23: English sentence structure: statements, questions, and exclamatives.

SUMMARY:
INTRODUCTION.
I. SIMPLE SENTENCE.
II. STATEMENTS: ORDER OF ELEMENTS.
III. INTERROGATIVES.
IV. NEGATIVES.
V. EXCLAMATIVES.

INTRODUCTION.

It is usually assumed that the sentence is the highest-ranking unit of grammar. But
the concept of sentence is sometimes so difficult to determine as the segmenting of
the discourse itself.

The limits of the English sentence may be defined, in practice, wherever grammatical
relations (such as those of coordination and subordination) cannot be established
between clauses, the second highest segment in the grammatical hierarchy.

Let us consider now the simple declarative sentence as a whole, and we will see in
the next sections what modifications of its basic constituency must be allowed for, if
we are to account for statements, questions, negative and exclamative
sentences. For example, we need rules for the insertion of DO as an operator in
many yes-no interrogatives, for the initial positioning of the wh-element in
interrogatives, negatives and exclamatives, ...

Associated with these types of sentences are three semantic classes of discourse
functions: a/ STATEMENTS are primarily used to convey information (affirmative
and negative); b/ QUESTIONS are primarily used to seek information on a specific
point; c/ EXCLAMATIONS are primarily used for expressing the extent to which the
speaker is impressed by something.

I. SIMPLE SENTENCE: Introduction.

In any sentence of more than one word there arises the question of "word-order".
Thus, taking examples such as: Thanks awfully, poor dog, not at all, one may ask
why "awfully" follows "thank", why "poor" precedes "dog", why "not" precedes "at all".
In two nucleus sentences it is necessary to inquire into the relative positions of the
subject and the predicate, and of the other elements of the sentence (if any), such as
objects and adjuncts, relatively to the two nuclei and to each other. Lastly, there is
the question of the sequence of the members compound sentences.

I.01. SIMPLE AND COMPLEX SENTENCES.

A sentence is a word or set of words followed by a pause and revealing an intelligible

purpose. Sentences are either simple (containing just one clause) or complex
(containing more than one clause); a clause being a unit that can be analysed into
the elements: Subjects, Verb, Complement, Object and Adverbial.

Simple sentences. A simple sentence may consist of one or more words.

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1. Oneword sentences.

Examples of oneword sentences are such exclamations as: Thanks!, good!, bother!,
imperatives such as: stop!, look!; and vocatives such as: Mother!, Peter!.
Other nonexclamatory (or not necessarily exclamatory) examples are: Yes, no, true,
perhaps, tired, what?.
Oneword sentences are, as a rule, intelligible only in connection with a particular
situation, or with a statement made (or a question asked) in another sentence
(usually by another speaker): A: Why don't you smoke, B: Smoke? I never do.
Note: This also applies to similar utterances consisting of more than one word:
Thanks awfully!, Poor dog!, Hurry up!.

2. Sentences of more than word.

Most sentences of more than one word consist of two nuclei, one indicating the
person or thing about whom or which a statement is made (or a question asked).
The other containing the statement or the question asked.
The word (or words) indicating the person or thing referred to is (are) called the
Subject of the sentences; that (those) containing the statement (or the question) is
the Predicate; EX: Twenty people (subject) were killed (predicate).

2.1. The subject: A subject: (a) Is a noun phrase or a clause with nominal function,
(b) Occurs before the verb in declarative clauses, and immediately after the operator
in question clauses, (c) Has number and person concord, where applicable with the
verb phrase.
Note: Exceptions to (b) occur with whquestions without inversion and declarative
clauses with inversion; EX: Who came yesterday?, Here comes the bus.

2.2. The predicate: The predicate (verbal phrase) may consist of one or more
words, one of these being usually a finite verb.
Besides the finite verb the predicate may contain one or more non-finite forms
closely connected with the finite verb (were killed, has been, etc). It will be found that
in such verb groups the non-finite form is usually the most important of the two as
regards meaning.
Note: in the verbal phrase (predicate), the verb is an obligatory element. The verb
may be: transitive, intransitive or be or other copula.
The verbal phrase may also contain the following elements:

A. Object: an object (direct or indirect) (1) Like a subject, is a noun phrase or clause
with nominal function. (2) normally follows the subject and the verb phrase. (3) by the
passive transformation, assumes the status of subject.
An indirect object, where both objects are present, normally precedes the Direct
Object, and is semantically equivalent to a prepositional phrase; a direct object may
occur without an indirect object, but not vice verse (except in the second passive
transformation of Subject-Verb-Indirect object-Direct Object clauses: He gave me a
present. A present was given to me).

B. Complement: A complement (subject or object) (1) Is a noun phrase, an adjective

phrase, or a clause with nominal function. (2) Follows the subject, verb phrase, and

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(if one is present) object. (3) Does not become subjectthrough the passive
transformation.

C. Adverbial: An adverbial. (1) Is an adverb, adverb phrase, adverbial clause, noun

phrase, or prepositional phrase. (2) Is generally mobile, i.e. is capable of occurring in
more than one position in the clause. (3) Is generally optional, i.e. may be added to
or removed from a sentence without affecting its acceptability.

I.02. TYPES OF CLAUSE STRUCTURE: SUBJECT + VERBAL PHRASE.

The five types of clause structure are:

Subject + a. Verb (intransitive):
a: we waited
b. Adv: we sat down
b. Be + complement/adverbial.
a. noun phrase: he was my friend
b. adjective: he was intelligent
c. adverbial: he was in my class
c. Verb, transitive + direct object
a. I made a mistake
b. adverbial: I put the key in the lock
d. Verb, transitive + Indirect O + Direct O.
a (to): I gave him an answer
b (for): he made me a suit
e. Verb, transitive + Direct Object + Complement
a. noun phrase: I found him a bore.
b. adjective: I found him dull.

Each of these basic patterns can be expanded by modifiers, optional adjuncts and
coordination, to form a great variety in the superstructure of the clause.

1. Common variations on the basic patterns.

- Pattern a. is avoided if the verb is be meaning exist. To reword three exceptions

exist, using Be, we should have to use the pattern there + Be + subject: There are
three exceptions.
- Similarly, pattern b. is usually avoided when the subject is indefinite, so that while it
is grammatical to say: some books were on the shelf. It would be more idiomatic to
say: There were some books on the shelf. This pattern is also used with numerals:
There were thirty boys in the class. Note: An alternative to it in narrative style would
be a complete reversal of the normal wordorder: On the platform was a strange
looking old man stood.
- Pattern b.c. is reversed when the adverbial is here or there, stressed, and when
the speaker is drawing attention to the presence of a person or thing: Here/there is
John/an interesting example. But a personal pronoun subject comes before "Be"
when "here" or "there" begins the sentences: There they are Here I am. Though
Here am I is possible in literary style or in contexts like: Here am I, trying to help you
and what thanks do I get?.
- Pattern a.b. (we sat down) may take the form: In walked the headmaster, there
goes the bus, here comes the train. This variation requires an intransitive verb of

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motion, and does not occur in the progressive. A personal pronoun subject will,
again, come before the verb: Away he went, there they go, here I come. Note:
Patterns b., c., d. and e. can be varied, especially in informal 1 speech, so as to
bring to the fore an element that the speaker wishes to stress, as in the second part
of: (I can take your suitcase. Heavy trunks I can't take. Similarly, very intelligent he
was, the lock I put it, rather charming I found her. The subject of a sentence like:
heavy trunks I can't take, can be identified by converting the sentence into a question
requiring the answer "yes" or "no" in which case the subject comes immediately after
the operator: Can't I take heavy trunks?.

I.03. SIMPLE SENTENCES: FORMAL CLASSIFICATION.

Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic classes; whose use
correlates with different communicative functions:

a. Statements are sentences in which the subject is always present and generally
precedes the verb: John (subject) will speak to the boss tomorrow (predicate).

b. Questions are sentences marked by one or more of these three criteria: (1) The
placing of the operator in front of the subject: Will John speak to the boss tomorrow?.
(2) The initial positioning of an interrogative or whelement: who will you speak to?.
(3) Rising "question" intonation: You will speak to the boss?.

c. Commands are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and
whose verb is in the imperative mood: speak to the boss tomorrow.

d. Exclamations are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or

how, without inversion of subject and operator: What a noise they are making!.

Note: Of these classes, the statement is by far the most important, and the
exclamation the least important. We may also refer to them as: declarative,
interrogative, imperative and exclamatory (these are the adjectives corresponding to
the four types mentioned above).

I.04. STATEMENTS.

Statements are primarily used to convey information. Up to this point, the sentences
discussed have been mainly statements. Bearing in mind that Subject + Predicate is
the usual word order in statements.

A sentence beginning with unstressed "there" shows the order Predicate + Subject,
the verbal predicate consisting of a verb denoting a state or a motion (a). The
construction is occasionally found with a passive predicate, in which case the
wordorder is either Predicate + Subject or Predicate + Subject + Predicate: a. There
is a man at the door & b. Then there was commited the greatest crime. There was
very little work done that morning.

