.
Neglecting the power input to the fan. Determine the following:
a. the volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower
b. mass flow rate of the required make-up water
c. cooling range temperature
d. approach temperature
 e. cooling efficiency

Given:
(1) (2) (3) (4)
t db=22 ° C t db =32 °C t 3=40 ° C t 4=30 ° C
t wb =16 ° C φ=95 % m3=40 kg/ s

SOLUTION:
Air mass balance: m1=m2=ma

Water mass balance:

m3 +ma w1=m4 + m1 w 2
m3−m4 =ma ( w2 −w1 ) =m5

Energy balance:
E¿ =E out note ( Q=W =0 )
ma h1 +m3 h 3=ma h2+ m 4 h4
ma h1 +m3 h 3−m a h2−m 4 h 4=0
m a ( h2−h1 ) +m3 h 3−m 4 h4 =0 since m4 =m 3−m 5
m a ( h2−h1 ) +m3 h 3−(m ¿ ¿ 3−m5) h4 =0 ¿
ma ( h2−h1 ) +m3 h 3−[ m 3−ma ( w 2−w 1) ] h4=0
ma ( h2−h1 ) +m3 ( h 3−h 4 )−ma ( w 2−w 1 ) h4 =0
Solving for ma
 m3 ( h3 −h4 )
m a=
( h 2−h1 )− ( w2 −w1 )
For Phase (1)Air inlet : Using Psychometric Chart
t db=22 ° C ; t wb =16 ° C
kJ
h1 =44.6486
kg
w 1=( 0.622 )
Pv
Pt −Pv
=( 0.622 ) [1.4261 kPa
101.325 kpa−1.4261 kPa
=0.00888 ]
k gwater
k gair
m3
v1 =0.8472
kg

For Phase (2)Air Exit

t 2=32° C ; φ=95 %
kJ
h2 =106.4919
kg

w 2=( 0.622 )
φ Ps
Pt −φ P s
= ( 0.622 )
[
( 0.95 ) ( 4.7585 )
101.325−( 0.95 )( 4.7585 ) ]
=0.02905
k g water
k gair

For Phase (3) Warm Water inlet

Using Steam Table» Table A-4
kJ
h3 =hf ° C =167.53
@ 40
kg
For Phase (4) Cold Water inlet
Using Steam Table» Table A-4
kJ
h 4=h f ° C =125.74
@ 30
kg

( 40 kgs ) (167.53−125.74 ) kJ
m3 ( h3 −h4 ) kg
m a= =
( h 2−h1 )− ( w2 −w1 ) ( 106.4919−44.6486 ) kJ −( 0.02905−0.00888 ) k g water
kg k g air
kg
ma=25.98
s

a. the volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower

( )( )
3
kg m
V 1=ma v 1 = 25.98 0.8472
s kg
3
m
V 1=22.01
S
b. mass flow rate of the required make-up water
 kg
m5=ma ( w 2−w 1 )=25.98 ¿
s
kg
m5=0.504
s
c. cooling range temperature
Cooling range=t a −t b=40 ° C−30° C
Cooling range=10° C
d. approach temperature
Approach=t b −t wb=30 ° C−16 ° C
Approach=14 ° C
e. cooling effeciency
t a−t b 40° C−30 ° C
Cooling efficiency= × 100 %= ×100 %
t a −t wb 40° C−16 ° C
Cooling efficiency=41.67 %

Cooling system that are used in different power plant

 Nuclear Power plant

Oceans, lakes and rivers are so valuable to the nuclear energy industry.
Thus, most of the nuclear power plant use once-through cooling system. Many
nuclear power plants have once-through cooling, since their location is not
influenced by the source of the fuel, and depends first on where power is needed
and secondly on water availability for cooling. A number of countries are able to
use once-through seawater cooling for all of their nuclear plants. Among these
are the UK, Sweden, Finland, South Africa, Japan, Korea and China. Canada
uses once-through cooling from the Great Lakes.

