PHY-405: Condensed Matter

Physics Lab

Course Instructor:
Ravi Shankar Singh

Name: Nischay
Roll No.: 19209
Group: 4
 Name: Nischay
Roll Number: 19209
Experiment 1 & 2:
PQMS (Physical Quantities Measurement System)
Aim:
(1) Identification of Magnetic Transition Temperature using AC Susceptibility
Measurements.
(2) Superconductivity using Resistivity Measurements (Characterization of DC Electrical
Resistance of YBCO)

Apparatus used: PQMS consisting of

(1) Liquid N2 chamber
(2) Vacuum Rotary pump
(3) Lock-in Amplifier
(4) Temperature Controller Module
(5) I-V Module
(6) Cryo chambers
(7) YBCO pellet
(8) I-V source and measurement module:

It consists of a microprocessor controlled electronic unit and its associated driver and utility
software. The electronics are as one output channel which can be configured to supply
either a constant DC voltage or a constant DC current. This module is used to study current
vs voltage characteristics of various materials and device using two and four probe
connections topology. IT can also be used to record current voltage and resistance as a
function of time.
(9) Lock-In amplifier module:

The lock-in amplifier can lock the measurement signal with the reference signal and
measure the in-phase component and quadrature component simultaneously. IT measures
amplitude and phase of a signal at a frequency exploiting the orthogonal nature of sin and
cos function.

Theory:
Magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of the intensity of magnetism induced (M) in a substance
to the magnetizing force of intensity of field (B). It reflects a material’s degree of sensitivity
to magnetic fields.
𝑀
χ=
𝐵
Magnetic Transition Temperature (Curie temperature):
The temperature above which certain materials lose their permanent magnetic properties
which can be replaced by induced magnetism. Curie temperature is the critical point at
which a material’s intrinsic magnetic moments change direction.
Susceptometer:
The susceptometer probe includes a primary (excitation) solenoid coil which produce a near
uniform AC magnetic field when driven by AC source. Inside the primary coil is the
secondary coils consist of two pickup coils which are wound in opposite directions and
electrically connected in series. Sample is placed one of secondary coil. AC voltage V across
secondary coils is due to Faraday induction:
𝑑ϕ
𝑉=−
𝑑𝑡
Where ϕ = net flux due to both secondary coils
Sample used: Gd (Gadolinium) and YBCO (Yttrium barium copper oxide)
Observations:
(A) Gd:

Chi vs position for Gd

4.00E-03

3.00E-03

2.00E-03

1.00E-03

0.00E+00
0.00E+00 1.00E-02 2.00E-02 3.00E-02 4.00E-02 5.00E-02 6.00E-02 7.00E-02
Chi

-1.00E-03

-2.00E-03

-3.00E-03

-4.00E-03

-5.00E-03
Probe Position (mm)
 Chi vs T for Gd
8.00E-03

7.00E-03

6.00E-03

5.00E-03
Chi

4.00E-03

3.00E-03

2.00E-03

1.00E-03

0.00E+00
2.60E+02 2.70E+02 2.80E+02 2.90E+02 3.00E+02 3.10E+02 3.20E+02 3.30E+02
Temperature (K)

(B) YBCO:

Chi vs position for YBCO

1.00E-04

0.00E+00
0.00E+00 1.00E-02 2.00E-02 3.00E-02 4.00E-02 5.00E-02 6.00E-02 7.00E-02

-1.00E-04
Chi

-2.00E-04

-3.00E-04

-4.00E-04

-5.00E-04
Probe position (mm)
 Chi vs T for YBCO
1.00E-04

0.00E+00
7.50E+01 8.00E+01 8.50E+01 9.00E+01 9.50E+01 1.00E+02 1.05E+02 1.10E+02

-1.00E-04
Chi

-2.00E-04

-3.00E-04

-4.00E-04

-5.00E-04
Temperature (K)

Results:
(a) Transition temperature of Gadolinium is about 294 K.
(b) Transition temperature of YBCO is about 92 K.
Observations:
(1) In χ vs L for YBCO sample, as we can see that reference point χ behaves abnormally
due to impurities in the sample.
(2) In χ vs T for Gd sample, at around 295 K, it was ferromagnetic but after passing 294 K,
it behaves like a paramagnetic material.
(3) We can see that χ of YBCO increased initially as the temperature increases and then
just flattened after reaching a point and that indicated transition temperature
around 92 K because at this temperature, YBCO starts showing superconductivity
leading to no field lines inside it leading to negative susceptibility.