Statements sometimes show the word order. Predicate + Subject or Predicate +

Subject + Predicate. This inverted order is restricted to sentences opening with
another element, i.e. either an adjunct or an object. The phenomenon occurs chiefly

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in writing, and even then by no means invariably.

04.1. Sentences without an object.

They often show the order Predicate + Subject when the subject is more important
than the verbal predicates or the principle that the weightier element is given
endposition often receives emotional emphasis: Out rushed (Predicate) the man and
his wife (Subject).

04.2. Sentences with an object.

Sentences with an object (or a similar adjunct to the verbal predicate) opening with
other than a negative adjunct often show the word order: predicate + subject +
predicate: Often did we go for walks together
When a sentence opens with an object we sometimes find the sequence: predicate +
subject + predicate. Many a rabbit had he snared, without the gamekeeper noticing
it.
The construction is only found, however, after an object preceded by such an
emphatic (and emotional) word as much or many. Sometimes emphatic frontposition
is found without inversion, thus with objects referring to what immediately precedes
in the context: predicate + subject + predicate: Dates (Direct object) I could never
remember
But objects normally follow the verbal predicate to which they belong: I have lost my
umbrella.

04.3. Sentences with two objects.

When a sentence contains two objects, the indirect object precedes the direct object,
if, as is usually the case, the latter is the weightier of the two: This will save you
(IndirectObj) a lot of trouble (DirectObj)
A construction with two nonprepositional objects may alternate with one in which the
direct object is followed by an indirect object with to, the latter word order usually
emphasizing the indirect as compared with the direct object: Give this note (Direct) to
your brother (Indirect).
A toobject is not always stronger stressed than the direct object before it: He gave
his life (Direct) to it (Indirect).
If the toadjunct is not very weighty, it sometimes precedes the direct object: Can you
explain to us the enormous effect this discovery has had on commerce.
A toobject that may alternate with a nonprepositional indirect object is also
sometimes given frontposition: This gave (to) the problem a different aspect

04.4. Negation.
The negation of a simple sentence is accomplished by inserting the word not
between the operator and the predication: I'm not coming or by introducing the
auxiliary do: They don't understand my problem
A sentence can also be made negative by other negators: never, scarcely, hardly
ever, scarcely ever, seldom, rarely, the quantifier no, its proform none, and its
compounds nothing, nobody, no one, nowhere. A clause should contain only one of
those negators: I have never spoken to him, I have seldom spoken to him, I didn't
see anybody there, I have spoken to nobody
The prefix un, or in negates a single word and can be used in the same clause as
one of the negators: That sentence is ungrammatical, isn't it?, This sentence is not
ungrammatical, is it?.

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"Neither...nor" can also be used as negative coordinator: Neither John nor I broke
the window.

04.5. Inversion.
- Inversion is fairly regular when a negative adjunct opens the sentence. Any
adverbial expression that is directly negative or which suggests a negative will be
compulsorily followed by an inversion with an auxiliary verb when at the beginning of
the sentence; (this is done for greater emphiasis): Not only was he a good
mathematician, but he also excelled at chess; No sooner had she said it than she
realized her mistake; Never had she seen anything like it before.
- Some positive openings, however, also have this inversion, especially those
beginning to such. This inversion is a useful way of breaking up the usual
subjectverbobject word order, but, in general, its effect is rather literary and it should
not be overused: To such straits was he reduced by his extravagance that he took to
begging, Well may you say that it is too late to do anything about it now.
- There is another type of inversion which does not use an auxiliary verb. It is literary
and not to be used indiscriminately by foreign students; it is possible only with a verb
of movement or position, and this verb is almost always in the simple present or
simple past. The verb to be is also used with this kind of inversion, after superlative:
best of all was the Christmas pudding, After the war came the problem of
rehabilitation.
- Inversion may be used after direct speech if there is no qualifying adverb and no
indirect object. It is more commonly used when the subject is a noun than when it is
a pronoun: Any more fares, please? asked the conductor. Any more fares, please?
the conductor shouted cheerfully.

I.05. QUESTIONS.

Questions can be divided into some different classes according to the type of answer
they expect:

05.1. Yesno questions

Yes/no questions require an answer in which either Yes or No is stated or implied:
Do you speak English? (Yes, I do/No, I don't); Have you met John? (Yes, I have/No,
I haven't)
Yes/no questions begin with an operator or "do" and follow the pattern: Operator +
subject + rest of the predicate: Do you live anywhere near Dover?, Isn't your car
working?

05.1.1. Declarative questions

Not all yes/no questions have subjectoperator inversion. The declarative question is
a type of question which is identical in form to a statement except for the final rising
intonation: You've got the explosive?, You realize what the risks are?

05.2. Tag questions.

Yes/no questions are frequently asked, particularly in conversation, by means of a
statement followed by a Tag Question.
A commonly used tag question is one in which an affirmative statement is followed
by negative or viceversa. In either case, both the statement and the tag have a
falling intonation and the tag question asks for conformation of the statement just

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made: You don't know (negative) his brother, do you? (interrog-affirmat); You like
him, don't you?

- Other tag questions have a rising entonation and the tag expresses some doubt
about the truth of the statement and invites the hearer to say what the truth is:
You've met John, haven't you?; You haven't met her, have you?
- We can also have a further, less common type of tag question in which an
affirmative statement followed by an affirmative, but with a rising intonation: Your car
is outside, is it?
Very ocasionally, one encounters an equivalent type of tag question in which both
statement and tag are negative: Oh, so you haven't touched a drop for years, haven't
you?.
Note: a. In a theresentence, there acts as the subject of the tag: There was a desk,
wasn't there? - b. If an indefinite pronoun is the subject of the statement, then they is
generally used in the tag: Everyone has been told what to do, haven't they?

05.3. Whquestion.
Whquestions begin with a Wh-question word: what, who, which, where, when, why,
how, how many, etc. Whquestions can be subdivided into:

05.3.1. Subject questions: Those asking for the subject of the sentence. You simply
replace the subject of an affirmative sentence by who, what, or whose or by
what/whose/which + noun: Somebody broke the window Who broke the window?;
Something broke the window What broke the window?; Somebody's window was
broken - Whose window was broken?.

05.3.2. Information questions: Those asking for any part of the sentence except
the subject. You begin with the Whquestion word or phrase, then use the
interrogative pattern: operator + subject + rest of the predicate: What does this
mean?; Where did you meet him?
Note: Questions on the pattern: Who did you give it to? are very frequently heard. All
the commonlyused prepositions could fit into that pattern except since and during,
which are placed before the Whquestion word, e.g. Since when have you known
him? The pattern To whom did he give it? can be used with all prepositions though it
is typical of formal style. But like usually occurs at the end of a complete sentence:
What does it look like? though we may hear: like what? in informal speech.

05.4. Definition.
Questions are primarily used to express lack of information on a specific point, and
(usually) to request the listener to supply this information verbally.

I.06. COMMANDS.

They are primanly used to instruct somebody to do something.

06.1. Commands without a subject.

It is the most common category of command. It differs from a statement in that: a. It
has ho subject, b. It has an imperative finite verb.

06.1.1. Clause patterns of commands: They show the same range and ordering of

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elements as statements: a. Type subject + verb: Jump (verb) & b. Type subject +
verb + object + adverbial: put it on the table (verb + direct object + adverbial of
place), etc.

06.2. Commands with a subject.

It is implied in the meaning of a command that the omitted subject of the imperative
verb is the 2nd person pronoun "you". But there is a type of command in which the
subject "you" is retained: You be quiet you mind your own business and leave this to
me. These commands are usually admonitory or "fingerwagging" in tone and
frequently express strong irritation. A 3rd person subject is also possible: somebody
open this door. John and Susan stand over there.
It is easy to confuse the subject, in these commands, with a vocative noun phrase.
Whereas the subject always precedes the verb, however, the vocative is an element
that can occur in final and medial, as well as initial, positions in the sentence.
Another difference is that the vocative, when initially placed, has a separate toneunit
(fallrise); the subject merely receives ordinary wordstress: Vocative: Mary, play on
my side; Play on my side, Mary. -- Subject: Mary, play on my side
The distinctness of vocative and imperative subject is confirmed by the possibility of
their cooccurrence: John, you listen to me (Vocat/ Subj).

06.3. Commands with "let".

First person imperatives can be formed by preposing "let" followed by a subject in
the objective case: Let us work hard, let me have a look. The same applies to 3rd
person subjects: Let each man decide for himself. Except for the let me type all
these are rather archaic and elevated in tone. A colloquial alternative, however, to let
us is the common abbreviated form let's.

06.4. Negative commands.

To negate the first three classes of commands, one simply adds an initial Don't:
Don't open the door, don't you open the door, don't anyone open it.
1st person imperatives are generally negated by the insertion of not after the
pronoun following let: Let's not open the door. Informally, however, the negation with
"don't" is frequently heard: Don't let's open the door.

