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Brooks 2013
Brooks 2013
Brooks 2013
12096
REVIEW
Abstract
Aim: The aim of this study was to explore what is known about food literacy programmes targeting adolescents,
including identification of the constituents of food literacy addressed, assessment of programme effectiveness, and
description of programme design or delivery specific to adolescents.
Methods: A review of the peer-reviewed literature surrounding adolescent food literacy was conducted using
scholarly electronic databases. Programme reports were identified in the grey literature using online searching and
cross-referencing to support the research aim. Programmes from 2000 to 2012 targeting adolescents aged 13–17
years were included.
Results: A total of 19 peer-reviewed papers and four grey literature programmes met the search criteria. Interven-
tions focused on practical cooking and/or food preparation skills and targeted younger adolescent age groups.
Programmes were most commonly held in schools and community settings. The majority of programmes (n = 16/23)
did not use a theoretical basis for their development. Programme evaluation encompassed the use of pre- and
post-intervention questionnaires and focus groups. Only nine studies included a dietary behaviour-based outcome
measure. Although 19 of the 23 studies reviewed reported positive changes related to the intervention, these did not
include significant changes in diet quality or cooking frequency at home.
Conclusions: Few existing adolescent food literacy programmes have demonstrated a positive impact on dietary
behaviours to date. Adolescent target groups present unique challenges in programme development and delivery.
However, the physical, social and emotional health needs of this age group and potential to influence lifelong
behaviours highlight the need to design effective and age-appropriate adolescent food literacy programmes.
home meal replacements.17,18 Changes in family demograph- or culinary or nutrition education or garden). A third strategy
ics, such as dual income or single parent family living, are used was to undertake a citation check.
also suggested to result in decreased opportunity for adoles- Papers were included if they described the planning,
cents to acquire cooking skills from parents and be exposed implementation, evaluation or outcomes of an intervention
to food preparation in the home environment.15,16,19 In addi- aiming to address one or more components of food literacy
tion, the changing nature and demise of practical cooking targeting or including adolescents, were published in a peer-
and food preparation skills within the secondary school reviewed journal, and available in English. Papers were
curriculum from a focus on ‘hands on’ cooking skills to a excluded from this review if they focused on general nutri-
more theoretical approach decreases the likelihood of devel- tion education for adolescents, such as mandated curriculum
opment of food preparation skills through this avenue.15,16,20 delivery, or assessed disease-focused nutrition interventions
This is paralleled by a surge in the popularity of reality for adolescents, such as type 2 diabetes or obesity or for
television cooking shows, which are deemed as a potential pregnant adolescents.
medium for didactic learning,21 although the translation to Programmes from the grey literature were identified to
increased practical food skills in the youth is yet to be further expand the search results using the key terms listed
explored. earlier. The Web was searched using the search engine
These influences, in parallel with the increasing recogni- Google and cross-referenced from other literature. In addi-
tion of the need to develop food literacy skills among ado- tion to the inclusion and exclusion criteria used for peer-
lescents because of their increasing independence from the reviewed literature, programmes identified in the grey
home food environment,18,19 highlight the necessity for pur- literature were only included if sufficient detail was provided
posively designed interventions targeting this age group and in the form of a report or on a reputable website for the
area of skill development. However, the development of food programme to be reviewed.
literacy interventions that are successful in initiating and Following development of the list of peer-reviewed
supporting behaviour change in adolescents presents chal- papers and grey literature programmes to be reviewed, a
lenges in terms of increasing motivation among the target data matrix was developed with the following headings:
group, addressing determinants of dietary behaviour and author title (peer-reviewed literature) or programme name
decreasing barriers to eating a healthful diet.22,23 This high- (grey literature), intervention type and strategies, target
lights a potential discrepancy between a target group requir- group and sample size, duration, food literacy areas
ing intervention, and the implementation of effective addressed, theoretical model, evaluation methods, and out-
adolescent food literacy programmes because of difficulty in comes. From this analysis a summary table of recommen-
overcoming these challenges. dations for future adolescent food literacy programme
The aim of this literature review was to explore what is development drawn from the programmes reviewed was
known about the effectiveness of food literacy programmes created.
targeting adolescents to specifically inform future pro- Effectiveness of programmes was assessed by the achieve-
gramme development. The objectives were to identify the ment of the explicit goals and objectives stated and/or
constituents of food literacy most commonly addressed in changes in dietary intakes such as fruit and vegetable con-
programmes; assess the effects of these programmes on out- sumption or overall diet quality. Innovative programmes
comes for participants (confidence, knowledge, dietary were identified as those including components not incorpo-
intakes); and describe elements of effective programme rated in other programmes, such as programme themes or
design or delivery considerations specific to the age group activities.
such as settings, teaching/learning styles, programme dura-
tion, frequency and evaluation methods.
