NUTRITION IN PLANTS
of bacteria are
 Nutrition- it’s the
process by which
organisms in food
materials.
o Importance of
nutrition
 It provides a living
organism with raw
material for:
 Respiration to produce
energy in the cells
 Growth of cells and
tissues
 Repair of worn out or
damaged tissues such as
healing of wounds
o Types of nutrition
 There are two types of
nutrition
 Autotrophic nutrition –
This is where the plants
contain chlorophyll
make their own food.
Such organisms are
called autotrophs.
 Heterotrophic
nutrition- This is where
the organism takes in or
ingests food from plants
or animals. The
organisms are called
heterotrophs.
 Nutrition in plants
Page 1 of 33
 Plants and certain types
autotrophs. There are
type of autotrophic
nutrition i.e.
 Phototropism
 The organisms use
carbon dioxide water
and energy from soil to
make their own food in a
process called
photosynthesis.
 Phototrophic nutrition is
also called holophytic
nutrition.
 Chemotropism
 The organisms called
chemotrophs make their
own food using energy
from special types of
chemical reactions.
 They do not use
sunlight, chemotrops
include certain bacteria.
o PHOTOSYNTHE
SIS
 This is the manufacture
of food materials using
light energy from the
sun. It takes place in
green plants.
 Importance of green
plants
 As source of food and
energy
 Plants make their own
food and animals depend
directly or indirectly on
plants for their food.
Food contains energy
from the sun stored as
chemical energy.
 Provides oxygen
 It replaces oxygen in air
which is continuously
used up by all living
things for respiration.
 Makes carbon IV oxide
available to plants and
animals
 Photosynthesis uses
carbon IV oxide from
the air and incorporates
it into carbon found in
food substances.
 It is responsible for the
energy stored in coal
and petroleum
 Plants and animals that
existed on earth millions
of years ago were
converted into fossils.
The energy they
contained is stored as
fossil fuels such as
petroleum and coal.
 External structure of a
leaf
 It consist of ;
Page 2 of 33
 Leaf blade/lamina-it’s
the flattened surface.
 Its green in colour and
contains the
photosynthetic tissue
 In dicotyledonous plants,
simple leaves have a
thick mid-rib which runs
in the middle.
 From the mid-rib arises
small veins that run into
the lamina forming an
extensive network of
veins
 In monocotyledonous
plants, the mid-rib is
absent small veins run
parallel to each other
 In some plants the leaf is
attached to to the stem or
a branch by a petiole
while in others the leaf is
attached directly
 In monocotyledonous
plants, some leaves are
attached to the stem by
the leaf sheath
 Internal structure of a
leaf
X
 Cuticle
 It covers the upper
surface of most leaves
and makes them appear
shiny.
 It’s very thin waxy
transparent coating
found on the upper and
lower leaf surfaces of
some plants.
 Its waxy nature makes it
waterproof.
 Functions of cuticle
 To reduce the amount of
water lost from the plant
by transpiration.
 To protect the inner
tissues from:
 Infection by micro-
organisms that may
cause disease
 Mechanical damage by
animals or falling
objects.
 Epidermis
 This is the layer of cells
below the cuticle. It’s
usually one cell thick to
allow light to pass
though the cells easily.
 The epidermis forms a
protective layer over the
cells that carry out
photosynthesis
 Palisade mesophyll
 Maximum
photosynthesis takes
place in the palisade
mesophyll. This is a
layer of cells located
Page 3 of 33
below the upper
epidermis.
 Palisade cells are closely
packed with a few air
spaces between them
 The cells are elongated
and lie at right angle to
the leaf epidermis. They
contain many
chloroplasts. Their
shapes allow them to
absorb most of the light
falling on the leaf.
 They are close to the
upper epidermis so as to
absorb maximum light.
The chloroplast can
move within the palisade
cells to the side
receiving the optimum
amount of light.
 Spongy mesophyll
 It’s composed of cells
located between the
palisade mesophyll and
the lower epidermis.
 The cells are irregular in
shape and are loosely
arranged. They have
large air spaces between
them which allows for
air circulation and
gaseous exchange
between the cells and the
air surrounding them.
 Spongy mesophyll cells
are also lined with
moisture to facilitate
uptake of oxygen and
release of Carbon iv
Oxide. They have fewer
chloroplasts than the
palisade mesophyll cells.
 Vascular tissues
 The network of veins in
the leaves is made up of
vascular tissues. This
tissue has xylem vessels
which supply water and
mineral salts to the leaf.
It also has phloem which
takes away
manufactured food
substances from the leaf
to other parts of the
plant.
 Vascular tissues also
provide support for the
cells in the leaf
 Stomata
 They are found on the
upper or lower epidermis
or both.
 They allow entry of
Carbon iv Oxide into the
leaf for photosynthesis
 Adaptations of a leaf
for photosynthesis
 The leaf blade (lamina)
is broad and flat to
Page 4 of 33
provide a large surface
area for absorption of
sunlight and Carbon iv
Oxide
 Most leaves are thin to
reduce the distance
across which Carbon iv
Oxide has to diffuse
from the stomata to
reach the
photosynthesizing cells.
 The leaves are arranged
on the stems of some
plants in such a way that
each leaf is able to
absorb the maximum
light. This regular
arrangement of leaves on
the stem minimizes
overlapping and
overshadowing. This is
called leaf mosaic
 The presence of air
spaces in the spongy
mesophyll allows for
faster movement of
gases.
 The leaf veins conduct
water and mineral salts
to the photosynthetic
cells. They also transport
manufactured food to
other parts of the plant
enabling more to be
made.
 The cuticle and
epidermis are
transparent, ensuring
penetration of light to
the palisade cells.
 Each palisade cell
contains a large number
of chloroplasts and their
arrangement and
location next to the
epidermis enables them
to receive maximum
sunlight
 Presence of stomata for
efficient diffusion of
oxygen, water vapour
and Carbon iv Oxide
 Palisade cells are closely
packed and vertically
elongated to allow many
to be packed beneath the
epidermis where they
can receive maximum
light
 Structure and function
of the chloroplast
 The chloroplast is the
organelle in a plant cell
where photosynthesis
takes place.
 Chloroplasts are found
in the cytoplasm of
palisade mesophyll,
spongy mesophyll and
guard cells.
Page 5 of 33
 Cells that have
chloroplasts are called
photosynthetic cells