06.5. Persuasive imperatives.

A persuasive or insistent imperative is created by the addition of "do" before the
main verb: Do have some more sherry.

I.07. EXCLAMATIONS.

Exclamations are primarily for expressing the speaker's own tellings. We restrict our
attention to the type of exclamatory utterance introduced by "What" or "how".
After the exclamatory word itself come the adjective (or complement), subject and
verb, in that order: How cold your hand is! What an extraordinary creature you are!
Exclamations resemble Whquestions in involving the initial placement of an
exclamatory Wh element. The syntactic order is therefore upset to the extent that the
exclamatory element (which may be object, complement or adverbial as well as
subject) may be taken from its usual (statement) position and put into a position of
initial prominence.

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On the other hand, in contrast to whquestions, there is generally no subjectoperator
inversion:
- wh-element as Subject: What an enormous crowd came! (SV)
- wh-element as Object: What a time we've had today! (OdSVA)
- wh-element as Complement: How delightful her manners are! (CsSV)
- wh-element as Adverbial: How I used to hate geography! (ASVOq)
Note: It is possible (but rare) for a prepositional phrase as a whole to occur initially
as exclamatory element; EX: For how many years have I waited!

II. STATEMENTS: WORD ORDER.

II.01. PHRASAL VERB COMBINATIONS.

The particle of a phrasal verb can often stand either before of after a noun, whereas
it can only stand a personal pronoun: call up the man, call the man up, call him up
but not *call up him.

II.02. WORD-ORDER OF ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.

In any nominal group, if there are both determiners and attributive adjectives, the
determiner comes first; EX: Several thousand fresh white loaves
Attributive adjectives usually precede the noun they qualify. After the determiner(s) if
any, adjectives and other modifiers will normally come in the following order, starting
from the left in writing: Epithet, size, shape, age, colour, origin, substance,
gerund/noun, head: a small round table; a handsome young man
Epithets describe some characteristic of the thing referred to by the head. Epithets
include participial adjectives: daring, welldressed. If two or more epithets are used in
the same group, they may be separated by coordinators or by comma: A handsome
and daring hero; a tall, welldressed man. Other examples: A dirty old brown coat, A
large green Chinese carpet

02.1. Fixed expressions.

In a few fixed expressions the adjective always comes after the noun: a
knighterrand; a courtmartial; from time immemorial; proof positive; Mother Superior.

02.2. Change of meaning.

Occasionally the whole meaning of the sentence depends upon whether the
adjectives come before or after the noun: a. A pure and simple Spaniard = a
Spaniard with no sexual experience and not much intelligence. b. A Spaniard pure
and simple = a person of pure Spanish blood.

02.3. The result of an action.

Adjectives that are the result of an action come after the noun. He dyed his brown
suit (It was brown before he dyed it some other colour). I tried to make the lesson
easy.

02.4. Compounds of "some" or "any".

Adjectives come after all compounds of some or any: I don't see anything immoral in
that, Anyone drunk will be asked to leave, I want someone stupid and rich to marry.

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02.5. Exact measurement.
Adjectives indicating exact measurement follow their nouns: It is sixty feet long, thirty
feet wide, forty feet high

02.6. Some adjectival word groups.

A few adjectival word groups with the words hiphenated can stand before their
nouns. Students must not, however, invent such groups themselves: I met her on a
nevertobeforgotten Friday afternoon, He lives in some outoftheway village, Here is
some uptothe minute news.

02.7. Different adjectives with the same meaning.

Note that certain adjectives can only be used after a verb. The commonest are ill,
alive, alike, awake, asleep, akin, afraid and afloat.
Compare these sentences:
Predicate adjectives: The man looks ill, Those twins look very much alike!, Some
students are awake and other are asleep, He was terribly afraid. Attributive
adjecfives: Sick people go to the doctor, They are identical twins, Attentive students
learn more than sleepy ones, The frightened man panicked.

II.03. ATTRIBUTIVE NOUNS.

The precede their head words; EX: a stamp collector, a man eater. Personal nouns
like "family, girl(s), sister(s), children"; accompanied by a definite article (occasionally
by a demonstrative pronoun) usually follow a proper name; EX: The Bronte sisters,
The Hudson family

II.04. PAST PARTICIPLES.

In the first place it is necessary to distinguish between a real past participle (i.e. one
formed from a common verb) and a false past participle (i.e. a word ending in "-ed"
but not formed from a verb at all or formed from a word that it is much more common
as a noun than as a verb: "a wooded hillside", there is no verb to wood; "a terraced
slope" there is a verb to terrace but the word is much commoner as a noun).

04.1. False past participles.

They always come before the noun; EX: A fairhaired girl; a walled garden; a
flatfooted policeman, etc.

04.2. Real past participles qualified by an adverb.

Real past participles come before the noun only if they are qualified by an adverb, at
least by implication; EX: That is a beautifully written book, It was a well trodden path,
I thought it a thoroughly badly produced play.

04.3. Real participles after their nouns.

If they are in no way qualified by adverbs, real past participles come after their
nouns, being in fact the final word of a shortened relative clause; EX: None of the
answers given (which were given) was correct, The money won was given to a
charity, An opportunity missed is gone for ever

04.4. Exceptions.

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Among the exceptions to these rules are several words in which, if the past participle
is used as an adjective, the final "-ed" is pronounced /id/: It was a blessed relief, An
aged person spoke to me, This is my beloved son in whom I am well pleased. The
other words are: jagged, crooked, ragged, and wicked.

II.05. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.

The positioning of the indefinite article after "such, so, quite, how, too, rather and
many" needs noticing: "I have never known such a cold spell of weather, I have
never known so cold a spell of weather, How difficult a time I had!, What a charming
person he is!, You are too intelligent a person to be taken in by such a rogue, That is
rather a difficult question to answer, Many a time he did not know where his next
meal was comimg from, It is quite a busy town nowadays.
Note: May a may be followed by an inversion, though this is not compulsory: Many a
time have I stood there waiting for a bus.
How many titles is generally followed by an inversion: How many times have I told
you not to stand on that chair?.

II. 06. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.

A definite article follows all, both (the), half double, twice, etc.; She was ill all the time
she was abroad, Both (the) brothers are dead; both the boy and the girl are here;
Half the men were too tired to go
Note the position of the in; EX: So much the better for you, so much the worse for
him; He did not pass the examination, more's the pity; If you did that, the more fool
you.

II. 07. ADVERBS.

The placing of adverbs causes a good deal of difficulty. The following are the most
important points to bear in mind.

07.1. Between a verb and its object.

No adverb must ever be placed between a verb and its object if this can possibly be
avoided.

07.2. Between the subject and the verb.

Many common adverbs, especially adverbs of frequency, come between the subject
and the verb; EX: I nearly forgot to post it, He never remembers anything I tell him,
He hardly ever comes to England nowaday, He often plays tennis on Sundays.

07.3. After the auxiliary verb.

Where there is an auxiliary verb and a participal verb, these adverbs come between
the two parts of the verb. Where there are two auxiliaries, they come between them;
EX: I have always wanted to see the National Gallery, I would never have thought
that you would have fallen for that trick, I can never find the scissors
Note: For emphasis: I never can find the scissors.
Sometimes we can say either: I shall have nearly finished or I shall never have
finished by eight o'clock.

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07.4. To be.
The verb to be has the adverb after it unless special stress is required; EX: That
child is almost a genius, She is always happy, I have firmly resolved to get to work
on time and never be late, but I al ways am late in fact (emphatic position).

07.5. After the object.

Other adverbs that are longer and less common come after the object. There is no
exact rule about which can come before the verb and which cannot.
Some can come in either position. In some cases usage is everything; EX: She
reached the station punctually, I like chocolate very much, I very much like chocolate
(for emphasis), I was frantically looking for my hat, I was looking for my hat frantically
(See unit 12 for further details). In the case of adverbial phrases, place comes first
after the verb. Time and manner come later. If there is more than one adverbial
phrase of time, the particular precedes the general; EX: He comes to school late
every day, He ran out of the room in a panic, He very often went home late

07.6. Emphasis.
For emphasis adverbs can be placed at the beginning of the sentence. Except in the
cases mentioned in item .5.1., there is no inversion after them; EX: Perhaps you will
understand one day, On many occasions he has struck her, Sometimes I regret
growing old

07.7. Only.
Certain adverbs such as "only" always come immediately in front of the word they
qualify. Changing their position therefore changes the meaning; EX: Only I spoke to
his sister (I was the only person that spoke to her), I only spoke to his sister (I only
talked; I did not try to kiss her) I spoke only to his sister (She was the only person I
talked to), I spoke to his only sister (He has only one sister the girl I spoke to).
In speech, however, we can make our meaning clear by intonation and stress
without necessarily putting only as near as possible to the item emphasised.