Results
Study selection: A total of 19 peer-reviewed papers and four
Methods
grey literature programmes met the search criteria to be
A review of the peer-reviewed and grey literature was under- included in this review. Of the programmes reviewed, 17
taken to identify published and other reports on food lit- were implemented in the USA, three in the UK, two in
eracy programmes for adolescents described as 13–17 years Australia and one in Canada. Please refer to Table 1 for
from 2000 to 2012. details of the peer-reviewed literature programmes included,
A search was conducted to identify peer-reviewed papers and Table 2 for details of the grey literature programmes
using electronic databases: PubMed, Science Direct, OvidSP reviewed.
Medline, Proquest, Wiley Online Library, Google Scholar. Programme characteristics: The following section will
Databases were searched using these key terms for a first discuss the characteristics of the food literacy programmes.
wave search: (adolescent or teenager or youth) (food literacy or Study design and sample size: The majority of programmes
food skills) (program or intervention). The majority of pro- were designed with a single intervention group and evalu-
grammes identified were focused on the access and prepa- ated using a pre- and post-questionnaire evaluation. Only
ration aspects of food literacy and so a second search was two programmes used a form of control group in their study
undertaken to cross-reference results from the original design. Evans et al.31 used other non-participating students
search using (adolescent or teenager or youth) (cooking program in the schools. O’Neil and Nicklas38 assigned high schools to
160
Author(s), year and Intervention type and Target group and Food literacy areas Theoretical model
country of origin strategies sample size Duration addressed or basis Evaluation methods Outcomes
24
Beets et al. 2007 ‘Culinary Camp’ Summer Young adolescents Camp duration Meal preparation, Experiential Survey at baseline and Significant changes in
(USA) Cooking Programme n = 20 eight days, cooking self-efficacy for learning one-week post-cooking knowledge (P = 0.03) and
Demonstration of cooking sessions four hours cooking, nutrition framework behaviours and perceived cooking ability
techniques, preparation of each day knowledge psychosocial constructs. (P = 0.04); reduction of
dishes in small groups Qualitative feedback at negative attitudes towards
N. Brooks and A. Begley
161
Review of adolescent food literacy programmes
Table 1 Continued
162
Author(s), year and Intervention type and Target group and Food literacy areas Theoretical model
country of origin strategies sample size Duration addressed or basis Evaluation methods Outcomes
Lautenschlager and Youth farm and market Low-income youth in Three days per Cooking skills, Theory of Pretest/post-test 24 hour Boys’ fruit (from 2.01 to 3.05
Smith 2007;34 project Minneapolis 8–15 week for 10 weeks food selection, planned recall and survey servings per day; P = 0.030)
Beckman 200835 Gardening, cooking and years nutrition behaviour Focus groups and vegetable (from 2.05 to
(USA) nutrition lessons held in n = 66 knowledge 3.43 servings per day;
the community P = 0.007) intake significantly
N. Brooks and A. Begley
163
Review of adolescent food literacy programmes
164
Table 2 Summary of grey literature programmes
Programme name and/or
supporting organisation Intervention type and Target group and Food literacy areas Theoretical model
and country of origin strategies sample size Duration addressed or basis Evaluation methods Outcomes
Can Cook, CIC. Cooking classes run on Secondary school Can Cook Studio half Cooking and food Not stated Process evaluation—how Increase in confidence in
Centre for Food evenings and weekends students or full day courses preparation skills programmes delivered. cooking and specific food
Policy, City University incorporating an element Competition involved Can Cook cookery Pre- and preparation skills;
N. Brooks and A. Begley
London43 of healthy eating for 8–10–year olds; 10 courses run in post-intervention significance not stated.