 Each chloroplast is
surrounded by two
membranes ie the outer
and inner membranes.
 Inside each chloroplast,
are small units called
grana (singular granum)
 A granum consists of a
number of disks placed
on each other like a pile
of coins. One granum is
connected to another by
inter-granular/lamellae
 Granum contains
chlorophyll molecules,
and other photosynthetic
pigments for the light
reactions of
photosynthesis
 Granum provides a large
surface area to
accommodate a large
number of chlorophyll
molecules
 Stroma contains
enzymes that speed up
 the rate of methylated spirit to a
photosynthesis. naked flame because;
o Activity 1: testing  Alcohol boils at a lower
for starch in a leaf temperature than water
 Materials (78ºC) so it will boil in
 Water bath hot water.
 Bunsen burner  Take the leaf and dip it
 Forceps into the boiling
 Droppers methylated spirit. Leave
 Iodine the leaf in the hot
 Water methylated spirit until all
 Ethanol(methylated the chlorophyll is
spirit) removed – the hot
 2 test tubes methylated spirit is a
 White tile good solvent which
 stop watch dissolves and extracts
 Procedure (removes) chlorophyll
 Take a leaf from a green from the leaf leaving it
plant that has been in the white.
sun for several hours and  NB: Alcohol also makes
dip it in a boiling water the leaf stiff and brittle.
bath for 2-3minutes.  Remove the leaf from
This treatment: the test tube and dip it in
 Kills all the living a beaker of cold water.
tissues in the leaf thus This softens the leaf by
preventing further returning water that was
chemical reactions. removed by ethanol.
 Ruptures any starch  Take the leaf using a
granules present pair of forceps and
 Put a boiling tube half spread it out carefully
filled with methylated onto a white tile.
spirit into the boiling  Using a dropper, place a
water (water bath). Do few drops of iodine
not expose the solution onto the leaf
and note the colour.
Page 6 of 33
 Results
 The parts of the leaf
containing starch are
stained blue- black while
those without starch are
stained brown.
 Methylated spirit turns
from purple colour to
green colour indicating
presence of chlorophyll
from the leaf.
 Destarching a plant
 When a plant is left in a
dark cupboard for 2days
(48 hours) and is tested
for the starch, it is found
out that there will be no
starch; it is found out
that there will be no
starch.
 Explanation
 The plant cannot
photosynthesize in the
dark. Therefore no starch
is formed in the leaves
when the plant is in the
cupboard.
 During this period the
starch already in the
plant is used up. The
plant is then described as
being destarched.
 Factors influencing
photosynthesis
 Light intensity
Page 7 of 33
 The intensity of light
varies with time of day,
season and position of
the plants on the earth’s
surface.
 Photosynthesis takes
place more rapidly on
bright days than on dull
days. Very bright light
destroy chlorophyll and
slows down
photosynthesis.
 Plants in environment
that receive a lot of
sunlight have thick
cuticles or hairy leaves
for protection.
 Expt: To investigate
the effect of light
intensity on the rate of
photosynthesis
 Set up the experiment as
shown below:
o X
 Place the set up first
inside the laboratory,
count the number of
bubbles released in a
minute by the plant.
 Repeat the counting but
with the plant in the
bright sunlight. Fill in
the table below:
Light Number
 intensity of bubbles  If the temperature is very
produced low (0ºc) the enzymes
in I become inactive and
minute little photosynthesis
Inside occurs.
laboratory  If the temperature is
Average =
higher than 40ºC,
enzymes are denatured
Bright Average (destroyed) hence no
sunshine = photosynthesis i.e.
 Discussion o X
 When the amount of o NB: Compensation
light increases e.g. from point- this is the
inside laboratory to the point at which the
outside in the bright rate of respiration
sunshine, the rate of is equal to that of
photosynthesis increases. photosynthesis. In
This is seen by an most plants
increase in bubbles of compensation point
oxygen gas and oxygen is reached at
leaving the plant) around dawn e.g.
 Therefore increasing the  X
light intensity increases  Respiration rate is high
the rate of and carbon iv oxide
photosynthesis to a release is high
certain level e.g. o A-B- Increasing
 X light intensity
 Temperature therefore increases
 Photosynthesis is an rate of
enzyme controlled photosynthesis.
process. Any changes in Carbon iv oxide
the external temperature uptake increases.
of a plant affect the  Compensation point.
activity of the enzymes Rate of photosynthesis is
in the plant cells.
Page 8 of 33
 equal to the rate of  Boiled water is free of
respiration gases including carbon
 B-C- Rate of iv oxide. The rate of
photosynthesis is much photosynthesis will be
higher than the rate of very low. This is by the
respiration therefore rate fact that very few
of uptake of carbon iv bubbles are counted.
oxide is more than the  Water that has sodium
rate of release of carbon hydrogen carbonate has
iv oxide Concentration more CO2 dissolved in it.
of carbon iv oxide The rate of bubbles
 Activity: effect of formed is high as O2 is
carbon iv oxide on rate produced.
of photosynthesis o ACTIVITY 2
 Set up the apparatus as o Set up two
shown below: destarched potted
 X plants as follows
o Plant A: put some
 Using the elodea plant sodium hydrogen
place boiled but cooled or potassium
water in the beaker. hydrogen carefully
Place the set up in bright on the soil holding
sunshine and count the the plant. Take the
average number of transparent
bubbles that will be polythene bag and
produced per minute. cover the whole
 Repeat the experiment plant with it.
using water with some Secure the bottom
Sodium Hydrogen by tying it with
Carbonate (NaHCO3) in elastic band
it count the average o X
number of bubbles of o Plant B: Repeat
oxygen released per the procedure but
minute. place sodium
 Discussion
Page 9 of 33
 hydrogen
carbonate
(NaHCO3) the
plastic container.
 Leave the set up in a
well lit part for several
hours. Detach leaves
from each set up and test
presence of starch
o X
 Discussion
 Sodium hydroxide
/potassium hydroxide)
absorb CO2 from the air.
The air in the bag in set-
up A becomes free of
CO2 after sometimes
photosynthesis will not
take place without
carbon iv oxide. As a
result no starch .test is
negative.
 In set B, NaHCO3slowly
breaks up to release
carbon iv oxide into the
air in the polythene bag.
Photosynthesis takes
place and produces
starch.
 This experiment shows
that carbon iv oxide is
needed for
photosynthesis to take
place. Set up B acts as
the control experiment.
Page 10 of 33
 Water
 Only about 1% of the
water taken in by plants
is used for
photosynthesis.
Therefore water shortage
only indirectly affects
the rate of
photosynthesis.
o Chlorophyll
 A high chlorophyll
content in a plant implies
a fast rate of
photosynthesis cannot
take place in a plant that
does not have
chlorophyll e.g. the
parasitic plant (dodder)
has no chlorophyll hence
cannot photosynthesis.
 Activity: To determine
whether chlorophyll is
necessary for
photosynthesis
 Expose the destarched
variegated plant to bright
sunlight for 3-4hours.
Detach a variegated leaf
from the plant and draw
it.
 Label the green part and
the white part. Test the
leaf for starch. Draw the
leaf after the teat and
 label the yellow/brown
parts and blue black part.
 Discussion
 A variegated leaf is one
whose surface shows
two colours e.g. green on
some parts and white on
the others.
 The green plant has cells
with chlorophyll so they
can photosynthesize and
form starch. This show a
positive test for starch.
This parts show positive
test for starch by turning
from brown to blue
black.
 The white part has cells
that do not have
chlorophyll. These cells
will not carry out
photosynthesis so no
starch will be formed.
 The green part of the
leaf acts as a control
experiment because it
has all the conditions
necessary for
photosynthesis.
 The process of
photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis occurs
through a series of
chemical reactions.
Page 11 of 33
These reactions can be
divided into main stages.
 The first stage requires
light energy and
therefore it’s called light
stage or the light
dependent stage.
 The second stage does
not require light energy
and therefore it’s called
the dark stage or the
light independent stage.
 The light stage
 It takes place in the
grana. During this stage
chlorophyll absorbs light
energy. This energy is
used in various ways.
 Some is used to split up
water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen
atoms This is known as
photolysis. i.e. photo
means light
Lysis means splitting ie