07.8. Sentence adverbs.

Sentenceadverbs (peripheral adverbs) may appear at the beginning or, less often, at
the end of a sentence. In this case they are apt to become semi-independent of the
rest of the sentence. The resulting pause (if any) may or may not be indicated by a
comma; EX: Fortunately I had plenty of food with me, There was nothing to be done
apparently, Honestly, I don't think much of your idea

07. Periodic sentences.

Especially in rather literary English; the usual order of subject + verb + object may be
varied by writing a periodic sentence, i.e. a sentence where a certain suspense is
created by leaving the subject and verb until the end; EX: "To glory and riches,
honour among his fellows, adulation, all the pomp, ceremony and creature comforts
of a mediaeval aristocrat St. Francis was indifferent".

II.08. CLAUSE WORD-ORDER.

A. Dependent clauses generally have the same word-order as the corresponding

main clause. "I shall warn you as soon as I see him, If he had known it he would
have told you"

12
B. Dependent questions generally have the same wordorder as declarative
sentences; EX: He asked me what I was doing

C. When the subject or object of an attributive clause is qualified by a relative

pronoun preceded by a preposition, preposition + pronoun may either precede or
follow the subject (object).

D. When the relative pronoun is the object of an infinitive or a gerund, the latter is
usually placed at or towards the end of the clause, though it sometimes precedes the
relative; EX: He betrayed the cause (which) he was paid to support (less usual: to
support which he was paid).

E. End position of prepositions, optional in the case of direct questions, is obligatory

in dependent clauses after relative "that" and "what", and after "as" and "than", also
in unconnected adjective clauses; EX: It's the very word (that) I was thinking of, It all
depends on what you are accustomed to

F. In a compound sentence containing two dependent clauses (or a dependent

clause and a free adjunct), the former introduced by that, the latter inserted between
that and the other clause, an unstressed subjectpronoun follows the intermediate
clause or adjunct; EX: he promised that, if I was a good boy, I should have a
halfholiday

G. Attributive clauses always follow the main clause containing their antecedent.

H. Predicative clauses also follow their main clause.

J. Object clauses usually follow their main clause though if the idea expressed by
them is foremost in the speaker's or writer's mind, they precede them. In that case
they must begin with a conjuction as a connective pronoun; EX: That he is a coward
I knew, What he has once heard he never forgets.

K. Adverbial clauses, like adverbs, are freer in their place. Those that may precede
their main clause in other Germanic languages may have the same position in
English; EX: Since I came to live here I have only been ill once, If it is time, we had
better go.
Whether or not an adverbial clause precedes its main clause, largely depends on its
meaning. Thus an asclause of reason usually precedes, but a more emphatic clause
opening with because usually follows the main clause.

L. Concessive clauses: Sometimes in expressions which would normally begin with

although or though the adjective is placed at the beginning for greater emphasis; EX:
Hungry though he was, he would no eat until I had agreed to share his meal; Clever
though he is, he will not manage to pull the wool over the examiner's eyes

M. Coordination: The order of coordinate members of a sentence, and of the

members of sentence groups, depends on the sequence of thoughtwhat occurs first
to the speaker or writer is expressed first.

13
III. QUESTIONS: INTRODUCTION.

In this chapter we will deal with a specific type of sentence, namely the interrogative
sentence. First of all, it would be useful to give a definition of the concept "sentence".
It wiil not be easy as will be confronted with more than 200 different definitions.
Having checked most of these definitions, we will state here three of the most
relevant ones, e.g.:

A) "A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and

expressing a complete thought". This is a traditional definition.
B) "A sentence is a relatively complete and independent human utterance the
completeness and independence being shown by its standing alone or its capability
of standing alone, i.e. of being uttered by itself". This definition was rendered by
Jespersen in his Philosophy of Grammar.
C) "Sentences are either simple (containing just one clause) or complex (containing
more than one clause), a clause being a unit that can be analyzed into the elements
subject, verb, complement, object or adverbial".
If we follow the traditional method, simple sentences may be divided into four major
syntactic classes: 1) Statements, 2) Questions, 3) Commands or Requests and 4)
Exclamations.
In this chapter, we will study the second type, that is to say, Questions or
Interrogative Sentences. We will tackle them following a new method, i.e.
considering sentence structures as moods. That is why the first part of our chapter
will be titled the Interrogative Mood.
Having presented the central topic of our chapter, we will analyze the five classes of
questions: "Yes/No" Questions, WhQuestions, Alternative Questions, Exclamatory
Questions and Rhetorical Questions.
Some of these classes consist of different subclasses which are analyzed as well.
We will finish our explanation with a list of the fundamental bibliography on which we
have based our analysis.

III.01. A NEW APPROACH OF THE INTERROGATIVE STRUCTURE: THE

INTERROGATIVE MOOD.

Sentences can be used to do many different things. The most common use is to give
information. I went to Glasgow University.
Sometimes you use a sentence to obtain information, rather than to give it. Where is
my father? What did you say to Myra?.
At other times you want to express an opinion, give an order, make a suggestion, or
make a promise. That's an excellent idea. Go away, all of you. Shall we listen to the
news?. If you have any questions, I'll do my best to answer them.

When someone says or writes a sentence, they need to indicate what they are trying
to do with it, so that it will be clear, for example, that they are asking a question and
not making a statement.

B) Concept of Mood.

Often it is the order of words which indicates which way a sentence is being used.
For example, if you say He is Norwegian, the word order makes it clear that you are

14
making a statement. If you say Is he Norwegian?, the word order indicates that you
are asking a question.
Another way of indicating which way a sentence is being used is to begin it with a
verb, rather than with the subject. For example, if you say Give this book to Michael,
it is clear that you are giving an order or instruction, rather than making a statement
or asking a question.
These ways of distinguishing between uses of language are examples of mood. The
main clause of every sentence is in particular mood.

C) Types of Mood.

i) There are three moods in English. They are the declarative mood, the interrogative
mood, and the imperative mood.
The declarative mood is the mood used in most main clauses. Statements are
almost always made using the declarative mood. When a clause is in this mood, the
subject is placed in front of the verb.
The declarative mood is sometimes called the indicative mood. I want to talk to Mr
Castle

ii) The interrogative mood is the mood usually used in questions. In clauses in this
mood, the subject is often placed after the main verb or after an auxiliary verb. Is my
father very upset? Where is my father?.

iii) The imperative mood is the mood used to tell someone to do something. In
clauses in the imperative mood, the subject is usually omitted and the base form of
the verb is used. Give him a good book.

iv) There is a fourth mood called the subjunctive mood. This is a feature of English
verbs which sometimes occurs in subordinate clauses. The subjunctive mood is not
used to distinguish between different uses of language.

In this chapter we will deal with the Interrogative Mood and its different structures.

III.02. ASKING QUESTIONS: THE INTERROGATIVE MOOD.

When you ask a question you usually use the interrogative mood. There are two
classes of questions.

A) The first class is called Major Class, and it includes:

1. Questions which can be answered by "yes" or "no" are called "yes/no"questions.

Is he your only child? Yes.
Are you planning to marry soon? - No.
Can I help you? Yes, I'd like to book a single room, please.
Are you interested in racing? Yes, I love it.
Are you a singer as well as an actress? No, I'm not a singer at all.
Did you go through? No, I didn't bother.
The actual answer to a "yesno question" is not always "yes" or "no" For example, if
you ask someone Do you read in bed?, they might say Sometimes, or Never. If you
say to someone Do you like Michael Jackson?, they might say I think he's wonderful.

15
But the questions Do you read in bed? and Do you like Michael Jackson? are still
"yes/no"questions, because "yes" and "no" are the kind of answers the questioner
expects. "Sometimes" will be interpreted as a weak "yes" answer, "never" as a
strong "no" answer, and "I think he's wonderful" as a strong "yes" answer.

2. The other main type of question begins with a whword such as what, where or
when. When you ask a question of this type, the answer cannot be "yes or "no".
Who is he? A man called Boyle.
Why didn't you ask me? I was afraid to.
Where is he now? He's at university.
This type of question is called a whquestion. When whwords are used as
pronouns or adverbs at the beginning of a whquestion, they are called interrogative
pronouns or interrogative adverbs.

3. Those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the
question, as in would you like to go for a Walk or stay at Home?, are Alternative
questions.

Logically wellformed replies, responses that conform with expectations, are a subset
of pragmatically appropriate answers. Many answers that are apparently irrelevant
become relevant in terms of the implicatures they convey: A: Have you seen my
chocolates? B: Well, the children were in your room this morning.
It's therefore possible for a question to be answered by another question: A: Are you
going to watch television again? B: What else is there to do? A: Is that your baby? B:
What do you think? (sarcastic: "Of course it's my baby").

B) The second class is known as Minor Class. It includes two types of questions: 1.
Exclamatory Questions. 2. Rhetorical Questions.

III.03. "YES/NO" QUESTIONS.

a) Form of "Yes/No" Questions.