Precautions:
(1) We have to make sure that entire setup should be grounded, otherwise that would
lead to shock at surface.
(2) Be careful with liquid nitrogen and helium.
(3) Make sure the temperature controller is properly calibrated.
(4) Purging must be done multiple times to make it more effective.
 Name: Nischay
Roll Number: 19209
Experiment 3
Thin film deposition by Thermal Evaporation
Aim: (1) Deposit a thin film of copper on a substrate (glass slide).
(2) Monitor the thickness and rate of thin film deposited.

Equipment Used:
(1) Rotary pump to reach the preliminary vacuum (10-3 mbar)
(2) Turbo Molecular pump to reach the base vacuum (10-5 mbar)
(3) Glass slide as a substrate
(4) Copper pallets
(5) Vacuum chamber
(6) Tungsten boat connected to a high current supply
(7) Piezoelectric thickness sensor
(8) Pressure Gauge (Penning and Pirani gauge)
(9) STM2 software

Thin Film Deposition:

It is the process of depositing a very thin layer of material (in the order of nanometers) onto
a surface known as a substrate. There are various techniques of thin film deposition, one of
them being thermal evaporation.
In thermal evaporation, the material that needs to be deposited is heated to a temperature
above its melting point, resulting in a vapor pressure of the material. A substrate material is
placed directly above the molten deposition material. The heating and deposition need to
be done inside a very high vacuum chamber as evaporated particles can travel directly to
the substrate without collisions from any gases, thus increasing the mean-free path of the
material and making the deposition more effective. The material then condenses on the
substrate surface, forming a thin film. The rate at which the film is deposited will depend on
the air pressure inside the vacuum and temperature at which
the material is heated.
For heating up the material inside the vacuum chamber, a
tungsten “boat” is used to hold the copper pallets. This boat
is connected to a voltage transformer which can be used to
adjust the voltage and hence, the temperature of the
tungsten 50 V is enough to heat the tungsten boat to a high
enough temperature that melts the copper.
Generating a vacuum:
In case of thermal evaporation, a high vacuum (10-5 mbar) is required for the copper to
deposit efficiently. Two different vacuums need to be used to obtain this vacuum.
Rotary vane pump:
A rotary vane pump consists of a cylindrical chamber which houses a rotor mounted
eccentrically. There are spring-loaded blades attached to the rotor, known as vanes which
move in or out depending on the position of the rotor inside the chamber. Either one or
multiple vanes can be used. Its working is shown below: as the fluid is exhausted out of the
chamber to the atmosphere in step 4, a temporary low-pressure region is created which
allows intake of more fluid from the source.

To avoid friction between the housing and the rotor/vanes, an oil lubricant is used. Rotary
vane pumps are used to attain vacuum of 10-3 mbar.
Turbomolecular pump:
The turbomolecular pump consists of a series of “rotor”
and “stator” blades layered vertically. The rotor blades
rotate at very high speeds (up to 90,000 rpm) while the
stator blades remain stationary. Both kind of blades are
inclined in opposite directions such that molecules
deflected from the moving rotor blades strike the stator
blades at appropriate angles so as to push the
molecules further down. The mean free path of the
molecules should be greater than the blade spacing so
that molecules can travel efficiently.
 Turbomolecular pumps can be used to
achieve up to 10-7 mbar of pressure. To
avoid damaging of the pump due to high
air pressure, the outlet is connected to a
backing pump instead of the atmosphere.
The rotary vane pump is used as the
backing pump in this case.
Usage of valves:
(1) A vent valve is used to bring the vacuum chamber to atmospheric pressure when the
experiment is started.
(2) A roughing valve is used to decrease the pressure of the chamber to about 10 -3 mbar
by a rotary pump.
(3) Backing valve is used to create a low-pressure region between the turbomolecular
pump and rotary pump.
(4) Finally, the gate valve is opened which inlets the vacuum chamber into the
turbomolecular pump, achieving a pressure of about 10-5 mbar.
(5) The vent valve is used again after the experiment to increase the pressure inside the
chamber back to atmospheric pressure.
Piezoelectric sensor:
A piezoelectric material is placed right next to the substrate so that equal amounts of
copper condense on both the substances. Piezoelectric materials generate electricity when
subjected to mechanical stress. The electric current generated due to pressure from the
copper vapors is used to determine the thickness of the copper film and its rate of
deposition through the STM2 software.
Observations:
The voltage is slowly increased to about 50 V with a transformer. The tungsten boat glows
as a result of incandescence and the copper melts rapidly, forming vapors.
(a) Thickness (Angstrom) vs Time (seconds)