Hydrogen produced is
used in the dark stage.
 Some of the oxygen
formed is released from
the leaf through the
stomata. The rest is used
up in the plant cells.
 Some of the absorbed 6H2O +6CO2 light energy
sunlight energy is stored C6H12O6 + 6O2
and is used in dark stage. (Water) (Carbon IV oxide) (Chlorophyll)
 Some of the solar energy (Glucose) (Oxygen)
absorbed by chlorophyll End products of
molecules is used in the photosynthesis
formation of energy-
 some glucose is used in
rich Adenosine
respiration
Triphosphate (ATP).
 Some glucose is
This reaction involves
converted into starch for
conversion of light
storage
energy to chemical
 Some glucose is
energy.
converted into sucrose
 The dark stage
which is translocated to
 It takes place in the
other parts of the plant
stroma. It proceeds
 Some other glucose is
whether light is present
used in making cellulose
or not. This process
for the cell wall
involves combination of
 Fatty acids and glycerol
carbon IV oxide with
are combined to form
hydrogen atoms to form
oils and fats
simple sugar such as
 Amino acids are
glucose. This process is
converted to proteins
known as Carbon iv
 Oxygen is used by plants
Oxide fixation eg
 in respiration
 Excess oxygen is
released into the
The energy required for
atmosphere
this reaction is provided
 Chemical compounds
by ATP from light stage
which constitute living
reaction.
organisms
 The process of
 Cells, tissues and organs
photosynthesis is
are composed of
summarized by the
chemicals which are
following equation.
Page 12 of 33
 refered to as chemicals
of life
 Carbohydrates
 They are compounds of
Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO). The
elements are in the ratio
of 1Carbon, 2Hydrogen
and 1Oxygen. This gives
Carbohydrates a general
formula (CH2O)n where
‘n’ represents the
number of carbon atoms
a molecule of
Carbohydrate has.
 They are divided into;
 Monosaccharide
 They are the simplest
Carbohydrates and have
a general formula of
(CH2O)n where n =6
hence their chemical
formula is C6H12O6.
 Examples; Glucose,
Fructose, Galactose,
Ribose and Deoxyribose.
Monosaccharid Where
e found
Glucose Cell
cytoplasm,
blood of
vertebrates
Page 13 of 33
Fructose Ripe fruits
Ribose Nucleus
Deoxyribose Nucleus
 Properties of
Monosaccharide
 They are soluble in
water to form sweet
tasting solutions.
 When they are mixed
with Benedict’s solution
and heated, the copper
Sulphate is reduced to
red Copper i Oxide
hence described as
reducing sugars.
 They crystallize-
molecules of
Monosaccharide link
together to form
complex carbohydrate
molecules. This process
is called condensation.
In this reaction water
molecules are formed.
 Functions
 Some of them e.g.
glucose are used to
provide energy during
respiration.
 They are building units
for larger molecules eg
starch and cellulose in
 plants and glycogen in
animals
 (ii) Disaccharides
 It’s a double sugar
formed when two
monosaccharide
molecules combine. The
chemical process that
forms a Disaccharide
from two
monosaccharide is called
a condensation reaction.
In this process, a water
molecule is formed and
released e.g.
 Monosaccharide+
monosaccharide→
Disaccharide+water
 Glucose+
Fructose→Sucrose+Wat
er
Condensation
 Glucose+
Glucose→Maltose+Wat
er
 Condensation
 Glucose+
Galactose→Lactose+Wa
ter
Condensation
Disaccharide Where found
Page 14 of 33
Sucrose (Cane -Green plants
sugar) -
Commercially
extracted
from sugar-
cane and
sugar beet
Maltose (Malt In
sugar) germinating
barley
Lactose (Milk In milk of all
sugar) mammals
 Properties of
Disaccharide
 Soluble in water to
produce sweet tasting
solutions e.g. sugar-cane
juice is rich in sucrose.
 Some Disaccharide such
as sucrose cannot reduce
copper Sulphate in the
Benedict’s solution
unless they are first
broken down to their
constituent
monosaccharide.
Therefore known as
non-reducing sugars.
 Some Disaccharide such
as maltose reduces
 Copper Sulphate in eg sugar-cane and sugar
Benedict’s solution beet
when heated together  NB Reducing sugars
hence known as complex include;
reducing sugars.
 -All monosaccharide
 Disaccharide can readily
 -Maltose (Disaccharide).
be broken to their
 (iii) Polysaccharides
constituent
 They have a general
monosaccharide
formula of (C6H10O5)n
molecules in a process
where the value of n is
known as hydrolysis
very large
e.g.
 They are made up of
 Disaccharide+water→2
many monosaccharide
monosaccharide
molecules.
 Sucrose+Water→
 Examples
Glucose+ Fructose
 Starch
 Hydrolysis
 It’s present as stored
 Lactose+Water→
food in plant tissues. It’s
Glucose+ Galactose
formed by condensation
 Hydrolysis
of a large number of
 Maltose+Water→
monosaccharide (300-
Glucose+ Glucose
1000 Glucose units).
 Hydrolysis
 Cellulose
Functions  It exists as a component
 Disaccharides are of the cell wall in plants.
hydrolyzed by enzymes  It’s formed by
into monosaccharide condensation of a large
which are then oxidized number of
to release energy. monosaccharide (14000
 Sucrose is the main form Glucose units).
in which carbohydrates  It’s tough, fibrous and
are translocated in plants insoluble in water.
 Some plants store their Because of its fibrous
carbohydrates as sucrose nature, it’s used by man