(UK) example cooking pupils from 16 local inflatable questionnaires- 86% of participants
techniques or recipe schools domes—half-hour confidence in cooking reported using cooking
substitution. Total number of courses skills, intended use, any skills learned in the
Also run secondary secondary school Can Cook secondary impact on healthy eating competition at home;
school programmes and pupils attending Can school cooking Impact measures 91.5% had prepared a
secondary school cooking Cook sessions = 641 competition ran from gathered immediately or meal at home since the
competition. October 2010 to May two weeks after the competition
2011 intervention 22.9% increase in
Chef’s observation sheets percentage of pupils
used to collect immediate eating vegetables and
impact on ability to 13.9% increase of eating
prepare healthy dishes fruit at two weeks
24-hour recalls to assess post-intervention
impact on eating habits 58.5% of participants
responded that they had
learnt something about
healthy eating during the
session
Culinary Education Professional training in Adolescents aged Nine months Food preparation Not stated Evaluation component 70% retention rate of
and Training food service, primarily 16–18 years with at skills recently implemented youth in programme
Programme for At-Risk food preparation least a ninth-grade (not described)
Youth Courses undertaken capability
US Department of include cooking Those who have
Justice44 fundamentals, continental committed a
(USA) cuisine, introduction to non-violent crime
baking and principles of and have dropped
dining room services out of high school or
are at high risk of
dropping out.
It’s Your Move! Market Fresh Programme Adolescents attending - Ability to recognize Analysis Grid for See Implementation Not stated
World Health Included instructional five secondary and use fruit and Environments Report 5
Organization videos and pamphlets schools as part of the vegetables in Linked to Obesity
Collaborating Centre about fruit and East cooking Framework
for Obesity vegetables followed by Geelong/Bellarine Cooking skills
Prevention and tasting of seasonal Youth Project
Related Research and produce
Training45 Establishment of a
(Australia) vegetable garden with
produce used in Home
Economics classes
165
Review of adolescent food literacy programmes
N. Brooks and A. Begley
matched pairs, with one school from each pair randomly ingredients to allow choice,42 or ‘hands-on’ activities such as
selected to receive the Gimme 5 intervention and measure- reading menus and food labels.38 One programme used peer
ments and the control school receiving measurements only. leaders to teach class members to prepare simple and healthy
Sample sizes ranged from eight to 2213 adolescents with snacks.39
limited use of sample size calculations. Innovative programme components: Two programmes incor-
Intervention type and strategies: Practical and basic cooking porated an innovative or unique strategy to engage their
and/or food preparation skills were the primary focus of adolescent target group, including focusing on the connec-
most programmes, with 91% of programmes incorporating tion between media and health,43and using cooking com-
practical cooking-related skills. There was a focus on school- petitions as a setting for an adolescent food literacy
associated programmes such as after school food and intervention.46
cooking clubs,19,26,42 cooking programmes in conjunction Evaluation measures and study outcomes: The majority (n =
with a garden programme31,34–36 and interventions incorpo- 14/23) of programmes were evaluated by conducting a pre-
rated into the school curriculum.32,38 Other intervention and post-intervention questionnaire to assess primary
types included a series of community-based cooking objectives,19,24–27,30,31,36,37,40–43,46 such as change in attitudes to
classes25,27,28,33,41 and culinary camps.24,29,30,37 The camps and cooking or an increase in use of cooking skills, self-efficacy
clubs reviewed included cooking themes drawn from or nutrition knowledge. Details of questionnaire design were
various cuisines or cultural events to heighten participant not provided in all papers. The pre- versus post-education
interest. questionnaire used by Brown and Hermann25 was pilot
Target group: Sixty per cent of programmes targeted adoles- tested for reliability. A validated assessment or evaluation
cents in the age range of 11–15 years,19,24–27,31,32,34–36,38,39,42,43 tool was used to evaluate four programmes, including a
17% targeted adolescents older than 15 years,33,37,41,44 with the questionnaire for cooking skills programmes developed by
remaining 23% of programmes not stating a specific adoles- the Food Standards Agency UK26 and Eating Right is Fun:
cent target group. Three programmes targeted at-risk youth Food and Me, developed by the Michigan State University
including those from culturally diverse or disadvantaged Extension.30
backgrounds, high school dropouts or petty crime.37,41,44 Food literacy behaviour change was assessed in 48% of
The majority of programmes (n = 22/23) included mixed- the studies reviewed, including five studies that measured
gender adolescent target groups, with one programme target- dietary changes. Measurement of behaviour change involved
ing adolescent girls only.27 Only one study assessed the methods such as cooking behaviours assessed by a baseline
difference in programme outcomes between male and female and one-week post-intervention questionnaire asking par-
participants.34,35 ticipants to report the number of times they prepared meals
Programme settings and duration: Forty per cent of pro- at home during the past seven days,24 fruit and vegetable
grammes were held in community settings,24,25,28,33,40,41,43,44,46 consumption assessed using consecutive 24-hour recalls
such as libraries and universities, 35% at schools and the pre- and post-intervention,36,37 a survey measuring diet
remaining 25% of settings not stated. Duration of the pro- quality,30 assessment of food preparation skills and the ability
grammes varied depending on the intervention type. School to perform cooking techniques through use of behavioural-
garden and after-school cooking clubs consisted of 1.5–2.0- based questions on a Likert-type scale,30 and the use of focus
hour weekly sessions over a 10–20-week period generally groups to assess dietary changes in general. The programmes
aligned with school terms/semester.19,26,31,37 Community- reviewed provided insufficient evidence to assess the corre-
based classes primarily consisted of 1.5–2.0-hour weekly lation between programme duration and effectiveness.
