“SYNTHETIC POLYMER”

CHEMISTRY PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED BY
A B RITHISH
GRADE:XII

THE INDIAN PUBLIC SCHOOL

ERODE - 638112
2022-2023
CERTIFICATE
 CERTIFICATE

This to certify that the project work entitled “SYNTHETIC

POLYMER” is the bonafide record of work done by A B
RITHISH., Exam No: in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of the 12 th standard during the
academic year 2022-2023.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

PRINCIPAL
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am overwhelmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to

acknowledge my indebtedness to my family and friends who
helped me put these ideas together.

I am thankful to my guide Mr. Rajasekhar B C for his

valuable help. He was always there to show me a right track
when I needed his help. With his valuable suggestion of the
project topic and his guidance with his encouragement I was
able to execute this project well.
CONTENTS
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

Many of the substances we use in everyday life are made from

“Polymer” chains. A polymer is a very long molecule made
up of many smaller molecules called monomers.

There are two types of polymers: Natural and synthetic.

Natural polymers can be found in living creatures and plants;
for example, silk, protein, cotton, linen, wool and DNA.
Synthetic polymers, as their name indicates, are synthesized in
the lab through a series of chemical reactions. Examples of
such polymers are polyvinylchloride, polypropylene, chewing
gum, rubber and nylon. A composition of two or more
polymers may create a new polymer with enhanced properties
and more beneficial than the initial compounds.

Synthetic polymers can have various industrial uses and

applications, but at the same time may be harmful to the
environment. Therefore, it will be very beneficial if, through
the combination of other polymers, we can produce a new
polymer that has practical uses and is environmentally
friendly at the same time.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic
polymers, more specifically aliphatic or semi-aromatic
polyamides. They can be melt-processed into fibers, films or
shapes. The first example of nylon (nylon 6,6) was produced
on February 28, 1935, by Wallace Carothersat DuPont's
research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station. Nylon
polymers have found significant commercial applications in
fibers (apparel, flooring and rubber reinforcement), in shapes
(molded parts for cars, electrical equipment, etc.), and in films
(mostly for food packaging).

Nylon is a thermoplastic, silky material, first used

commercially in a nylon-bristled toothbrush , followed more
famously by women's stockings after being introduced as
a fabric at the 1939 New York World's Fair. Nylon is made
of repeating units linked by peptide bonds and is a type
of polyamide and is frequently referred to as such. Nylon was
the first commercially successful synthetic thermoplastic
polymer. Commercially, nylon polymer is made by reacting
monomers which are either lactams, acid/amines or
stoichiometric mixtures of diamines (-NH2) and diacids (-
COOH). Mixtures of these can be polymerized together to
make copolymers. Nylon polymers can be mixed with a wide
variety of additives to achieve many different property
variations.

Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and

substituted for it in many different products after silk became
scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military
applications such as parachutes and flak vests, and was used
in many types of vehicle tires.

After initial commercialization of nylon as a fiber,

applications in the form of shapes and films were also
developed. The main market for nylon shapes now is in auto
components, but there are many others.

CHEMISTRY OF NYLON

Nylons are condensation co-polymers, formed by reacting

difunctional monomers containing equal parts
of amine and carboxylic acid, so thatamides are formed at
both ends of each monomer in a process analogous
to polypeptide biopolymers. Most nylons are made from the
reaction of a dicarboxylic acid with a diamine (e.g. PA66) or
a lactam or amino acid with itself (e.g. PA6). In the first case,
the structure is so-calledABAB similar
topolyesters and polyurethanes: the "repeating unit" consists
of one of each monomer, so that they alternate in the chain.
Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive
group on both ends, the direction of the amide bond reverses
between each monomer, unlike naturalpolyamide proteins,
which have overall directionality: C terminal → N terminal.
In the second case (so called AA), the repeating unit
corresponds to the single monomer.

Wallace Carothers at DuPont patented nylon 6,6, but

overlooked the possibility to use lactams. That synthetic route
was developed by Paul Schlack at IG Farben, leading
to nylon 6, or polycaprolactam — formed by a ring-opening
polymerization. The peptide bond within the caprolactam is
broken with the exposedactive groups on each side being
incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes
part of the polymer backbone.

The 428 °F (220 °C) melting point of nylon 6 is lower than

the 509 °F (265 °C) melting point of nylon 6,6.

Nylon 510, made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic

acid, was studied by Carothers even before nylon 66 and has
superior properties, but is more expensive to make. In keeping
with this naming convention, "nylon 6,12" or "PA 612" is a
copolymer of a 6C diamine and a 12C diacid. Other nylons
include copolymerized dicarboxylic acid/diamine products
that are not based upon the monomers listed above. In general
linear polymers are the most useful, but it is possible to
introduce branches in nylon by the condensation of
dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or
more amino groups

The general reaction is:

Two molecules of water are given off and the nylon is formed.