Page 15 of 33
 to make cotton goods resistance to the muscles
and also used to make in the alimentary canal.
paper. This allows easy
 Glycogen movement of food in the
 It’s present as stored gut and prevents
carbohydrates in animal constipation.
tissues. It’s synthesized  Food tests for
from excess glucose. Carbohydrates
 It has about 30000 o Test for Starch
glucose units.  Requirements
 Properties of
Polysaccharides  Starch powder
 All are insoluble in  Test tube
water and do not have a  10cm3 measuring
sweet taste hence cylinder
referred to as non-  Iodine solution
sugars.  Dropper
 Functions of  Procedure
Carbohydrates  Put a spatula endful of
 As a source of energy starch in a Test tube, add
 Some Carbohydrates some water and shake.
such as glucose are  Add 3-4 drops of Iodine
broken down to provide solution using a Dropper
energy in the cell. and shake.
 As part of the structure  Observe the colour
in plant cell change and record your
o E.g. cellulose observations.
forms part of the  Observations
cell wall in plants.
 As roughage in humans o Colour changes to
 Foods of plant origin blue black.
such as vegetables and o Test for reducing
fruits are rich in sugar
cellulose and fibre. They  Requirements
provide bulk and
Page 16 of 33
 o Test tube  Non-reducing sugars do
o Glucose solution not react directly with
o Benedict’s solution Benedict’s reagent. They
o 10cm3 measuring are first hydrolyzed into
cylinder monosaccharide.
o Source of heat/hot  Requirements
water bath  Test tube
o White tile  Benedicts solution
 Procedure  10cm3 measuring
cylinder
 Put 2cm³ of Glucose
 Source of heat/hot water
solution in a Test tube.
bath
Add an equal amount of
 White tile
Benedict’s solution into
 Dilute Hcl acid
the Test tube.
 Sodium Hydrogen
 Note the colour of the
Carbonate
mixture.
 Sucrose solution
 Place the test tube in a
 Procedure
hot water bath and note
the colour changes.  Put 2cm³ of Sucrose
 Observations solution in a Test tube.
 Add a few drops of
 If colour changes to;
dilute Hydrochloric acid.
 Green- very little/
 Place the test tube in a
traces of reducing sugar
hot water bath for 3
is present in the solution.
minutes.
 yellow-average amount
 Remove the test tube and
of reducing sugar is
cool it in cold water.
present in the solution.
 Add Sodium Hydrogen
 Red/orange/brown- a
Carbonate solution drop
lot of reducing sugar is
by drop until fizzing
present in the solution.
stops.
o Test for non-
 Add 2 drops of
reducing sugar
Benedict’s solution to
the mixture. Place the
Page 17 of 33
 test tube in a hot water in plants
bath and observe the animals
colour change.
o NB (i) Dilute Hcl  Solid at  Liquid at
room room
acid hydrolyses
temperat temperat
and breaks down
ure ure
non-reducing sugar
to reducing sugar  Lipids are compounds of
 (ii) Sodium Hydrogen Carbon, Hydrogen and
Carbonate is used to Oxygen however, the
neutralize the acid. number of oxygen atoms
 The final colour can be is fewer in lipids than in
green, yellow or carbohydrates.
red/orange/brown which  The building units of
indicates presence of lipids are fatty acids and
reducing sugars after glycerol.
hydrolysis.  The synthesis of lipid
 (b) Lipids molecules requires 3
fatty acid molecules
 These are fats and oils.
condensing with one
 Fats  Oils
molecule of
 Found  Found in  glycerol e.g.