Most nuclear power (and other thermal) plants with recirculating cooling
are cooled by water in a condenser circuit with the hot water then going to a
cooling tower. This may employ either natural draft (chimney effect) or
mechanical draft using large fans (enabling a much lower profile but using
power*).
 The illustration below is a simplified look at the main cooling loops in the
Davis-Besse nuclear power station in Ohio. It features a pressurized water
reactor in which uranium fuel is in long metal fuel rods leading down to the
reactor core . The reactor core is inside the reactor vessel which is filled with
purified water. Control rods on top of the reactor start and stop the chain reaction
that produces heat. When the rods are withdrawn, the nuclear chain reaction
occurs, producing heat.

The water inside the Davis-Bessie PWR is under pressure so it won’t boil
as its temperature rises by passing through the nuclear core. The water then
travels along tubes through the steam generator and back to the reactor. This
constitutes the primary loop (green). After it has passed through the steam
generator, the water has cooled down. The average temperature in this cycle is
maintained at 582°F.

When the primary coolant water passes through the steam generator, its
heat is transferred to the secondary loop (blue). Heat is transferred without the
water in the primary loop and secondary loop ever coming in contact with each
other. The water in the secondary loop boils to steam in the steam generator.
This steam flows to the turbine generator. It is here that the steam’s energy is
made into electricity. When the steam leaves the turbine, it comes in contact with
pipes carrying cooling water. As the steam cools, it changes back into water. The
third loop (yellow) contains the water that is cooled by the large cooling tower

Through the fractures in the layers of rock, water and

 Geothermal power plant
steam which has been heated in the depths, rise to the
surface and are intercepted in the geothermal wells.
The steam that is extracted is channelled into steam-
pipelines, and forwarded to a turbine, where the
kinetic energy of the steam is transformed into
rotational mechanical power. The turbine’s axis is
connected to the rotor of the alternator, that rotates
and transforms the mechanical energy into alternating
electric current, which is then transmitted to the
transformer. The transformer raises the voltage of the
electric energy and transfers it to the distribution
network. The steam that exits the turbine is returned
to the liquid state in a condenser, while the gases that
cannot be condensed are dispersed in the atmosphere.
A cooling tower then cools the water produced from
the steam condensation process. The condensed water
is then dispersed by re-injecting it into the deep rock
layers.
Cooling tower is an integrated part of any geothermal power plant because waste heat
from turbine exhaust steam must be continuously rejected to make the plants operate. A

wet cooling tower system is the most common cooling system in geothermal plants,
using both water and air. This system is composed of a surface condenser which
condenses the working fluid before entering the pump. But According to the heat dump
choice, the cooling system that the geothermal power plant commonly used dry cooling
system. Dry cooling towers conduct heat transfer through air-cooled heat exchanger
that separates the working fluid from the cooling air. In a dry cooling tower, air can be
introduced by either mechanical draft fans or by natural draft tall tower to move the air
across the air-cooled heat exchangers.

 Hydroelectric Power plant

The following components in Hydro power generation require cooling:

 Hydro Generators
 Electricity generation in the hydro-generator that is powered by the turbine
releases heat that needs to be removed to be able to keep running at
optimum capacity. The generators can be air-cooled or water- cooled.

 Bearings
 Transformers
 Speed governors
 Turbine shaft axial seals

The cooling is realized by a closed system that circulates the cooling medium
(water or oil) over the components and a heat exchanger where it releases the heat to
secondary cooling water. The secondary cooling water is the same surface water that
drives the turbines and it causes problems with fouling/scaling of those heat
exchangers. As a result of this, the turbines need to be shut down regularly for heat
exchangers to be cleaned. The economic impact due to loss of income for each day of
turbine downtime is enormous, in addition to the budget that needs to be set aside for
the workload of this.

 Coal fired power plant

After the steam is exhausted from the turbine it is condensed and recycled for use in
the production of steam again. Since the condensate must be cooled as much as
possible to reduce backpressure on the turbine, this recycling of the steam is a critical
process in the efficiency of the plant.

Generally three types of cooling system designs are used for this application: once-
through, wet recirculating, and dry.

Once-through systems draw cooling water from a lake, river, or ocean to condense the
steam exhausted from the turbine and then discharge the water back to the same body
of water. This type of plant then has a relatively high water withdrawal, but not much of
the water is actually consumed.