Yes-no questions are usually formed by placing the operator before the subject and
giving the sentence a rising intonation.
The boat has Left - Has the boat Left?. Ann is writing a Paper - Is Ann writing a
Paper?.
If there is no item in the verb phrase that can function as operator, do is introduced,
as with negation. They live in Sydney -Do they live in Sydney?, Her efforts proved
successful - Did her efforts prove successful?.

b) Positive "yesno" questions.

Like negative statements, yesno questions may contain nonassertive forms such as
any and ever. The question containing such forms is generally neutral, with no bias
in expectation towards a positive or negative response.
Statement
Someone called last night. The boat has left already.
Question
Did anyone call last night?. Has the boat left yet?.
But questions may be Conductive, i.e. they may indicate that the speaker is
predisposed to the kind of answer he has wanted or expected. Thus, a posi tive

16
question may be presented in a form which is biased towards a positive answer. It
has positive orientation, for example, if it uses assertive forms rather than the usual
nonassertive forms: Did someone call last night? [Is it true someone called last
night?], Has the boat left already?, Do you live somewhere near Dover?.
A positive question may also have negative orientation. Notice the effect of really in:
Do you really want to leave now? (Surely you don't want to).

c) Negative "yesno" questions.

Negative questions are always conductive. Negative orientation is found in questions
which contain a negative form of one kind or another: Don't you believe me?, Aren't
you joining us this evening?, Hasn't he told you what to do?, Have they never invited
you home?, Has nobody called?.
Negative orientation is complicated by an element of surprise or disbelief.
Notice the nonassertive items in the next two examples of negative orientation:
Hasn't the boat left yet? ["I'd hoped it would have left by now, but it seems it hasn't"],
Didn't he recognize you either? ["I'd thought he would, but it seems he didn't").
If a negative question has assertive items, it is biased towards positive orientation:
Didn't someone call last night?, Hasn't the boat left already?, Didn't he recognize you
too?.
The position of the negative particle varies according to whether the full or enclitic
negative particle is used; n't precedes the subject, whereas not generally follows it:
Didn't they warn you?, Did they not warn you?, Haven't they left?, Have they not
left?.
The construction with not after the subject is generally considered rather formal, and
therefore the enclitic is usually prefered in spoken English. The formal alternative is
particulary unlikely if the subject is lengthy. Both orders obey the general rule of
subjectoperator inversion, but since enclitic n't is fused with the operator into one
grammatical word, it necessarily moves with the operator in subjectoperator
inversion.
Some speakers accept a third construction, also rather formal, in which the full
particle is in the same position as the enclitic: Is not history a social science?.
This construction is especially likely in formal contexts where the subject is lengthy:
Does not everything we see about us testify to the power of Divine Providence?.

d) Declarative "yes/no" questions.

Not all yesno questions have subjectoperator inversion. The declarative question is a
type of question which is identical in form to a declarative, except for the final rising
question intonation. It is rather casual in tone: You've got the explosive?, They've
spoken to the ambassador, of course?, You realize what the risks are?.
When followed by a comment clause, the declarative may have a fall: You realize
what the risks are, I gather/ hope/ trust.
Negative questions have negative orientation, and nonassertive forms may be used
following the negative: You didn't get anything to eat?.

e) "Yesno" questions with modal auxiliaries.

The formation of yesno questions with modal auxiliaries is subject to certain
limitations and shifts of meaning. The modals of permission (may <esp BrE> and
can) and obligation (must <esp BrE>, and have to) generally involve the speaker's
authority in statements and hearer's authority in questions:
A: May/Can I leave now? ["Will you permit me...?")

17
 B: Yes, you may/can ("Will permit you..."]
A: Must I/ do I have to leave now? ("Are you telling me..."]
B: Yes, you must/ have to ["/am telling you...")

This means that the question form anticipates the form appropriate for the answer. A
similar switch from hearer to speakertakes place with shall [volition), which (esp in
BrE) involves the speaker's will in statements, but the hearer's ' will in questions: You
shall suffer for this! [rare; "/intend to make you suffer...!] Shall I switch off the
television? [Do you want me to...?").
Shall is rare with "you" as subject, and generally infrequent in AmE, except for
inviting or requesting agreement (Shall we eat now?).
May in the possibility sense is not often used in questions: May we be doing him an
injustice?
Can or (more commonly in AmE) could replaces it:
A: Can/could they have missed the bus?
B: Yes, they may/ might have.
The hypothetical uses of the auxiliaries might [permission), would [volition), and
could (volition) require special treatment, since in yesno questions these past forms
are regularly used for politeness. If modal auxiliaries are retained, the present forms
are generally substituted for might and would in reponses, and the present form is
usual for could:
A: Might I call you by your first name?
B: Yes, you may.
A: Would you pay for me?
B: Yes, I will.
A: Could I see you for a moment?
B: Yes, you can. (Also may <esp BrE>, and less usually could)
Need (esp in BrE) is used as nonassertive modal auxiliary, although (esp in AmE)
the main verb need and do have to are common substitutes. Need they leave now?
<esp BrE>. Do they need to/ have to leave now?
But the corresponding positive forms are must, have to, or the main verb need:
Yes, they must/ need to/ have to.
On the other hand, must in the necessity sense has positive orientation: Why must it
always rain when we want to have a picnic?
Dare is occasionally used as a nonassertive modal auxiliary, especially in BrE.
Common substitutes are the main verb dare and (esp in AmE) the blend
construction with dare (Do and the bare infinitive): Do you dare to cast aspersions on
my character?. Dare I suggest a compromise be tween your two positions? <esp
grE> Do we dare tell them the truth? <esp AmE>
Negative responses may repeat the same verbs, but positive forms require the main
verb dare: Yes, they dared to complain.

III.04. WH-QUESTIONS.

The term wh-questions covers all questions beginning with what, which, why,
when, where, who and how. They are sometimes called content questions
because they require some substance or content in the reply. They do not query the
truth of the statement, but they ask for details about a part of it.

a) Form of Wh-questions.

18
Wh-questions are formed with the aid of one of the following simple interrogative
words (or wh-words): Who/whom,/whose, what, which, when, where, how, why.
Unlike yesno questions, whquestions generally have falling intonation. As a rule:
(i) the whelement (i.e. the clause. element containing the whword)
comes first in the sentence (apart from some conjuncts, such as on the other hand);
(ii) the whword itself takes first position in the whelement.
The only exception to the second principle occurs when the whword is within a
prepositional complement. Here English provides a choice between two
constructions, one being formal. In formal style, the preposition precedes the
complement, whereas otherwise the complement comes first and the preposition is
deferred to the end of the sentence: On what did you base your prediction? <formal>
What did you base your prediction on?
We may perhaps express this difference more neatly by saying that neutral style
generally requires that the wh-word comes first, but formal English requires that the
whelement as a whole comes first.

b) "Wh"word as subject.

When a whword is the subject of a verb, or when it forms part of the subject, the
word order of the clause is the same as that of a clause in the declarative mood, i.e.
the subject is put first, followed by the verb. Who invited you? And then what
happened?.

c) "Wh"word as ob)ect or adverb.

When a "wh"word is the object of a verb or preposition, or when it forms part of the
object, or when it is an adverb, the position of the subject is the usual one in the
interrogative mood; that is it comes after the first verb in the clause. What am I going
to do without you?, Which graph are you going to use?, Why has Cherubini written
this?, When would you be coming down?.
If you are using the simple present tense or the simple past tense of any verb except
"be", you put "do", "does", or "did" in front of the subject. What do you really think?,
Which department do you want?, Where does she live?, How do you know what it's
like?, When did you last see John Cartwright?.
If you are using the simple present tense or the simple past tense of "be", the main
verb goes in front of the subject. You do not use "do", "does", or "did". Where is the
station?, How was your meeting?, When was the last time you cleaned the garage?.

d) Questions without a verb.

In conversation, a "wh"question sometimes consists of a "wh"word on its own, for

example, if you say to someone I'm learning to type, they might say "why?" meaning
Why are you learning to type?. He saw a snake Where?, I have to go to Germany.
When?, I knew you were landing today. - How?.
A "wh"question can also consist of a noun group containing a "wh"word. For
example, if you say to someone I gave your book to that girl, they might say Which
girl?, meaning Which girl did you give my book to?. He knnew my cousin Which
cousin?, Who was your friend What friend?.

19
e) Items.

Who and whom.

The pronoun "who" is used to ask questions about a person's identity. "Who" can be
the subject or object of a verb. Who discovered this?, Who were her friends?, Who
are you expecting?, Who did he marry?.
In more formal English, "Whom" is sometimes used instead of "who" as the object of
a verb. Whom shall we call?, Whom did you see?.
"Who" and "whom" can also be the object of a preposition. When "who", is the object
of a preposition, the preposition is put at the end of the clause. Who did you dance
with?. Who do I pay this to?
When "whom" is the object of a preposition, the preposition is put at the beginning of
the clause, in front of "whom". For whom were they supposed to do it?, To whom is
the boradcaster responsible?.