 The nature of lipids the glycerol is the same

depends on the fatty acid in all lipids.
it contains even though  Complex lipids are
formed by a

Page 18 of 33
 condensation process known as metabolic
e.g. phospholipids, water, which
waxes, steroids and supplements the
cholesterol. requirements in the
 Properties of lipids body. This is why
animals like camels
 When fats are heated
accumulate large
they readily change into
quantities of fat reserves
liquid while the oils
in their bodies.
solidify if subjected to
 They metabolize these
low temperatures.
fats to obtain the
 Both fat and oil are
metabolic water in
insoluble in water
addition to the energy
however; they readily
released.
dissolve in organic
 As structural
solvents such as alcohol,
compounds
ether and chloroform
forming emulsions and  They are constituents of
suspensions. plasma membrane and
 Lipids are quite inert protoplasm.
hence can be stored in  Oils are storage
the tissues of organisms. materials in some seeds
 Functions of lipids e.g. groundnuts, castor
 Lipids as a source of seed, maize grain etc.
energy  Heat insulation
 A given weight of a lipid  In animals, fat is
will liberate almost deposited under the skin
twice as much energy as where it forms the
an equivalent weight of a adipose tissue which acts
monosaccharide. as a heat insulator. In
 As a source of this way, fats assist to
metabolic water reduce heat loss from the
bodies of mammals.
 When oxidized, lipids
 Mammals living in
release energy and water
temperate regions have
Page 19 of 33
 thick adipose tissue o Grease spot test
which greatly reduces /translucent spot
the heat loss. Also the test
thick adipose tissue in  Requirements
some aquatic mammals
helps them to be buoyant  Vegetable oil/ olive oil/
in water. melted fat
 Protection  Filter paper
 Water
 Fat is deposited around  Procedure
the major organs such as
kidney, heart, at the back  Rub a little oil/ fat on a
of the eyeball where it filter paper. Let it dry.
acts as a shock absorber.  Hold the paper against
 Also wax in plant the light and observe
cuticles reduces what happens to the spot
excessive water loss. on which the oil was
 Testing for the presence applied.
of lipids  Repeat the procedure
o Sudan iii Test with a drop of water and
allow it to dry.
 Requirements
 Note the difference the
 Vegetable oil/ olive oil/ lipid and the water spots.
melted fat  Observations
 Test tube
 If a permanent
 Sudan iii dye
translucent spot is
 Procedure
formed, it indicates the
 Put 2cm3 of oil/melted presence of lipids.
fat in a Test tube and add o Emulsion test
a few drops of Sudan iii  Requirements
dye into the oil.
 Observations  Vegetable oil/ olive oil/
melted fat
 A red colour indicates  Test tube
the presence of lipids.