The wet recirculating cooling systems consist of two main technologies: wet cooling
towers, and cooling ponds. The more common type, the cooling tower, dissipates heat
by circulating the heated water through the tower where some of the water evaporates
as most of it is cooled. In the cooling pond system natural conduction and convection
transfer heat from the water discharged into the pond to the atmosphere. In both cases
water withdrawal is relatively low, but due to the evaporation of water to the atmosphere
and the need to remove blowdown from the system, water consumption is relatively
high.
In dry cooling systems the steam exhausted from the turbine is cooled by forcing
ambient air across a heat exchanger filled with the condensing steam. There is no loss
of water to evaporation or blow down in this configuration and therefore both water
withdrawal and consumption are minimal; however use of this type of system is limited.
Since air is not nearly as efficient for heat transfer as is water, the increased electrical
cost makes dry cooling less economical.

 Diesel-fired power plant

 The cooling system of diesel power plant consist of water source, pump and cooling
towers. The pump circulates water through the cylinder and head jacket. The water
takes away heat from the engine and it becomes hot. Cooling towers are used to
cools the hot water and recirculated it.
 The temperature of the burning fuel inside the engine cylinder is in the order of
2750 degree Celsius. In order to lower the temperature, the water is recirculated.
 The water envelopes (water jacket) the engine, the heat from the cylinder, piston
and combustion chamber are by the recirculating water.
 The hot water leaving the jacket is passed through the heat exchanger.
 The heat from the heat exchanger is carried away by the raw water circulated
through the heat exchanger and is cooled in the cooling sytem.
 Two methods in cooling:
 Air cooling- where the heat is carried away by the air flowing over and
around the cylinder.Fins are added on the cylinder which provide
additional mass of the material for conduction as well as additional area of
convection and radiation mode of the heat transfer.
 Liquid Cooling- in this method the cylinder walls and the heads are
provided with jackets through which the cooling liquid can circulate.
The heat is transferred by the cylinder to the liquid by convection and
conduction
The liquid gets heated during its passage through the cooling jackets and
is itself cooled by means of an air cooled radiator system.

 Wind power plants

Heat issues in wind turbine electronics mainly concern the generator and
the power conversion electronics. The heat load of the generator comes from
copper wire resistance and from iron loss from the rotation of the core. Further
heat loss is mechanical due to friction. These energy losses become heat energy
that is distributed into the wind turbine nacelle. The excess heat from the nacelle-
based power conversion systems is mainly due to impedance from electronic
components such as capacitors and thyristors. Higher temperatures will reduce
the system’s life and increase failure rate. Thermal management methods such
as liquid cooling can be effectively adapted for nacelle electronics.

Most wind turbines is accomplished by enclosing the generator in a duct,

using a large fan for air cooling. Some manufacturers provide water-cooled
generators that can be used in wind turbines. The water-cooled models require a
radiator in the nacelle to void the heat from the liquid cooling matrix.

Air cooling has been used effectively in small-scale wind turbines, but it is
not practical for removing the heat produced in MW-scale units. Its thermal
capacity is so low that it is difficult to blow enough air across a motor or through
the converter to maintain reliable operating temperatures. That is why water
cooling is used more often than air for larger wind turbines
 However, water cooled systems are relatively large, and their thermal
efficiency limitations force the size and weight of power generation sub-systems
to essentially track their power throughput. Due to the thermal performance
limitations of water, the power-generation equipment for a 10 MW wind turbine is
nearly twice the size and weight of a 5 MW model. This is largely because water
cooling cannot adequately remove additional heat loads without spreading them
out.