(b) Rate of thickness (Angstrom/s) vs Time (s):

 (1) A thickness of 100 angstroms is obtained in about 6 seconds.
(2) The deposition rate is nearly constant in the first 6 seconds but slowly falls off as time
passes.
Conclusions: We were able to observe the rate at which deposition of copper occurs on the
glass substrate due to thermal evaporation. The net thickness of the copper film is 302.71
angstroms after a run time of 48 seconds.
Precautions:
(1) The chamber and the substrate must be cleaned properly with acetone before
starting the experiment to avoid unwanted vapor pressures.
(2) Close the chamber properly but don’t tighten its hard.
(3) After a high pressure is obtained, let the rpm of the turbomolecular pump decrease
slowly before starting the deposition.
 Name: Nischay
Roll Number: 19209
Experiment 4:
Hall Effect
Aim: To measure the Hall voltage as a function of sample current (𝐼 ), sample temperature
(𝑇 ) for n and p-doped germanium crystals.

Apparatus: Hall Effect control unit, sample holder with rigid base, Hall effect cartridge,
Digital Gauss meter, Gauss probe mount, electromagnet, electromagnet power supply,
electromagnet connecting cable, AC power code.

Theory:
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an electric field
E is induced in the conductor perpendicular to both I and B. This phenomenon is known as
Hall effect.
The charge carriers of the conductor normally travel in a straight line when subjected to a
potential difference. However, if placed in a transverse magnetic field, the net force on the
charge carrier is given as:
𝑭 = 𝑞(𝑬 + 𝒗 × 𝑩) (1)
Where 𝒗 = velocity of the charge carriers. The charge carriers travel in a curved path due to
this additional force. This results in a net accumulation of positive/negative charges in
either side of the conductor along the direction of the induced emf. This induced emf, also
known as the Hall voltage depends on the intensity of the passing current, the magnetic
field, density of charge carriers.
1 𝐵𝐼
𝑉 = (2)
𝑛𝑒 𝑑
Where n is the concentration of charges and d is the thickness of the sample (extrinsic
Germanium crystal, p-doped and n-doped).

The factor is called the Hall coefficient

𝑅 = (3)
From (2) & (3), we get
𝑉 𝑑
𝑅 = (4)
𝐼 𝐵
The Hall coefficient can be used to determine the mobility of the charge carriers:
μ =𝑅 ∙σ (5)
Where σ = conductivity of the material
By plotting a V-I graph, its slope can be used to determine the hall coefficient 𝑅 and the
carrier mobility μ.

Observations:
(1) We calibrate the magnetic flux density:

Current (A) Magnetic Field

(x 10 Gauss)
0.0 18
0.1 32
0.2 45
0.3 58
0.4 72
0.5 87
0.6 104
0.7 120
0.8 136
0.9 153
1 168
1.1 184
1.2 198
1.3 215
1.4 228
1.5 244
1.6 258
1.7 274
1.8 288
1.9 302
2.0 316
(2) Measured hall voltage vs Current at zero magnetic field:
Current (mA) P-type N-type
Hall voltage (mV) Hall voltage (mV)
0.0 0.5 0.4
0.5 2.0 4.6
1.0 2.6 6.4
1.5 3.5 9.0
2.0 5.0 12.5
2.5 6.4 15.3
3.0 7.4 15.6
3.5 8.3 15.6
4.0 9.1 15.8
4.5 9.9 15.8
5.0 10.9 15.7
5.5 12.2 15.7
6.0 13.3 15.6
6.5 14.5 15.6
7.0 14.6 15.5
7.5 14.7 15.5
8.0 14.6 15.3
(3) Measured hall voltage vs Current at B = 870 Gauss:
P-type N-type
Current (mA) Measured 𝑉 Corrected 𝑉 Measured 𝑉 Corrected 𝑉
(mV) (mV) (mV) (mV)
0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.1
0.5 1.4 -0.6 7.0 2.4
1.0 1.8 -0.8 9.5 3.1
1.5 2.4 -1.1 13.5 4.5
2.0 3.3 -1.7 18.6 6.1
2.5 4.2 -2.2 22.6 7.3
3.0 4.9 -2.5 22.7 7.1
3.5 5.5 -2.8 22.7 7.1
4.0 6.1 -3.0 22.6 6.8
4.5 6.7 -3.2 22.5 6.7
5.0 7.4 -3.5 22.3 6.6
5.5 8.2 -4.0 22.2 6.5
6.0 8.8 -4.5 22.1 6.5
6.5 8.8 -5.7 22.0 6.4
7.0 8.8 -5.8 21.9 6.4
7.5 8.7 -6.0 21.7 6.2
8.0 8.7 -5.9 21.5 6.2

VH vs IH graph at B = 870 Gauss

8

P-type
4
N-type
Hall Voltage (mV)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-2

-4

-6

-8
Current (mA)
(4) Measured hall voltage vs Current at B = 1680 Gauss:
P-type N-type
Current (mA) Measured 𝑉 Corrected 𝑉 Measured 𝑉 Corrected 𝑉
(mV) (mV) (mV) (mV)
0.0 0.4 -0.1 0.6 0.2
0.5 0.9 -1.1 9.6 4.0
1.0 1.1 -1.5 11.9 5.5
1.5 1.4 -2.1 17.0 8.0
2.0 1.8 -3.2 23.9 11.4
2.5 2.2 -4.2 29.5 14.2
3.0 2.5 -4.9 29.7 14.1
3.5 2.7 -5.6 29.6 14.0
4.0 3.0 -6.1 29.6 13.8
4.5 3.3 -6.6 29.5 13.7
5.0 3.7 -7.2 29.4 13.5
5.5 4.2 -8.0 29.2 13.5
6.0 4.5 -8.8 28.9 13.3
6.5 4.5 -10.0 28.7 13.1
7.0 4.5 -10.1 28.6 13.1
7.5 4.4 -10.3 28.4 12.9
8.0 4.4 -10.2 28.1 12.8

VH vs IH graph at B = 1680 Gauss

20

15

10
P-type
Hall Voltage (mV)

N-type
5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-5

-10

-15
Current (mA)
(5) Measured hall voltage vs Current at B = 2440 Gauss:
P-type N-type
Current (mA) Measured 𝑉 Corrected 𝑉 Measured 𝑉 Corrected 𝑉
(mV) (mV) (mV) (mV)
0.0 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.2
0.5 0.4 -1.6 10.2 5.6
1.0 0.4 -2.2 15.2 8.8
1.5 0.4 -3.1 20.3 11.5
2.0 0.5 -4.5 29.0 16.4
2.5 0.5 -5.9 36.6 21.3
3.0 0.6 -6.8 37.4 21.8
3.5 0.7 -7.6 37.4 21.8
4.0 0.8 -8.3 37.3 21.5
4.5 0.9 -9.0 37.2 21.4
5.0 1.1 -9.8 37.1 21.4
5.5 1.3 -10.9 36.8 21.1
6.0 1.4 -11.9 36.6 21.0
6.5 1.5 -13.0 36.2 20.6
7.0 1.6 -13.0 36.0 20.5
7.5 1.6 -13.1 36.5 20.1
8.0 1.6 -13.0 35.4 20.1