Page 20 of 33
 10cm3 measuring acids occurring
cylinder naturally.
 Alcohol  All amino acids contain
 Water amino group (NH2)
 Procedure which consists of
Nitrogen and Hydrogen,
 Put 2cm3 of oil/melted
but the number of carbon
fat in a Test tube
atoms differ from one
 Add 4cm3 of alcohol into
amino acid to another.
the oil and shake
 Proteins are referred to
thoroughly.
as Nitrogenous
 Transfer the contents of
compounds because of
the Test tube into
the presence of Nitrogen
another Test tube about
in their structure.
half full of water.
 Proteins are formed by
 Observations
the condensation. The
 Formation of white process involves
emulsion confirms the combinations of two
presence of lipids. amino acids to form a
o Proteins dipeptide molecule.
During this process,
 They compounds of water molecule is
Carbon, Hydrogen and formed. The two amino
Oxygen. They contain acids are joined by a
Nitrogen and sometimes force called a peptide
Sulphur or phosphorus. bond e.g.
 Some proteins such as 
haemoglobin also
contain elements like
iron.
 Proteins are made up
small units called amino  Continued condensation
acids. There are about 20 leads to the addition of
different types of amino more amino acids to a
protein chain, resulting
Page 21 of 33
 in a long protein chain detergents and organic
known as polypeptide solvents.
chain e.g.  Proteins have both acidic
and basic properties
hence are described as

amphoteric. This enables
them to react with acids
and bases. This property
enables proteins to
combine with non-
protein compounds to
form conjugated proteins
e.g. in mucus the non-
 The uniqueness of a protein compound is a
particular protein is carbohydrate while in
determined by the type haemoglobin the non-
and sequence of amino protein compound is
acids that it contains. iron.
 Properties of proteins  Functions of proteins
o Structural
 Most proteins dissolve in functions
water but do not form
true solutions. They  Proteins form of the
form colloidal structure of animal
suspension where tissue. They are found in
particles remain the form of;
suspended in water o -Keratin in hairs,
 Most proteins are horns and feathers
denatured at temperature  -Collagen in tendons and
above 40ºC. The heat ligaments
alters the structure of the  -Myosin in muscles
protein molecule. o Proteins are
Denaturing can also be functional units in
caused by chemicals plants and
such as acids, bases, animals
Page 22 of 33
 Some functional proteins
are;
 Enzymes
 These are proteins that
speed up the reactions in
plants and animals cells.
Reactions like
photosynthesis and
respiration proceed with
the help of enzymes
 Haemoglobin
 This protein is found in
red blood cells of
vertebrates. Its function
is to transport oxygen
from the lungs to the
other parts of the body.
 Hormones
 These proteins regulate
life processes in animals
e.g. insulin which
regulates the sugar level
in the body.
 Antibodies
 These are proteins that
provide the body with
the immunity against
diseases.
 Fibrinogen
 This protein is important
in the clotting of blood.
Page 23 of 33
o Proteins are
storage products
 Plants store excess
proteins in the seed
which are used by the
seed during germination.
 Mammals store some of
their protein in the form
of casein in milk.
o Source of proteins
 About 10 of the known
amino acids cannot not
be synthesized by the
human body and must be
obtained from the diet.
They are known as
essential amino acids.
 The body is able to
synthesize non-essential
amino acids using
compounds from the
various food substances.
These amino acids are
therefore not required in
the diet.
 Some proteins that we
eat contain all the
essential amino acids
hence called 1st class
proteins e.g. nearly all
animal proteins and
Soya beans.
 Other proteins lack one  Observation
or more of the essential
 Purple colour indicates
amino acids. They are
the presence of proteins.
called 2nd class proteins
 ENZYMES
e.g. most plant proteins
and a few animal  These are organic
proteins. catalysts which are
o As source of protein in nature. They
energy are produced in living
cells.
 Proteins are normally
 As catalysts they speed
used as a source of
up or slow down the rate
energy in conditions of
of chemical reaction in
starvation.
the body without
 Test for proteins
themselves being used
 Requirements
up.
 Milk /albumen  There are two types of
 Test tube enzymes;
 10% NaOH  Intracellular enzymes-
 1% CUSO4 they are secreted and
 Droppers used within the cells
 Procedure which produce them e.g.
respiratory enzymes.
 Put 2cm³ of albumen /  Extracellular enzymes-
milk solution in a test Are produced within the
tube. cells but used outside the
 Into the test tube add an cells which produced
equal amount of 10% them e.g. digestive
NaOH solution and enzymes.
shake.  Naming of enzymes
 Into the mixture above,  Trivial naming- This
add a few drops of 1% method involves names
CUSO4 solution drop by given to the enzymes by
drop shaking well after the people who
each drop. discovered them. The
Page 24 of 33
 names end in-in e.g.  Enzymes are protein in
pepsin, trypsin. nature. They are
 Use of suffix-ase therefore affected by
 This is the modern temperature and PH.
method of naming  Enzymes are substrate-
enzymes. The suffix-ase specific.
is added to the substrate  Enzymes are efficient in
(type of food) or the small amounts since they
reaction which the are not affected by the
enzyme catalyses e.g. reactions they catalyze.
They can be used again
Substrate Enzyme and again.
Carbohydrate Carbohydrase  They are catalysts that
speed up the rate of
Starch e.g. Amylase cellular reactions. They
amylase are not used up in the
Sucrose Sucrase reactions they catalyze.
 Many of these enzyme-
Maltose Maltase catalyzed reactions are
Protein Protease reversible.
 Factors which affect
Lipids Lipase enzyme- catalyzed
reactions
 The following are some  Temperature
of the examples of  Enzymes are protein in
enzymes which catalyze nature hence they are
certain reactions. sensitive to changes in
Reaction Enzyme temperature.
Hydrolysis Hydrolase  The best temperature
(optimum temperature)
Oxidation Oxidase of an enzyme is 35-40ºC
Reduction Reductase e.g.