This is a Dual-phase liquid cooling method for converters has a circulating

refrigerant in a closed-loop. Vaporizing coolant removes heat from devices and
re-condenses to liquid in a heat exchange

The types of cooling towers based on the draught (method of air circulation) are:

1. Natural draught cooling towers

Natural draught cooling towers utilize buoyancy via a tall hyperboloid
chimney. Hyperboloid cooling towers are typical for natural draught cooling
towers because of their structural strength and because of the fact that the
hyperboloid shape also aids in accelerating the upward convective airflow,
improving cooling efficiency. In this cooling tower, the hot cooling water (e.g.,
25°C) from the condenser is pumped to a height of about 10 m, enters the tower,
and then sprayed over the trays. Water droplets fall down and meet the colder air
entering from the bottom of the tower, which is open to the atmosphere. Hot
water (e.g., 25°C) gives up its heat to the air and gets cooled (e.g., 22°C). Warm,
moist air naturally rises due to the density differential compared to the dry, cooler
outside air. Warm moist air is less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This
moist air buoyancy produces an upwards current of air through the hyperboloid
tower. The cooled water falls down in the form of rain and gets collected in the
pond at the bottom of the tower.
2. Mechanical draught cooling towers.
In general, in the mechanical draught cooling towers, the air is circulated
using a mechanical device like a fan or a blower.
Forced draught cooling towers. Forced draught cooling towers use the fan, which
is installed at the bottom of the tower. This produces high entering and low
exiting air velocities; therefore, these towers are much more susceptible to
recirculation

Induced draught cooling towers. Induced draught cooling towers use the
fan, which is installed at the top of the tower. This produces low entering and
high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in which
discharged air flows back into the air intake.

Note that not all nuclear power plants have cooling towers, and
conversely, the same kind of cooling towers are often used at large coal-fired
power plants. In large power plants, cooling towers are used in the place of
cooling fans. Industrial cooling towers are larger than HVAC systems and are
used to remove heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in
power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing
plants, food processing plants, and other industrial facilities. Power stations
utilize a substantial amount of water in the generation of electricity.

Feedwater heater, condenser and evaporator are components of a power plant.

What is a Feedwater Heater?

Feedwater Heaters are heat exchanger used in a conventional power plant to

preheat boiler feed water. The source of heat is steam bled from the turbines, and the
objective is to improve the thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle. The most common
configuration of feedwater heater is a shell and tube heat exchanger with the feedwater
flowing inside the tubes and steam condensing outside.

The tube-side fluid (condensate/water) remains enclosed in the tubes and does
not mix with the shell side fluid (steam). Heat transfer within the vessel occurs by means
of both convection and conduction rather than by combustion alone.

Unlike a surface condenser, the flow rate of steam into a Feedwater Heater is not
limited by the amount of available steam.
The shell-side operating pressure in a Feedwater Heater is determined by the pressure
of the steam, rather than by the amount of heat transfer surface.

Three types of Feedwater Heaters

 Low Pressure Heater (LP):

A Feedwater Heater located, with regard to feedwater flow, between the
 condensate pump and either the boiler feed pump or, if present, an intermediate
pressure (booster) pump. It normally extracts steam from the low-pressure turbine.
 High Pressure Heater (HP):
A Feedwater Heater located downstream of the boiler feed pump. Typically, the
tube-side design pressure is at least 100 Bar, and the steam source is the high-
pressure turbine.
 Intermediate Pressure Heater (IP):
A Feedwater Heater usually located tube-side between the booster pump and the
boiler feed pump. The typical tubeside pressure is between 65 and 100 Bar and
steam is extracted from an intermediate pressure turbine.

Feedwater Heater design

Most Feedwater Heaters are a shell-and-tube design in which a bundle of tubes

(tube stack) is contained within the outer shell.
U-tubes are the most common tube bundle configuration as they are relatively resistant to
thermal expansion during operation. In most configurations, the feedwater flows inside the
tubes (tube side) and the steam flows over the tubes (shell side). The positioning of
Feedwater Heaters is flexible and they can be installed vertically, either head down or head
up, or horizontally. Generally, their orientation is dependent on the design and the space
available at the operation site.

Why use a Feedwater Heater?

Feedwater heaters serve a number of purposes, all of which provide significant cost
savings and environmental advantages:

 Reduce fuel required for combustion by increasing the initial water temperature to
the boiler;
 Reduce heat losses in the condenser;
 Minimize thermal transients within the boiler;
 Lower emissions as fuel use is reduced due to improved heat rate.
 Improve overall efficiency of the plant;
 Reduce operating costs; and
 Ease thermal stress on the boiler.

Orientation of Feedwater heater

 Horizontal:

Horizontally mounted Feedwater Heaters occupy more floor space.