sessions over a 4–10-week period.25,27,28,33,41 Culinary camps Qualitative evaluation methods were also used in a
lasted for seven to eight days.24,29,30 number of programmes by conducting interviews or focus
Theoretical basis for programme development: Only a few groups with participants, parents and programme facilita-
programmes explicitly described theory application in their tors.19,26,41 One programme used photovoice evaluation
design. The most popular application was the social cogni- methodology41 with another using a specifically designed
tive theory (SCT) in four programmes,26,27,30,31 then one pro- game evaluation Feed Your Mind.40
gramme each for the theory of planned behaviour,34,35 Programme effectiveness: There was difficulty in judging
constructs from the PRECEDE–PROCEED model,38 experi- and comparing the overall effectiveness of the programmes
ential learning framework and the Analysis Grid for Envi- because of the variability in the design and food literacy-
ronments Linked to Obesity (ANGELO) planning model.45 related goal and objectives. The impact of the intervention
Teaching and learning styles: Programmes incorporated on dietary behaviour change was investigated as an indica-
both didactic and experiential learning styles. Didactic learn- tion of programme effectiveness. Dietary behaviour change
ing involved structured cooking sessions led by an experi- was not an explicit goal or objective in the majority
enced adult facilitator, such as teachers,32 guest chefs41 of programmes (n = 15/23). The objectives of eight of
and trained programme educators.25 Experiential learning the studies reviewed related to dietary behaviour
encompassed a range of activities, such as allowing partici- change,25,27,29,31,36,38,39 with four studies aiming to support the
pants to select their own multicultural recipe to prepare and development of cooking skills.24,30,41,42. Nine studies
teach to their partner,19 engaging youth in planning cooking included a behavioural outcome measure, such as cooking
sessions,37,42 providing core recipes with limited specificity in frequency, fruit and vegetable intake, or the ability to
Table 3 Recommendations for adolescent food literacy programmes drawn from effective interventions
Programme
characteristic Recommendation
Setting • School or school holiday-based programmes for school-aged adolescents
• Community Centres22 for example Youth Services Community Centres in partnership with local
governments, Police Citizen Youth Clubs, sporting clubs and pre-existing youth groups for example
electronic gaming groups28
Duration and • Weekly active engagement25,27,28,33,41
frequency • Longer programme duration associated with greater programme effectiveness22 with a minimum of
four sessions required
Activities and • Include opportunities for experiential24 or ‘hands-on’ learning in a range of practical food-related
themes settings, such as gardens,34–36 to develop self-efficacy for food preparation skills
• Recipe or cooking competitions,43 music events etc. to raise the profile of healthy eating to the
target group
• Different weekly themes for example multicultural cuisines19,24,26
• Consider partial delivery of the intervention online or other forms of electronic media47
Target group • Formative research required to tailor the intervention to the specific adolescent target group,22
including the development of a programme name and identifier
• Assess the literacy levels of adolescents in relation to printed materials being at appropriate reading
levels and formatively evaluated for readability and comprehensibility
• Programme based on a suitable theoretical framework22
• Specific to early versus late adolescence for example possibility for parent involvement in
programme implementation in early adolescent target groups to extend intervention to encompass
the family,22 programmes for older adolescents emphasizing critical thinking skills that is impact of
dietary intake on health22
• Consider adaptation for gender specific programmes,48 Aboriginal Torres Strait Islander33 and CALD
communities
Programme • Include peer-modelling opportunities to develop social support39,46 and use regular positive
implementation reinforcement
• Provide recognition of success in completing the programme for example certificate of completion
or graduation ceremony41
• Develop agency and self-efficacy of adolescents to contribute to cooking and food preparation
within the home environment49
• Require similar level of supervision to children’s programmes, need to consider ratio of participants
to facilitators42
Evaluation • Consider process and impact evaluation based on measurable, specific goals set by adolescents22
• Measure dietary behaviour change22
• Innovative evaluation methods for example photovoice,41 website blogs and computer-based
programmes50 required for impact evaluation
perform specific food preparation skills.24,25,28,30,31,36,38,42,43 the studies reviewed, with one study reporting no changes in
The correlation between behaviour change and diet quality attitudes or behaviour.37
was not measured. The results of the food literacy programmes reviewed
Despite limited focus on dietary behaviour change, 19 of indicate that when programmes have appropriate study
the 23 programmes reviewed reported positive outcomes design, sufficient sample size for statistical power, are of