 Properties of enzymes

Page 25 of 33
 water (ptyalin/salivary
 From the graph above,
the rate of enzyme
reaction increases with
increase in temperature
up to optimum
temperature (35-40ºC).
Any further increase in
temperature above the
optimum leads to a
decrease in enzyme
reaction because
enzymes are denatured
(destroyed).
 NB Low temperature
does not denature
enzyme but it inactivates
the enzymes.
 Activity1; To
investigate the effect of
temperature on enzyme
activities
 Requirements
 Saliva obtained after
rinsing the mouth with
Page 26 of 33
amylase).
 Starch solution (2cm3)
 Test tubes
 Beaker
 Water bath
 Burner
 Iodine solution
 Benedict’s solution
 Labels
 Measuring cylinder
 Thermometer
 Procedure
 Place 2cm³ each of starch
solution into 3 different
test tubes 1-3.
 To each test tube add
1cm3 of saliva/ptyalin
enzyme.
 Immerse the 1st test tube
into a beaker of cold
water (preferably with
ice cubes)
 Put the 2nd test tube in a
water bath maintained at
37ºC.
 Boil the contents of the
3rd test tube.
 Test the contents of each
test tube with iodine and
Benedict’s; solutions.
Record your
observations in the table
below
Test Test with iodine Test with Benedict’s
tube after adding solution after 20 mins
enzyme
Observa Conclusi Observa Conclusion
tion on tion
Cold Blue Starch No Reducing
water( black present- colour sugar absent
0°C) enzyme change-
inactivat Colour
ed remains
blue
Water Brown Starch Orange Reducing
bath absent- sugar
at ideal present
37°C temperat
ure for
enzyme
Boile Blue Starch No Reducing
d black present- colour sugar absent
conte enzyme change
nts denature -Colour
d remains
blue

had been inactivated by
the low temperature
 Explanation
(0ºC).
 Test tube A- Starch was
 Test tube B- Reducing
present because it had
sugar present. Starch
not been broken down to
(polypeptide) was
maltose. The enzyme
Page 27 of 33
 broken down by enzyme
to reducing sugar
(maltose). The
temperature was ideal
for the working of the
enzyme.
 Test tube C- Starch
present because it had
not been broken down
by enzyme. The
temperature was too
high hence denatured the
enzyme.
 PH
 It refers to the acidity or
alkalinity of a substance.
Most enzymes have
optimum PH close to 7.
 However, some enzymes
work best in alkaline
conditions. Extreme
acidity or alkalinity
denatures the enzymes.
 Activity11; To
investigate the effect of
PH on enzyme
activities
 Requirements
 Saliva obtained after
rinsing the mouth with
water
 Starch solution (2cm3
 Test tubes
Page 28 of 33
 Dilute Hcl (1cm3)
 Dilute NaOH (1cm3)
 Water
 Water bath
 Burner
 Iodine solution
 Benedicts solution
 Labels
 Procedure
 Place 5cm3 each of starch
solution into 3 test tubs.
 To test tube 1 add 1cm3
of dil. Hcl and shake.
Add 1cm3 of the enzyme
ptyalin and shake.
 To test tube 2 add 1cm3
of dil. NaOH and shake.
Add 1cm3 of the enzyme
ptyalin and shake
 To test tube 3 add 1cm3
of water and shake. Add
1cm3 of the enzyme
ptyalin and shake
 Place the labeled test
tubes into a water bath
maintained at 37C for 20
mins.
 Test the contents of the
test tubes for the
presence of starch and
reducing sugar. Record
your observations and
conclusions in the table
below.
Test tube Test with iodine Test with Benedict’s
after adding solution after 20 mins
enzyme
Observa Conclusi Observa Conclusion
tion on tion
Dil Blue Starch No Reducing
Hcl+starch+pt black present- colour sugar absent
yalin unsuitabl change-
e pH Colour
remains
blue
Dil Brown Starch yellow Reducing
NaOH+starch absent- sugar
+ptyalin ideal pH present
for
enzyme
Water Blue Starch No Reducing
+starch+ptyali black present- colour sugar absent
n unsuitabl change
e pH -Colour
remains
blue