However, most Feedwater Heaters are configured in this position as it provides the
greatest stability in regard to water level control and offers convenient access for
tube bundle removal.

 Vertical:

Vertically mounted Feedwater heaters conserve floor space but there is

reduced control volume available for liquid level fluctuation.

 Vertical – Channel Down: Disassembly is by shell removal. Installation and

removal is likely to be more difficult than that for horizontally installed
Feedwater Heaters
 Vertical – Channel Up: Least frequently used orientation. Disassembly is by
bundle removal. If a subcooling zone is present, the zone must extend the full
length of the bundle as the water must enter at the bottom end and exit at the
top end of the Feedwater Heater.
Zones

Zones are separate areas within the shell of the Feedwater Heater:

 Condensing Zone:
All Feedwater Heaters have this zone and all of the steam is condensed in this
area. Remaining, non-condensable gases must be removed externally
downstream. The majority of the heat energy is added in this zone.
 Subcooling Zone: (Optional)
The condensed steam enters this zone at its saturation temperature and is
cooled by convective heat transfer from the incoming feedwater.
 Desuperheating Zone: (Optional)
The incoming steam enters this zone giving up most of its heat to the
feedwater exiting from the heater.

Feedwater Heater Engineering

Engineering a Feedwater Heater can be performed by thermal design and requires the
following data be specified:

 Feed water inlet temperature

 Feed water inlet pressure
 Feed water mass flow
 Required outlet feed water temperature
 Bled steam inlet temperature
 Bled steam inlet pressure
 Flash steam mass flow

The design can also be re-engineered based on geometry:

 Internal dimensions of the tubes

 The tubes’ wall thickness
 Fouling factors
 The number of tubes and their length
 Baffle number and size
 Inlet and outlet nozzle inner diameters
 Shell inner diameter
 Space constraints, materials and coating specifications are further factors to be
taken into account in successfully designing and engineering Feedwater Heaters.

CONDENSER

Steam condenser is a water-cooled shell and tube heat exchanger used to

condensate the exhaust steam from the steam turbine. It is a closed vessel-type heat
exchanger applied to convert low-pressure exhaust steam from the turbine to water. A
steam condenser is a mechanical device employed to condense the exhaust steam of the
turbine into the water. It conducts this process with the help of cooling water that circulates
inside it from the cooling tower. During condensation, the working substance changes its
phase from vapour to liquid and rejects latent heat.

The purpose of steam condenser is to to reduce turbine exhaust pressure so as to

increase the specific output and hence increase the plant efficiency and decrease the
specific steam consumption and to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine to
obtain maximum efficiency, and also to convert the turbine exhaust steam into pure water
(referred to as steam condensate) so that it may be reused in the steam generator
or boiler as boiler feed water.

Functions of the Steam Condenser

 Helping keep the pressure low (below atmospheric pressure) at the steam turbine
end to get maximum possible energy and reduce the specific steam consumption
of a power plant.
 Supplying pure feed water to and from the hot well. The water is again pumped to
the boiler using a boiler feed pump.
 Raising the heat transfer rate by removing other non-condensable gases from the
exiting steam.

Parts of Steam Condenser

 Condenser: It is used to condense the steam. The steam with low pressure delivers
its heat to the coolant (here water from the cooling tower), and it converts into the
water through the condensation process.

 Condensate Extraction Pump: A Condensate Extraction Pump (CEP) is a pump

installed between the condenser and the hot well to transfer the condensate from
the condenser to the hot well.

 Hot Well: It is a pit between the condenser and the boiler. It takes the condensate-
by-condensate pump from the condenser. The feed water is carried from the hot
well to the boiler.

 Boiler Feed Pump: It is a pump located between the hot well and boiler to deliver
the feed water from the hot well to the steam boiler. This is accomplished by
increasing the condensate pressure above boiler pressure.

 Air Extraction Pump: It is a pump utilized to extract or remove the air from the
steam condenser.

 Cooling Tower: It is a tower containing cold water, and this water is provided to
circulate inside the condenser to cool the steam.

 Cooling Water Pump: It is a pump installed between the condenser and the
cooling tower. It circulates the coolant within the condenser.