related to their specific objectives as a result of the inter- duration of several hours per week for a minimum of four
vention. Significant positive changes were reported in the weeks and have validated and reliable evaluation measure
areas of food- and nutrition-related knowledge,33,37,38,41 self- they are more likely to result in changes to psychological
efficacy for cooking,26,38,39 or perceived cooking ability,19,24 constructs such as self-efficacy and knowledge; however,
preparing foods in a new way,25 making recipes introduced dietary behaviour change is limited. Table 3 comprises a
in the intervention at home,25,28,34–36,38 and an increase in fruit summary of effective programme components described in
and vegetable servings per day31,32,34,36 or frequency of fruit the programmes reviewed which can be used as recommen-
and vegetable consumption.30 Condrasky et al.30 reported an dations for future programme development.
increase in the participants’ ability to perform cooking tech- The majority (n = 5/7) of theoretically based programmes
niques and preparation skills. There were no significant resulted in positive dietary behaviour change;30,38 however,
increases in diet quality27 or cooking frequency24 reported by other characteristics as described in Table 3, such as dura-
tion of the programme and need to have behavioural objec- potential to have wide-reaching effects.56 In addition to the
tives, need to be considered. There is potential to broaden influence of adolescent dietary behaviours on peer and
the components of food literacy-based programmes, to con- family food habits, improving food literacy in this target
sider innovative strategies for delivery and evaluation, and to group is suggested to support the establishment of healthy
explore age- and gender-specific programmes. eating behaviours, although not well studied to date.
Dietary intake in childhood and adolescence has been
shown to impact long-term health, particularly in relation
Discussion
to the prevalence of obesity and therefore risk of cardiovas-
The findings of this review suggest that there have been few cular disease and diabetes.57,58
specifically designed effective and innovative food literacy The effectiveness of the majority of studies examined in
programmes for this target group. To date, adolescent food this review was evaluated by positive changes in psychoso-
literacy programmes have shown a tendency to target early cial constructs theoretically related to preparing food, such
adolescence and focused on improving practical cooking as self-efficacy and food-related knowledge. The impact of
skills as a component of food literacy, to then also frame adolescent food literacy programmes on dietary behaviour
other components such as selection and nutrition knowl- change needs further investigation. Interventions that have a
edge. There was limited innovation and most used a didactic behavioural focus tend to be more effective in producing
teaching method generally associated with a school setting. dietary behaviour change in comparison with knowledge-
There appears to be a lack of programmes targeting older based programmes.59,60 The development of age-appropriate
adolescent age groups, culturally and linguistically diverse evaluation tools to assess dietary behaviour change will be
groups, and gender-specific interventions. In addition, the important in future research in this area. In addition, only a
majority of adolescent food literacy programmes to date have small number of interventions were based on theoretical
been implemented in the USA (n = 17/23), highlighting a models. However, the majority of these theory-based inter-
lack of Australian data. ventions reviewed resulted in positive dietary behaviour
One of the potential reasons for the lack of programmes is change. Theory-driven interventions emphasise specific,
that adolescent food literacy programmes present a set of desired behaviours and provide a conceptual grounding for
challenges unique to the target group. Engaging and moti- designing strong, practical programmes with increased effec-
vating adolescent participants, as well as addressing deter- tiveness in supporting behaviour change.22,61 Hoelscher
minants of eating behaviours, are recognised as key et al.22 reported that all adolescent nutrition interventions
difficulties.22,23 Research suggests there are specific adoles- reviewed that were theory based resulted in significant
cent determinants of poor dietary intakes and body image behaviour changes. The SCT is the most commonly used
issues.51 Food literacy programmes must therefore be theoretical model in designing programmes for adoles-
designed to address determinants of adolescent food choices. cents.22 It is deemed suitable for this age group because of
Using the SCT constructs to examine the personal factors the acknowledgement of the impact of individual behaviours
and environmental factors, it appears that there are concerns and the environment on behaviour.22,62
about personal factors such as declining nutrition knowl- Because of the limited literature surrounding adolescent
edge and associated skills such as cooking as a result of food literacy interventions and little research on food literacy