Observation  Enzymes are specific in

nature. A particular
 Ptyalin is an enzyme
enzyme will only act on
found in saliva. It
a particular substrate eg
converts starch to
salivary amylase
maltose. The PH of
(ptyalin) will only speed
saliva is 7. The enzyme
up the breakdown of
works best in a slightly
starch to maltose.
alkaline medium.
 Specificity
Page 29 of 33
 Substrate enzyme –
concentration and controlled reaction.
enzyme concentration o Graph B- Shows
 When the substrate the effect of
concentration is increased enzyme
increased, the rate of concentration on
enzyme reaction also the rate of an
increases up to a certain enzyme –
level. However, further controlled reaction
increase in Substrate o Enzyme co-
concentration does not factors and co-
increase the rate of enzymes
enzyme reaction. This is
because all the active  Co-factors are non-
sites of the enzyme are proteinous substances
occupied. When the which activate the
enzyme molecules are enzymes. Some of the
increased, there is a co-factors are metallic
proportional increase in ions such as those of
maximum rate of iron, magnesium, zinc,
enzyme action. copper while others are
vitamins.
 Co-enzymes are organic
non-protein molecules
that work in association
with particular enzymes.
Many co-enzymes are
 derived from vitamins.
o Graph A- Shows  Enzyme inhibitors
the effect of  Inhibition occurs when
increasing action of an enzyme is
substrate slowed down by another
concentration on substance called
the rate of an inhibitors. The inhibitor
competes with the

Page 30 of 33
 normal substrate for the enzyme molecules thus
active sites. In other blocking the active sites
cases, the inhibitor takes and this prevents the
up the active site of the enzyme from interacting
enzyme permanently. with the substrate.
 Competitive inhibitors  Such inhibitors include
 This is where both poisons such as
substrate and inhibitor cyanides, mercury and
molecules are competing silver-arsenic
for the active sites so compounds.
that the action of the  Importance of enzymes
enzyme is slowed down.  They speed up cellular
 The inhibitor is not reactions so that they
normally affected by the proceed at a pace that is
enzyme so it stays in the appropriate for
active site longer than sustaining life.
the substrate. This type  Enzymes control cellular
of inhibition has no reactions and this
permanent effect on the prevents violent
enzyme action. The incidents in the cell.
inhibition they cause can  Activity1; To
be overcome either by investigate the presence
increasing the substrate of enzymes in living
concentration or tissues
reducing the  Requirements
concentration of the
 Test tubes
inhibitor.
 Labels
 Non-competitive
 Measuring cylinder
inhibitors
 Hydrogen peroxide
 They are called non-
 Liver
competitive inhibitors
 Muscle tissue
because they do not
 Potato
compete with the
 Water bath
substrate. They combine
 Source of heat
permanently with the
Page 31 of 33
  Procedure glowing splint into the
 Label 4 test tubes A, B, mouth of the test tube.
C and D.  Repeat step III using
 Measure 2cm3 of muscle tissue (in test
Hydrogen peroxide and tube B) and a potato (in
put in test tube A. test tube C).
Repeat the same  Repeat step III using
procedure for test tube B boiled liver (in test tube
and C. D) and make sure that
 Cut a small piece of liver the liver is thoroughly
and place in test tube A. boiled for about 5 mins.
Immediately introduce a Tabulate your results
e.g.
Test tube Observation Conclusion
A-Hydrogen - glowing splint A lot of catalase
peroxide+ raw bursts into flame enzyme present
liver -Vigorous production
of
bubbles/froth/foam
B-Hydrogen -Relights glowing Medium amount of
peroxide+ muscle splint catalase enzyme
tissue -A lot of bubbles present
produced/froth/foam
C-Hydrogen -Relights glowing Little amount of
peroxide+ potato splint catalase enzyme
- low production of present
bubbles/froth/foam
D- Hydrogen -No production of Enzymes denatured by
peroxide+ boiled bubbles boiling
liver

Page 32 of 33
 Discussion
 Living things contain an
enzyme called catalase
which breaks down
hydrogen peroxide to water
and oxygen. The oxygen
produced relights a glowing
splint i.e.
 2H2O2 → 2H2O
+ O2
 Hydrogen peroxide catalase water
oxygen


Page 33 of 33