Whose.
"Whose" is used as a determiner or pronoun to ask which person something belongs
to or is associated with. Whose babies did you think they were?, Whose body was
it?, Whose is that?.

Which and what.

"Which" is used as a pronoun or determiner to ask someone to identify a specific
person or thing out of a number of people or things. Which is the best restaurant?,
Which is her room?.
"What" can be a pronoun or determiner, or combination with "if" or "for".
"What" is used as a pronoun to find out various kinds of specific information, for
example details of an event, the meaning of a word or expression, or the reason for
something. What's wrong with his mother? What has happened to him?.

When, where, why, how.

"When" is used to ask questions about the time something happened, happens, or
will happen. When did you find her?.
"Where" is used to ask questions about place, position, or direction. Where does she
live?, Where are you going?.
"Why" is used to ask a question about the reason for something. Why are you here?,
Why does Amy want to go and see the grave?, Why does she treat me like that
when we're such old friends?. "Why" is sometimes used without a subject and with
the base form of a verb, usually to ask why an action is or was necessary. Why wake
me up?
"How" is usually used to ask about the method used for doing something, or about
the way in which something can be achieved. How do we open it?.
"How" can be combined with other words at the beginning of questions.
"How many" and "how much" are used to ask what number of things there are or
what amount of something there is. "How many" is followed by a plural count noun.
How many people are there?. "How much" is followed by an uncount noun. How
much money have we got in the bank?.
You can combine "how" with an adjective when you are asking to what extent
something has a particular quality or feature. How big's your overdraft at the
moment?.

20
Whatever, wherever and whoever.
If you want a question to sound more emphatic, you can use "whatever" instead of
"what", "wherever" instead of "where" or "whoever" instead of "who". Whatever is the
matter?, Wherever did you get this?, Whoever heard of a bishop resigning?.

f) Positive whquestions.

A whquestion may generally be matched with a statement called its presupposition.

This is a statement which, in place of the whelement, contains an indefinite
expression such as somebody.
Modifying what and which have different presuppositions: What composer(s) do you
like best? -You like some composer(s) best. Which composer(s) do you like best?,
You like some/ one of the composers best.
In some cases there is no sensible presupposition: How does he feel? -*He feels
somehow or other. Where was she born? -She was born somewhere. What time is
it? -It's some time or other. How should I know? Why should I?
As the above examples indicate, a positive Whquestion may generally be matched
with a positive presupposition. There may, however, be no presupposition if
nonassertive items are present:
When will we ever win any prizes? What help have they ever given us?. Who has
any money?.

g) Negative whquestions.

Whquestions can also be negative: Who hasn't had any coffee?, Why didn't you tell
me?, When shouldn't I call?, Which books don't you want?, Where didn't you clean?,
How long haven't you heard from them?, How often didn't he pay his rent?
The presuppositions can be listed just as for positive questions. Somebody hasn't
had any coffee. You didn't tell me for some reason. I shouldn't call at some time. You
don't want some books. You didn't clean in some place. You haven't heard from
them for some time. He didn't pay his rent a number of times.

III.05. ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS.

There are two types of alternative questions. The first resembles a yes-no question,
and the second a wh-question: would you like chocolate, vanilla or strawberry (ice
cream)? (1), Which ice cream would you like? Chocolate, Vanilla, or Strawberry (2].
The first type differs from a yesno question only in intonation: instead of the final
rising tone, it contains a separate nucleus for each alternative; a rise occurs on each
item in the list, except the last, on which there is a fall, indicating that the list is
complete. The difference of intonation between alternative and yesno questions is
important, in that ignoring it can lead to misunderstanding as the contrast between
these replies indicates:
Alternative: A: Shall we go by bus or train? B: By bus. yesno: A: Shall we go by bus
or train? B: No, let's take the car.
The second type of alternative question is really a compound of two separate
questions: a whquestion followed by an elliptical alternative question. Thus (2) might
be taken as a reduced version of: Which ice cream would you like? Would you like
chocolate, vanilla, or strawberry?
An alternative question presupposes the truth of only one of the propositions: Are

21
you a Democrat or a Republican? [You are either a Democrat or a Republican]. Do
you want Sherbet, Yoghurt, or Fruit? [You are being given a choice of only one of the
three.)
A yesno question presupposes that one of two mutually exclusive possibilities is true:
Are you ready?
Converting a yesno question into an alternative question introduces this tautology
into the presupposition: Are you ready or Aren't you ready? (Either you are ready or
you are not ready.]
The second conjoin may be reduced to or not: Are you ready or not?
The structure of alternative yesno questions follows the pattern of coordination, the
ellipted forms generally being preferred, where they are possible. Did Italy win the
World Cup or did Brazil win the World Cup?, Did Italy win the World Cup or did
Brazil?, Did Italy win the World Cup or Brazil?
Often the remaining part of a second or subsequent alternative question is fronted to
the appropriate position in the first question: Did Italy or Brazil win the World Cup?
This type of fronting is also possible for the vacuous negative alternative: Are you
coming or aren't you (coming)? Are you or aren't you coming?
There is no fronted version of are you coming or not? (*Are you or not coming?)
because fronting would violate the requirement of structure equivalence of conjoins.

III.06. EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS.

The exclamative question is interrogative in structure, but has the allocutionary force
of an exclamatory assertion. Typically it is a negative yes-no question with a final
falling instead of rising tone. Hasn't she grown!, Wasn't it a marvellous concert!
These invite the hearer's agreement to something on which the speaker has strong
feelings. The meaning, contrary to the appearance of the literal wording is vigorously
positive.
A positive yesno question, also with a falling tone, is another (but less common) way
of expressing a strong positive conviction: Am I hungry!, Did he look annoyed!, Has
she grown!
Both operator and subject usually receive emphatic stress. In written English an
exclamation mark is usual at the end of the sentence for both kinds of exclamatory
question.
It seems odd that pairs of sentences which contrast in positivenegative polarity
should have roughly the same effect: Has she grown! Hasn't she grown! There is,
however, a slight difference: the negative question has, as a feature of its meaning,
an appeal forthe listener's confirmation; the positive question, on the other hand,
implies that the positive response is selfevident, and would therefore be more
appropriate where the listener's agreementwould normally not be solicited, as in Am I
hungry! (The experience reported here is of course not shared by the listener.) In
situations where both the negative and the positive questions are possible, the
difference is roughly represented by these paraphrases: Wasn't it a marvellous
concert!, What a marvellous concert it was!, Has she grown! = She has grown!.
Exclamatory questions do not admit nonassertives: Hasn't she grown yet? is an
inquiry. Negative exclamator questions must take enclitic n't; Has she not grown? is
an inquiry, not an exclamation.

III.07. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS.

22
The rhetorical questions is interrogative in structure, but has the force of a strong
assertion. It generally doe not expect an answer.
A positive rhetorical yes-no question is like a strong negative assertion, while a
negative question is like a strong positive one.

Positive.
Is that a reason for despair? ["Surely that is not a reason ..."), Can anyone doubt the
wisdom of this action? ["Surely no one can doubt ...")
Negative.
Isn't the answer obvious? ["Surely the answer is obvious".), Haven't you got anything
better to do? ["Surely you have something better to do").

Unlike exclamatory questions, these rhetorical questions have the normal rising
intonation of a yesno question, and are distinguished chiefly by the range of pitch
movement.
There are also rhetorical whquestions. The positive question is equivalent to a
statement in which the whelements are replaced by a negative element: Who
knows/cares? ("Nobody knows/ cares" or "I don't know/care"). What difference does
it make? ["It makes no difference"]. How should I know? ["There is no reason why I
should know"). What should I say? ("There is nothing that I should say"). What
makes you think you can do better? ["Nothing should make you think you can do
better"). How can I help it? ["There is no reason why I can help it"].
Nonassertives may occur: What has he ever done for you?, Who has any money to
spare these days?.
The less common negative question i is equivalent to a statement in which the
whelement is replaced by a positive element: Who doesnt know? ["Everybody
knows"]. How couldn't you remember? ["You certainly should have remembered").
Whquestions generally have a risefall tone, less commonly a simple falling tone.
Rhetorical questions may also be responses to previous questions: A: Do you want
to eat? B: Do I look hungry?.

IV. NEGATIVE: Introduction.

The present chapter covers a scope wider than the negative sentence structure.
Thus we will deal with negation in English, which is a concept that includes the
negative sentence structure as well as the different grammatical devices that the
English language has in order to produce negative information.

In terms of sentence structure, we will include the negative sentence within the first
type of simple sentences, what we know as statements. Statements can be either
affirmative or negative. The latter will be the focus of the present analysis.

We will divide the topic into three major parts. In the first one, we will study the
structure of the negative sentences and the negative pronouns. In the second one,
we will analyze more detailed the different ways of expressing negation in English.
This part will include: do periphrasis, non-assertive forms, negation of modal
auxiliaries, as well as more specific types of negation such as the broad negatives,
emphasis of negation and the English negative affixes.

The third part will present a double sentence structure (the negative) interrogative

23
sentence.