How Does A Steam Condenser Work?

 The steam condenser receives exhaust steam from one end and gets in contact
with the cooling water within it from the cooling tower.
 As the low pressure steam comes in contact with the cooling water, it condenses
and turns into water. It is attached to the air extraction pump and condensation
extraction pump.

 After condensation of steam, the condensate is pumped into the hot well by the help
of condensate extraction pump.

 The air extraction pump extracts air from the condenser and produces a vacuum
inside it. The vacuum produced helps in the circulation of cooling water and the flow
of condensate downstream.

Types Of Steam Condensers

1. Jet condensers (or mixing type condensers). In jet condensers there is direct

contact between the exhaust steam and cooling water and mix up together. It is
normally used for small power units and can be used when cooling water and easily
available.

a. Parallel flow jet condenser

 Both the steam and water enter at the top and mixture is removed from the
bottom.
 Condensate, cooling water and airflow downwards and are removed by two
separate pumps and condensate pump.
 The condensate pump carries the condensate to the hot well.

b. Counterflow or Low-level jet condenser

 The cooling water enters at the top and sprayed through jets.
 The steam enters at the bottom and mixes with the fine spray of cooling
water. A separate pump removes the condensate.
 The air is removed by an air pump separately from the top.

c. Barometric or High-level jet condenser

 The cooling water enters at the top and sprayed through jets.
 The steam enters the bottom and mixes with the fine spray of cooling water.
 The column of water in the tailpipe forces the condensate into the hot well
by gravity.

d. Ejector condenser
 Cooling water under ahead of 5 to 6m enters at the top of the condenser
and it is passed through a series of convergent nozzles.
 There is a pressure drop at the throat of the nozzle through a non-return
valve.
 Momentum of flowing water is used to remove the mixture of condensate
and coolant condenser without the use of any extraction pump.
Applications of Jet Condenser:
 Evaporators to condense gases
 Vapor pans to condense vapors
 Used in some thermal power plants to condense steam or hot air.

2. Surface condensers (or non-mixing type condensers). In surface condensers,

there is no direct contact between the exhaust steam and the cooling water, rather
they are separated by heat transfer wall. Hence, condensate remains pure and can
be reused.

a. Down Flow Surface Condenser

 Exhaust steam enters the top of condenser shell and flows downward over
water tubes.
 Water tubes are double passed. The cold water flows in lower side first and
the in upper side in the reverse direction which enables the maximum heat
transfer.

b. Central Flow Surface Condenser

 The steam flows radially inward.
 The condensate is collected at the bottom of the shell.
 The steam gets access to the entire periphery of tubes, and thus a large
area for the heat transfer is available.

c. Inverted Flow Condenser

 The stream enters at the bottom of the shell and air extraction pump
connected to the top.
 Stream flows upward first and subsequently, returns to the bottom of the
condenser.

d. Evaporative Condenser
 The exhaust steam from the steam engine enters at the top of a series of
pipes outside of which a film of cold water is falling, and stream of air
rotates above the water film. Thus, circulating inside the pipe is
condensed.

 The coolant pump draws water from a cooling pond and forces it to a
horizontal header.

Applications of Surface Condenser

 Refrigeration of vacuum
 Evaporation of vacuum
 Systems like Desalination


Comparison of Jet and Surface Condenser

 Jet Condenser Surface Condenser

Cooling water and steam mixed up. Cooling water and steam are not
mixed up.

It is less suitable for high capacity It is more suitable for high capacity
plants. plants.

Condensation is wasted. Condensate is reused.

It requires less quantity of circulating It requires a large quantity of

water. circulating water.

The condensing plant is economical The condensing plant is costly and

and simple. complicated.

Maintenance cost is low. Maintenance cost is high.

More power is required for air pump. Less power is required for air pump.

High power is required for water Low power is required for water
pumping. piping.