VH vs IH graph at B = 2440 Gauss

25

20

15

P-type
Hall Voltage (mV)

10 N-type

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-5

-10

-15
Current (mA)
(6) Hall voltage vs Temperature:
Temperature (oC) Hall Voltage (mV)
p-type n-type
30 3.6 4.7
35 2.6 4.6
40 2.4 4.5
45 2.1 4.2
50 1.6 3.6
55 1.3 2.8
60 1.2 2.5
65 1.1 1.9
70 1.1 1.5

VH vs Temperature

4.5

p-type
4 n-type

3.5
Hall Voltage (mV)

2.5

1.5

1
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Temperature (Celsius)

(7) Physical constants:

𝑑 = 0.05 𝑐𝑚
𝜌 = 10 𝜔𝑐𝑚
𝜎 = 0.1𝜔 𝑐𝑚
Calculations:
(1) Hall coefficient:
𝑉 𝑑
𝑅 =
𝐼 𝐵
(2) Carrier density:
1
𝑛=
𝑅 𝑒
(3) Charge mobility:
μ =𝑅 ∙σ

Note: 1 Gauss = 10-8 kg.s/cm2.C

(A) For B = 870 Gauss:

(i) For p-type, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −0.7375 𝑉/𝐴
𝑉 𝑑
𝑅 = × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
𝐼 𝐵
𝑅 = −0.7375 × 0.05 × 10 /870 = −4.24 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
1 1
𝑛= = = 1.47 × 10 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 𝑒 4.24 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
𝜇 = 𝑅 𝜎 = 4.24 × 10 × 0.1 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
𝜇 = 4.24 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠

(ii) For n-type, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 2.88 𝑉/𝐴

𝑉 𝑑
𝑅 = × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
𝐼 𝐵
𝑅 = 2.88 × 0.05 × 10 /870 = 1.66 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
1 1
𝑛= = = 3.77 × 10 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 𝑒 1.66 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
𝜇 = 𝑅 𝜎 = 1.66 × 10 × 0.1 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
𝜇 = 1.66 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
(B) For B = 1680 Gauss:
(i) For p-type, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −1.523 𝑉/𝐴
𝑉 𝑑
𝑅 = × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
𝐼 𝐵
𝑅 = −1.523 × 0.05 × 10 /1680 = −4.53 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
 1 1
𝑛= = = 1.38 × 10 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 𝑒 4.53 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
𝜇 = 𝑅 𝜎 = 4.53 × 10 × 0.1 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
𝜇 = 4.53 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠

(ii) For n-type, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 5.6 𝑉/𝐴

𝑉 𝑑
𝑅 = × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
𝐼 𝐵
𝑅 = 5.6 × 0.05 × 10 /1680 = 1.67 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
1 1
𝑛= = = 3.74 × 10 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 𝑒 1.67 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
𝜇 = 𝑅 𝜎 = 1.67 × 10 × 0.1 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
𝜇 = 1.67 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
(C) For B = 2440 Gauss:
(i) For p-type, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −2.046 𝑉/𝐴
𝑉 𝑑
𝑅 = × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
𝐼 𝐵
𝑅 = −2.046 × 0.05 × 10 /2440 = −4.19 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
1 1
𝑛= = = 1.49 × 10 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 𝑒 4.19 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
𝜇 = 𝑅 𝜎 = 4.19 × 10 × 0.1 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
𝜇 = 4.19 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠

(ii) For n-type, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 8.44 𝑉/𝐴

𝑉 𝑑
𝑅 = × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
𝐼 𝐵
𝑅 = 8.44 × 0.05 × 10 /2440 = 1.73 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
1 1
𝑛= = = 3.61 × 10 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 𝑒 1.73 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
𝜇 = 𝑅 𝜎 = 1.73 × 10 × 0.1 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
𝜇 = 1.73 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
Result:
(a) Hall coefficient:
(1) At B = 870 Gauss, I = 0.5 A
(i) P-type: −4.24 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
(ii) N-type: 1.66 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
(2) At B = 1680 Gauss, I = 1.0 A
(i) P-type: −4.53 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
(ii) N-type: 1.67 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
(3) At B = 2440 Gauss, I = 1.5 A
(i) P-type: −4.19 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
(ii) N-type: 1.73 × 10 𝑐𝑚 /𝐶
(b) Charge carrier density:
(1) At B = 870 Gauss, I = 0.5 A
(i) P-type: 1.47 × 10 𝑐𝑚
(ii) N-type: 3.77 × 10 𝑐𝑚
(2) At B = 1680 Gauss, I = 1.0 A
(i) P-type: 1.38 × 10 𝑐𝑚
(ii) N-type: 3.74 × 10 𝑐𝑚
(3) At B = 2440 Gauss, I = 1.5 A
(i) P-type: 1.49 × 10 𝑐𝑚
(ii) N-type: 3.61 × 10 𝑐𝑚
(c) Mobility of charges:
(1) At B = 870 Gauss, I = 0.5 A
(i) P-type: 4.24 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
(ii) N-type: 1.66 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
(2) At B = 1680 Gauss, I = 1.0 A
(i) P-type: 4.53 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
(ii) N-type: 1.67 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
(3) At B = 2440 Gauss, I = 1.5 A
(i) P-type: 4.19 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠
(ii) N-type: 1.73 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑣 𝑠

Precautions:
(1) The cartridges should be handled with care as they are fragile.
(2) Power supply current should not exceed 2A.
(3) Current through cartridge should not exceed 8 mA.
(4) Four probe must be connected directly to the Germanium crystal.
 Name: Nischay
Roll Number: 19209
Experiment 6:
SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices)
Aim: To study the superconducting quantum intereference devices (SQUID) characterstics
for V-I and V-ϕ.
Apparatus: SQUID probe with the SQUID sensor, MS-EB03 electronic control box and
external ±12 Volts DC power supply, Nine-pin DB-9 M/M cable to connect the probe to the
electronics box, 1 L liquid nitrogen dewar

Theory:
A SQUID magnetometer incorporating
a high-temperature superconductor
(HTS) thin-film SQUID chip is used to
detect small magnetic signals if it is
coupled to the SQUID. The SQUID
probe contains a DC SQUID circuit
made from a thin film of YBCO, which
is a superconductor.
The DC SQUID is a ring of
superconductor containing two
Josephson junctions (J1 and J2) as in the
1 - DC SQUID containing two Josephson junctions
diagram. Josephson junctions are made
by sandwiching a thin layer of non-superconducting material between two layers of
superconducting material.
Josephson effect: If two superconductors are placed in proximity, with a barrier such as
non-superconductor (Josephson junction), some resistance-less current can still pass
without any voltage applied.
However, the current passing through a Joseph junction is less compared to a
superconductor; there is a critical limit to the amount of current passing at zero voltage,
known as critical current 𝐼 . Once voltage is increased (under no external magnetic field),
the current increases linearly with it, following Ohm’s law. This resistance is the Normal
Resistance 𝑅 of the SQUID sensor. As the sensor contains two Josephson junctions in
parallel, the resistance of each junction will be 2 ∙ 𝑅 assuming both are identical.
Cooper pair: In metals, especially at low temperature, electrons are paired due to electron-
phonon interaction over a range of hundreds of nanometers. These pairs are similar to
bosons in nature, they can condense to the ground state lower than the single electron
ground state. The wavefunction which describes a Cooper pair of electrons in a
superconductor is an exponential like the free particle wavefunction.
Magnetic flux: It is defined as the dot product of the surface area and the magnetic field
passing through that area:
𝛟= 𝑩 ∙𝑺
If one is dealing with a superconducting loop, the magnetic flux through that loop is
quantized, being an integral multiple of the magnetic flux quantum
ℎ
ϕ = ≈ 2.068 × 10 𝑊𝑏
2𝑒
Suppose an external magnetic field is applied to a superconducting ring (like the SQUID
circuit) such that the net magnetic flux is increased until it exceeds ϕ /2. Since the flux
enclosed by the superconducting loop must be an integer number of 𝜙 , instead of
screening the flux the SQUID now energetically prefers to increase it to 𝜙 . The current
now flows in the opposite direction, opposing the difference between the admitted
flux 𝜙 and the external field of just
over 𝜙 /2. The current decreases as
the external field is increased, is zero
when the flux is exactly 𝜙 , and again
reverses direction as the external
field is further increased. Thus, the
current changes direction
periodically, every time the flux
increases by additional half-integer
multiple of 𝜙 .
If the input current is more than 𝐼 ,
we observe a voltage, and hence a
characteristic V-I graph, where V
would be a function of the applied
current and the applied magnetic
field.