IV. NEGATIVE. I. NEGATIVE FORM

IV.I.I. Forming negative statement structures.

When you want to say that something is not true, is not happening, or is not case,
you normally use a negative statement. Negative statements contain words like ‘not’,
‘never’, or ‘nowhere’. These are called negative words. Here is the list of negative
words in English: neither – never – no – nobody – none – no one – nor – not –
nothing – nowhere.

Negative words indicate the opposite of something or an absence of something.

There are some other words such as ‘unhappy’ or ‘meaningless’ which give a
negative meaning to a statement because they contain a negative affix such as ‘un-‘
or ‘-less’.

Another group of words such as ‘scarcely’ and ‘seldom’ can be used to make a
statement almost negative. These words are called broad negatives.

If a statement about the existence of something has a negative word in it, you use
‘any’ (not ‘no’) as determiner in front of the following noun group. You can also use a
word beginning with ‘any-‘ such as ‘anyone’ or ‘anywhere’.

he hadn’t any money – he writes poetry and never shows it to anyone – it is

impossible to park the car anywhere

It is almost unacceptable to use two negative words in the same clause. For
example, you do not say, ‘I don’t never go there’, or ‘I don’t know nothing’.

The two basic negative words in English are ‘not’ and ‘no’. broadly speaking ‘not’ is
used to negate a verb, ‘no’ to negate a noun; but there are a number of other
negative and non-assertive words which enter the picture, and a combination of ‘not’
and a non-assertive word can usually be replaced by ‘no’ and noun:

syntactic class assertive non-assertive negative

determiner some any no
determiner (one or the other) either neither, or
pronoun some any none
pronoun (one or the other) either neither, or
pronoun something anything Nothing
pronoun somebody anybody Nobody
pronoun someone anyone No one
process adverb somehow (in any way) (in no way)
place adverb somewhere anywhere nowhere
time adverb already yet
time adverb sometime ever, anytime never
time adverb still any more, any longer
extent adverb (to some extent) at all no more
intensifier somewhat any (the) no longer

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 additive adverb as well, too either no, no the

It is possible to show examples of each of these, first the affirmative statements, then
the alternative negatives:

1/ ‘they’ve never eaten dinner’: they haven’t eaten any dinner – they’ve eaten no
dinner
2/ ‘we went to one film of the other’: we didn’t go to either film – we went to neither
film
3/ ‘we’ve had some’: we haven’t had any – we have had one
4/ ‘he saw one or other of the men’: he didn’t see either of the men – he saw neither
men
5/ ‘he’s taken something for her’: he hasn’t taken anything for her – he has taken
nothing for her
6/ ‘he was taking it to anybody’: he wasn’t taking it to anybody – he was taking it
nobody
7/ ‘he cheated someone’: he didn’t cheat anyone – he cheated no one
8/ ‘he was somehow uplifted’: he wasn’t anyway uplifted – he was in no way uplifted
9/ ‘they’re going somewhere’: they aren’t going anywhere – they are going nowhere
0/ ‘the boat’s in already’: the boat isn’t in yet
1/ ‘they sometimes eat snails’: they don’t ever eat snails – they never eat snails
2/ ‘she’s still at work’: she isn’t at work anymore (she isn’t at work any longer) – she’s
at work no more (she’s at work no longer)
3/ ‘I can find it’: I can’t find it at all
4/ ‘it’s (somewhat) better’: it isn’t any (the) better – it’s no better – (it’s none the
better)
5/ ‘Jane is pretty too’: Jane isn’t pretty either

Most authorities agree that, with the possible exception of ‘never’, the combination of
‘not’ plus the non-assertive word is more colloquial and idiomatic that the negative.

It will have been noticed that the first two examples are those that exemplify the
difference between the negation of the noun and the negation of the adverb. ‘no’ has
a determiner function, as have negative pronouns which can be charted thus:

IV.I.II. Negative pronouns.

countable
personal non-personal mass
no – no one – nothing (of) –
singular nobody – neither neither (of) – none no – none (of)
(of) – none (of) (of)
plural no – none

Thus: he has no pen – he has no pens – he has no ink

and for the rest which have only nominal functions: nobody likes it – no one likes it –
none likes it – none like it

25
 none of my friends is coming – none of my friends are coming
neither of my friends is coming – neither friends is coming
nothing comes of nothing – nothing of this concerns me
neither of the possibilities came about – neither possibility came about

finally ‘no’ is the negative used for yes-no questions:

q: do you want an ice cream? – a: no

q: you’re not happy, are you’ – a: no

IV.I.III. Negative sentence structures.

1. Simple negation with operator and ‘do’-periphrasis.

The negation of a simple sentence is accomplished by inserting the word ‘not’

between the operator and the predication:

I’m going to France – I’m not going to France

I’ve finished eating – I’ve not finished eating
I can type very fast – I cannot type very fast
we may go skiing – we may not go skiing

In instances where it is possible to abbreviate the operator by the use of contracted

form enclitic to the subject, two colloquial forms of negation are possible:

I’ve not finished eating. I haven’t finished eating

I cannot type very fast – I can’t type very fast
James’ll not be there – James won’t be there
I’d not seen that film before – I hadn’t seen that film before

There is no convenient contraction of ‘am not’, though ‘aren’t’ (British English) and
‘ain’t’ (American English) enjoy a certain amount of current usage, usually in
questions:

aren’t I too wonderful for words? – ain’t I the greatest?

The problem arises when a clause with no anomalous finite needs to be negated.
That is to say a clause in the simple present or simple past (excepting ‘to be’ and
occasionally ‘have’). The problem is overcome by using the substitute or ‘dummy’
auxiliary ‘do’ followed by the bare infinitive. This process is known as ‘do’ –
periphrasis:

she likes tall dark men – she doesn’t like tall dark men
I go swimming every day – I don’t go swimming every day
I intended to enjoy myself – I didn’t intend to enjoy myself

‘do’ – periphrasis, however, does not occur in non finite verb phrases, although the
negative ‘not’ is retained:

26
 Not seeing the dog he ran it over.
Not to applaud would have seemed churlish.

2. Non-assertive forms.

In the introduction we looked a complete list of non-assertive forms with their

assertive and negative equivalents, and, after giving examples, suggested that they
were more commonly used than the negative. If a clause contains a negative
element («not»), it is usually negative throughout. This means that after a negative,
the non-assertive forms must be used in place of every assertive form that would
occur in the corresponding positive clause:

I haven't done anything yet.

I don't want to see anymore of you, either.
No one has ever said anything to either of us.

The non-assertive forms can ever appear in positive subordinate clauses following a
negative in the main clause:

That wouldn't stop you if you had any guts.

In such instances it becomes important to analyse the scope of negation, that is to

say the stretch of meaning over which the negative meaning operates. Obviously
adjuncts occuring before the predication and the subject lie outside the negation.
Thus contrast:

He definitely didn't say that (he did not).

He didn't definitely say that (it is possible, but not sure).

When the adjunct is final, however, it may or not be negated depending on the
intonation:

I wasn't TALking all the TIME.

I wasn't talking all the TIME.

In the last examples the scope of negation is underlined.

If an assertive form is used, therefore, it must lie outside the scope of negation.

Finally, the non-assertive form cannot precede «not» in a sentence, which forces the
use of the simple negative form:

No one saw us.

Nothing happened.

In these cases the subject is negative whereas it is possible to transpose certain

negatives:

I have never been there - never have I been there.

He didn't arrive until Monday – Not until Monday did he arrive.

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Such a construction is generally in purely literary use.

3. Negation of modal auxiliaries.

Confusingly with the modal auxiliaries: can, could; may, might; shall, should; will,
would; must; ought to; used to; need; dare.

The scope of negation may not include the meaning for the auxiliary itself, so it is
necessary to distinguish between Auxiliary Negation and Main Verb Negation.

1) Auxiliary negation.

«may not» (permission):

you may not enter (you are not allowed to ...).

«cannot», «can't» (in all senses).

you can't be right (It's not possible that ...).

you can't go out (you are not allowed to ...).
you can't swim (you are not able to …)

«need not», «needn't».

you needn't pay taxes (you are not obliged to ...).

it needn't always be my fault (It is not necessary that ...).

2) Main verb negation.

«May not» (possibility).

they may not come tomorrow (it is possible that ...).

«will not», «won't» (all senses).

don't worry, I won't bother you (I'm willing not to ...).

he won't do what's expected (he insists on not doing ...).
they won't be at honre yet (1 predict that they have not arrived yet).

«Shall not», «shan't».

don't worry, you shan't be bothered. (I'm willing to see that you are not
bothered).
I shan't have a thing to wear.
(I predict that I will have nothing to wear).

«Must not», «mustn't».

you mustn't just sit there.

28
 (you'II oblige me not to just sitting there).

«Ought not», «oughtn't».

you oughtn't to keep us waiting (obligation).

you oughtn't to be to long (necessity).