changing school curriculum offerings and skills in the practices, attitudes and beliefs in this target group,63 recom-
home,52 increasing independence in food choices,53 and mendations for future adolescent-specific programmes must
impact of physical growth spurts. Key environmental factors be drawn from the findings of previous interventions, as well
to consider are the availability of unhealthy options in both as the wider food literacy research available targeting adults
school and community, the perception that healthy food is and children. Table 3 outlines recommendations for effective
expensive,54 and the impact of the home food environment, adolescent food literacy programmes drawn from the pro-
including family food insecurity issues and peer influence, grammes reviewed. Evaluation of a primary school cooking
both positive and negative (social support).13,55 intervention provided several recommendations for future
Despite these challenges, adolescents represent a crucial interventions, including linking culinary and food safety
target group in which to improve food literacy because of messages with nutrition messages, linking chefs, home
the potential to influence family, peers, and short- and long- economists and dietitians in programme development and
term health. While adolescence is acknowledged as a time implementation, including handling and tasting of foods as
of independence, this age group does place value on family well as take-home samples, and integrating school-based
and household meals as having both social and emotional interventions into the curriculum and school catering.64
significance.49 There is also recognition of the role adoles- School-based kitchen garden programmes targeting children
cents may play in influencing, purchasing and preparing have been demonstrated to be effective in increasing chil-
meals in households.49 This highlights the potential for dren’s willingness to try new foods, although the link
food-literate adolescents to act as agents of change in between this finding and increased fruit and vegetable intake
households, and introduce new types of foods and food- is inconclusive.62 The effectiveness of garden-based pro-
preparation practices. The influence of peer food choices on grammes in the current review suggests this setting may also
adolescent food choice presents another avenue in which be viable for adolescent target groups. Adult food literacy
positively influencing adolescent food literacy has the interventions have focused on introducing participants to
practical cooking skills, with an emphasis on topics such as Conclusion: There are few adolescent food literacy pro-
food safety and hygiene, or shopping on a budget.65 The grammes providing evidence of their effectiveness in sup-
social aspect of cooking classes has been identified as an porting dietary behaviour change that incorporate a number
important contributor to participant enjoyment in adults, of recognised components of food literacy. Adolescence is
as well as peer-based learning, which is an important often considered a difficult stage for programme delivery and
consideration for adolescents.65 Many of these recommenda- not always targeted in food and nutrition policy. Given the
tions are applicable to adolescent target groups, provided dietary requirements and potential to influence life skills for
that they are adapted to be relevant to adolescent settings healthy eating during this stage, it is a missed opportunity to
and the specific determinants of eating behaviour described not design effective and appropriate food literacy pro-
earlier. grammes for this age group.
There are also considerations in tailoring food literacy
interventions to an adolescent target group in general, as Funding source
well as specific adolescent subgroups. The use of technol-
ogy and media to engage adolescents was identified as an This research was funded by a Faculty of Health Sciences
effective strategy in one of the programmes.46 Technology is 2012 Student Vacation Research Scholarship and by the
identified as a key cultural influence in shaping adolescent School of Public Health, Curtin University.
experiences, with the current generation of youth sug-
gested to be responsive to the use of technology in educa- Authorship
tion.47,66 It is recommended that nutrition interventions
targeting adolescents take advantage of emerging technol- Literature searching, analysis and summarising, and paper
ogy, such as Internet-based applications, computer pro- introduction, methods, results and discussion completed by
grams,22 and social media for teaching and learning.66 Natalie Brooks. Andrea Begley contributed to paper intro-
Adolescent food literacy interventions may also need to be duction, discussion and conclusion, and edited and pro-
tailored according to the gender, age and cultural back- vided feedback in writing the paper.
ground of the target group. Multiple studies report gender
differences in self-efficacy and food choice among Conflict of interest
adolescents,67–69 which is suggested to warrant further
research in to gender-specific nutrition interventions in this The authors declare no conflict of interest.
age group.48,69 Variations in physical and cognitive devel-
opment among adolescents according to age leads to a References
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