Note: The voltage levels across SQUID circuits are miniscule. Therefore, for appropriate
measurements, the SQUID electronics control box is equipped with an amplifier circuit with
a gain of 10000. Thus, actual voltage across the SQUID circuit is 1/104 of the observed
values on the oscilloscope on the Voltage monitor. Actual current will also be 1/104 of the
observed values.
Observations:

Horizontal sensitivity = 2.00 A

Vertical sensitivity = 2.00 V

2 - V-I curve

Horizontal sensitivity = 5.00 A

Vertical sensitivity = 0.2 V

3 V-ϕ curve
(1) The V-I curve has a flat region with zero voltage as expected, it’s the region where
superconducting occurs. The Cooper pairs tunnel through the Josephson junction to
produce current.
(2) Beyond the critical current, voltage rises suddenly due to breakdown of Cooper pairs.
The junctions follow Ohm’s Law beyond this point.
(3) The V-ϕ curve is periodic because of the quantization of flux through the SQUID
circuit.
Calculations:
(i) Critical current:
From the V-I curve, we observe breakdown at about (2,0). This corresponds to 𝐼 ≈
4.00𝐴 as horizontal sensitivity = 2.00 A. This is the net current passing through the electric
box. Accounting for the gain, the actual current passing through the SQUID circuit = 400 μ𝐴.
As the two Josephson junctions are placed parallelly, current through each junction will be
half of the total current. Therefore,
𝐼 =𝐼 /2 = 200 μ𝐴
(ii) Normal Resistance of the SQUID circuit:
The V-I curve’s slope beyond the breakdown point gives us the net resistance of the SQUID
circuit. The resistance for each Josephson junction will be twice of this value.
. . .
Therefore, 𝑅 = 2𝑐 ≈ 2 × = = 1.9 Ω
. .

(iii) Modulation Depth:

Modulation depth of voltage is the difference between the maximum and minimum
voltages in V-ϕ graph. Therefore,
Δ𝑉 ≈ 0.46 − (−0.46)𝑉 = 0.92𝑉
Due to a gain of 10000, actual modulation depth = 0.92/104 = 92 μ𝑉
(iv) β parameter: This parameter determines the maximum extent to which circulating
current in the SQUID can shield the applied flux, and is a factor in determining the
flux-to-voltage transfer ratio of the SQUID.
2𝐼 𝐿
β =
ϕ
Where L is the inductance of the SQUID:
𝐿 =𝐿 +𝐿 +𝐿
𝐿 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 58 𝑝𝐻
𝐿 = 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑆𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 7 𝑝𝐻
𝐿𝑗 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐽𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑝ℎ𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 8 𝑝𝐻

Therefore, L = 73 pH.
2 × 200 × 10 × 73 × 10
β =
2.07 × 10
𝛃𝑳 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟎𝟔

It can also be calculated from the modulation depth:

 4𝐼 𝑅
𝛽 = −1
𝜋ΔV
4 × 200 × 10 × 1.9
β = −1
π × 92 × 10
𝛃𝑳 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟖
Results:
(1) The critical current of the Josephson junctions is 200 μ𝐴.
(2) Normal resistance of each Josephson junction is 1.9 Ω.
(3) Modulation depth of voltage = 92 μ𝑉.
(4) Net inductance of SQUID circuit = 73 pH.
(5) β parameter calculated from
(i) Inductance: 14.106
(ii) Modulation Depth: 4.258.

Precautions:
(1) Connect the cable pins carefully.
(2) Handle liquid nitrogen with caution.
(3) Don’t keep any magnetic devices near the SQUID.