Certain auxiliaries («can» and «need») follow the pattern of auxiliary negation, while
others («will», «shall», «must») follow that of the main verb negation, «May» belongs
to the first group in its sense of permission; but to the second group in its sense of
possibility. «Must not» (never «mustn't») is used rarely in the necessity sense.
Instead «can't» in the sense of impossible is used. Thus:

you must be lying = you can't be telling the truth.

On the basis it becomes logical that the negation of «must» is often «needn't»:

Q.: «Must we go now?»

A.: «No, we needn'ttill after supper».

And because of the curious resemblance between non-permission and obligation-

not-to:
you must not stand there = You may not stand there.

The past tenses (mightn't, couldn't, wouldn't, shouldn't) generally follow the same
patterns as their present tense equivalents.

4. Broad negatives.

Another way in which you can make a statement negative is by using a broad
negative. Broad negatives are adverbs like «rarely» and «seldom» which are used to
make a statement almost totally negative.

The estimated sales will hardly cover the cost of making the film.
We were scarcely able to move.
Kuwait lies barely 30 miles from the Iranian coast.

Here is a list of the most common broad negatives: barely, hardly, rarely, scarcely,
seldom. The position of a broad negative within a clause is similar to that of «never».
When you use a broad negative with a verb group which contains an auxiliary verb,
you put it after the first word in the verb group and in front of the main verb.

I could scarcely believe my eyes.

Mr. Al-Fayed is rarely photographed with his family.
His eyes had hardly closed.

If the verb is the simple present or simple past of «be», the broad negative usually
comes after the verb.

Examiners were seldom unkind.

29
In formal or literary English, a broad negative is sometimes placed at the beginning
of a clause for emphasis. lf you are using a verb group with an auxiliary, the first
word in the verb group is placed after the broad negative, followed by the subject
and then the remainder of the verb group.

Seldom has society offered so wide a range of leisure time activities.

Hardly had we recovered from this appalling shock when we were approached by a
yacht.

If there is no auxiliary, you put the simple present or simple past of «do» after the
broad negative, followed by the subject, followed by the base form of the main verb.

Seldom did a week pass without a request for assessment.

Rarely do local matches live up to expectations.

Note that «barely» and «scarcely» are not often used in this way. Instead of using a
broad negative, you can use «almost» followed by a negative word such as «no» or
«never». For example, «There was almost no food left» means the same as «There
was hardly any food left».

They've almost no money for anything.

5. Negative emphasis.

You can add «at all» to a negative statement in order to make it more emphatic. You
use «at all» with any negative word, with «without», or with a broad negative.

She had no writing ability at all.

«There's no need» said Jimmie. «None at all».

You can put «whatsoever» after «none» and «nothing» in order to emphasize the
negative aspect of a statement.

You don't think he has any chance of winning? «None whatsoever».

There was no compromise of principle involved, none whatsoever.

If «no» is used as a determiner in a noun group, you can put «whatsoever» after the
noun group.

There is no need whatsoever to teach children how to behave.

You can also use «whatsoever» in negative statements which contain «any» or a
word which begins with «any-».

You are not entitled to any aid whatsoever.

You can put «ever» after negative words in order to emphasize the negative aspect
of a statement.

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 I can't say I ever had much interest in fishing.

There are several expressions which can be used to emphasize a negative

statement which contains «not» these include «in the least», «the least bit», «in the
slightest», and «a bit».

I don't mind in the least, I really don't.

Neither of the managers was the least bit repentant afterwards.
I don't really envy you in the slightest.
They're not a bit interested.

6. Negative affixes.

A prefix such as «un-» or «dis-» can be added to the beginning of some words to
give them the opposite meaning. Words with prefixes can be looked up in any good
dictionary. The suffix «less» is added to the end of words to give them a negative
meaning.

She asked us to her house which was very small and untidy.
At last Janet sat down, as she was breathless.

Here is a list of common negative prefixes:

a- de- il- ir- non- anti- dis- im- mal- un- counter- ex- in- mis-

The most common of these prefixes is «un-». It can be added to many adjectives,
adverbs, and verbs.

They were unhappy with the way things were going.

They described what they saw, sometimes truthfully and at other times untruthfully.
She unpacked straightaway.

«Un-» can also be added to some nouns.

She wanted to save her sister from unhappiness.

Another common prefix is «in-». It is added to some adjectives, adverbs, and nouns
instead of «un-».

The footpath was invisible.

Some radiation continues almost indefinitely.
There's enormous inefficiency in the system.

«il-» is added to some adjectives, adverbs, and nouns beginning with «l». «im-» is
added to others which begin with «b», «m», or «p», and «-ir» is added to some
which begin with «r».

He has reached an illogical conclusion.

The Windows will be almost impossible to open.

31
 I was a crazy, irresponsible adventurer.

«Dis-» is added to some verbs, adjectives, nouns, and adverbs.

I disliked change of any kind.

I was becoming discontented.
He gave a look of disapproval.
She just gets disagreeably rebellious.

«Non-» is added to some adjectives and nouns.

... a peaceful, non-violent protest.

Traffic signals were inadequate or non-existent.
The match was a non-event.
The oil companies stubbornly pursued a course of non-cooperation.

The suffix «-less» can be added to many nouns in order to form negative adjectives.

They were completely helpless.

Many people were in tears and almost speechless.

IV.I.IV. Negative questions.

In «theme 33» we discussed positive orientation in the formation of the questions

structure.

Do you live somewhere near here?

Do you know someone in New York?

The Opposite case is negative orientation. Questions with negative orientation

contain a negative form of the same sort of another:

Can nothing be done?

Don’t you think I’m right?
Aren’t you happy?

All such questions, as their definition suggests, presuppose a negative response; but
they are complicated by an element of surprise or disbelief:

Don't you think I'm right? (I think I’m right).

Thus we find combined a positive and a negative attitude which is separated by

some grammarians into the old assumption (positive) and the new assumption
(negative). The old assumption as exemplified above is the one of hope or wish, thus
the new assumption often expresses disappointment or annoyance.

Aren't you proud of yourself? (Sarcasm: I would think you should be ashamed of
yourself).

Hasn't anyone seen him yet? (I'd have hoped someone had, but it seems they

32
 haven't).
Can't you walk straight? (I'd have thought you'd be able to but it appears you can't).

Aren't you ashamed of yourself? (you should be; but it seems you are not).

A second type uses the formal signal of negative orientation «not», but combines it
with asseri1've forms, thus signalling a positive orientation:

Didn't something happen after I had left?

Haven't you seen it already?

This is similar, though possibly marginally weaker than the tag questions:

Something happened after I'd left, didn't it?

You've seen it already, haven't you?

They either expect that «something did happen», «you have seen it», and if not
surprise or even disbelief.

A curious word order pertains in negative questions according to whether the full or
enclitic negative particle is employed «n't» precedes the subject, whereas «not»
follows it:

Didn't you see that film?

Did you not see that film?

The later form is formal and literary and the former is most commonly heard in
normal spoken English.

A curious anomally, though logical of the negative question is that non-assertive form
may replace the subject:

Doesn't anyone agree with me?

Does no one agree with me?

Thus, two negatives correspond to the single positive.

No one agrees with me.

The adjunct «either» only appears in negative questions:

Don't you want it either?

Finally we have the touched-on subject of tag-questions which take positive-

negative forms:

he looks a winner, doesn't he?

He doesn't look well, does he?

33
V. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES: Introduction.

V.01. "WHAT" EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES.

01.1. Form of the "what" exclamatory sentences.

V.02. "HOW" EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES.

V.03. "SO" AND "SUCH" IN EXCLAMATIONS.

V.04. EXCLAMATIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH.

V.05. ECHO UTTERANCES.

05.1. Echo Questions.
05.2. Echo Exclamations.

V.06. FORMULAIC UTTERANCES.

06.1. Formulae.
06.2. Greetings and other communicative situations.

V.07. RELATION BETWEEN QUESTION AND EXCLAMATION.

07.1. Rhetorical Questions.

V.08. INTONATION IN EXCLAMATIONS.

Every language has melody in it; no language is spoken on the same musical note
all the time. The voice goes up and down and the different pitches of the voice
combine to make tunes. English intonation is not the same as the intonation of any
other language and it is very important to learn the shapes of the English tunes and
the "meaning" of the English tunes. EX: thank you may be said in two ways: in the
first the voice starts high and ends low, and this shows real gratitude; in the second
the voice starts low and ends high, and this shows a rather casual acknowledgement
of something not very important.

We can have several groups of exclamations according to the intonation:

a) For strong exclamations we have to use the "falling tone" (the glide-down). It
consists of a fall in the voice from a fairly high pitch to a very low tone. What a
beautiful dress!, Fantastic!, Good Heavens!. Thank you! comes in this class when it
expresses real gratitude.

b) For greetings and for saying goodbye we use the "first rising tune"3 (the glide-
up). It is just like the "glide-down" except that it ends with a rise in the voice instead
of a fall.

34