EVAPORATOR

An evaporator is a boiler component that functions to convert water into saturated

steam. In the industrial sector, the benefits of the evaporator are usually for the initial
thickening of the liquid before further processing, reduction of fluid volume and to reduce
water activity. Evaporators are employed for supplying pure water as make-up feed water
in steam power plants. In an evaporator raw water is evaporated by using extracted
steam and the vapors so produced may be condensed to give a supply of distilled or pure
feed water. These vapors can be condensed in feed water heaters by the feed water or in
separate evaporator condensers using feed water as the cooling medium.
 In thermal power engineering, the evaporator is used to produce a distillate that
compensates for losses of condensate in steam power plants. A tube vertical evaporator
is usually heated by the steam coming from the turbine and passing through the space
between the tubes. The evaporating water, which is softened in advance, passes within
the tubes. There are also evaporators that are heated by flue gases emerging from boiler
units. The steam produced in such evaporators may be used both to compensate for
losses of condensate and to provide heat. High-capacity evaporators find application in
atomic power plants located near seas and oceans for the distillation of seawater.

There are two main types of evaporator.

1. Flash Evaporator
The heated salt water passes through an orifice into an area of lower
pressure which is created by an air ejector or vacuum pump. A portion of
the water flashes into steam, and the steam passes up to a vapor separator,
where water droplets are removed, and then to a distilling condenser where
the vapor is condensed.

2. Submerge Type Evaporator

In this system,the evaporator tubes are submerged in a liquid pool.
The liquid surrounding the submerged tubes reaches saturation temperature
and evaporation proceeds as the heating steam condenses inside the
tubes. The formed vapor flows through a demister pad that removes the
entrained liquid droplets.

4 main Configuration of evaporators based on the way they achieve the heat
transfer.

1. Natural/Forced circulation evaporators

 Natural circulation evaporators are based on the natural circulation of the
product caused by the density differences that arise from heating. In an evaporator
using tubing, after the water begins to boil, bubbles will rise and cause circulation,
facilitating the separation of the liquid and the vapor at the top of the heating tubes.
The amount of evaporation that takes place depends on the temperature
difference between the steam and the solution.
Forced circulation evaporators consist of tubular heat exchangers for
concentrating a feed, it is deployed in cases where there is a high chance of feed
or when the feed has high viscosity and the thermal and flow properties of the
process liquor are poor, rendering forced circulation necessary. In the forced
circulation evaporator mechanism, the feed is pumped at high velocity through the
tubes to ensure high heat transfer coefficient. The working of forced circulation
evaporator achieves high velocities and low residence time in a small space due to
high heat transfer. This prevents the feed from reacting with the vessel of the
forced circulation evaporator. Thus, forced circulation evaporator mechanism
greatly reduces or eliminates altogether, the possibility of scaling.

 2. Rising film evaporator



The rising film evaporator is essentially a shell and tube type heat exchanger. The
liquid to be evaporated is fed into the evaporator from the bottom of the tube.
 There is a condensation of steam on the outer surface of the vertical tubes, and
the liquid within the evaporator boils up into vapor. This design is then usually
applied to clear, non-salting solutions. Rising film evaporators are best suited to
process materials that have mild scaling tendencies, but they cannot handle heavy
scaling and heat sensitive materials.

 3. Falling film evaporator

Falling film evaporator is built to solve the problems that the rising film
evaporator faces. Falling film evaporator is best suited to evaporate heat sensitive
liquids. The feed enters the evaporator from the top and is distributed through the
heating tubes. The liquid flows through tubes and forms a thin film on the walls of
the tube while being partially evaporated. The heat is provided through the heating
medium (generally steam) to ensure high heat-transfer coefficient. The liquid and
the vapor then flow downwards under the pull of gravity.
In the falling film evaporator working, the co-current vapor flow serves to
augment the downward movement of the liquid. Concentrated product and its
vapor are then separated from each other at the bottom of the falling film
evaporator unit.

 4. Agitated thin film evaporator/Wiped film evaporator

It consist mainly of jacketed shells and high-speed rotors. Working principle of the
agitated thin film evaporator involves the feed entering the evaporator from the top.
the feed is then agitated and spread out into a thin film on the shell walls by the
fast spinning rotor. The liquid is distributed in the form of a thin film on the heated
wall where the heat transfer takes place. Further on, the rotor inside the heating
shell wipes the fluid film from the walls. Agitated thin film evaporators are used
mostly for fluids that possess high sensitivity and high viscosity.