Its properties are determined by the R and R' groups in the
monomers. In nylon 6,6, R = 4C and R' = 6C alkanes, but one
also has to include the two carboxyl carbons in the diacid to
get the number it donates to the chain. In Kevlar, both R and
R' are benzene rings.
Industrial synthesis is usually done by heating the acids,
amines or lactams to remove water, but in the laboratory,
diacid chlorides can be reacted with diamines. For example, a
popular demonstration of interfacial polymerization is the
synthesis of nylon 66 from adipoyl chloride and
hexamethylene diamine.

CHARACTERISTICS:

The characteristic features of nylon 6,6 include:

 Pleats and creases can be heat-set at higher temperatures

 More compact molecular structure
 Better weathering properties; better sunlight resistance
 Softer "Hand"
 High melting point (256 °C/492.8 °F)
 Superior colorfastness
 Excellent abrasion resistance

 On the other hand, nylon 6 is easy to dye, more readily

fades; it has a higher impact resistance, a more rapid
moisture absorption, greater elasticity and elastic
recovery.

 Variation of lustre: nylon has the ability to be very

lustrous, semi lustrous or dull.
 Durability: its high tenacity fibers are used for seatbelts,
tire cords, ballistic cloth and other uses.
 High elongation
 Excellent abrasion resistance
 Highly resilient (nylon fabrics are heat-set)
 Paved the way for easy-care garments
 High resistance to insects, fungi, animals, as well as
molds, mildew, rot and many chemicals
 Used in carpets and nylon stockings
 Melts instead of burning
 Used in many military applications
  Good specific strength
 Transparent to infrared light (−12 dB)

USES OF NYLON

 FABRIC

Perhaps the most important characteristic of nylon is that it

can be made into strong fibers.  When these are woven
together a silky, lightweight fabric is produced.  Nylon was
introduced as a fabric during the 1939 New York World’s Fair
and by 1940 was used to make women’s stockings.  Nylon
fabric became important as a synthetic substitute for silk in
the manufacture of parachutes when silk became scarce
during WWII.  Nylon is still used today to make parachute
canopies due to its elasticity, strength, and resistance to
mildew, availability and price.  However, the use of nylon
fibers does not stop with the fabric.  Harness straps and
suspension lines are also made from nylon fibers as well as
tents, sleeping bags, sails, rope, tennis strings, fishing poles
and lines, etc.
Today nylon is the most common fiber for textiles and it is
one of the strongest and most common fabrics on the market.
It can be easily dyed so textiles can be made in a rainbow of
colors. It is known to drape well and is used extensively in
apparel.  Nylon fabric is used in an almost countless number
of items:  book bags, back packs, flak jackets, wedding gowns
and bridal veils, athletic shoes, ponchos, umbrellas, camera
cases, swimsuits, socks, gloves, hats, luggage, and much
more.

 COOKWARE
Nylon is used in cookware since it has a relatively high
continuous service temperature. These include spatulas,
slotted spoons, turners, forks, tongs, brushes, etc.   Easy to
dye, nylon cookware can be color co-ordinated with kitchen
decor.  Nylon cooking tools are gentle on non-stick surfaces. 
Companies such as OXO and Caphalon have used nylon for
their cookware products.

  PLASTIC FASTENERS AND MACHINE PARTS

Nylon is used for for making plastic machine parts as it is low
cost and long lasting.  It is often commonly used in the
electronics industry for its non-conductivity and heat
resistance.   It is used for screws, bolts, washers and nuts as
well ascircuit board hardware.  Parts made of nylon are often
used in mechanisms that rotate or slide due its low coefficient
of friction. It is used to make bearings for the appliance
industry because of its excellent abrasion resistance.  
FIBREGLASS

Fiberglass  is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the

reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber
may be randomly arranged, flattened into a sheet ,or woven
into a fabric. Theplasticmatrix may be a thermosetting
plastic – most oftenepoxy,polyester resin – or vinylester, or
athermoplastic.

The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending

upon the fiberglass use. These glasses all contain silica or
silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium,
magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass,
glass fibers have to be made with very low levels of defects.

Fiberglass is a strong lightweight material and is used for

many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as
composites based on carbon fiber, it is less brittle, and its raw
materials are much cheaper. Its bulk strength and weight are
also better than many metals, and it can be more readily
molded into complex shapes. Applications of fiberglass
include aircraft, boats, automobiles, bath tubs and
enclosures, swimming pools, hot tubs, septic tanks, water
tanks, roofing, pipes, cladding, casts, surfboards, and external
door skins.

Other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced

plastic (GRP), glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) or GFK

 (from German: Glasfaserverstärkter Kunststoff). Because

glass fiber itself is sometimes referred to as "fiberglass", the
composite is also called "fiberglass reinforced plastic." This
article will adopt the convention that "fiberglass" refers to the
complete glass fiber reinforced composite material, rather
than only to the glass fiber within it.

PROPERTIES

An individual structural glass fiber

is both stiff and strong in tension and compression—that
is, along its axis. Although it might be assumed that the fiber
is weak in compression, it is actually only the long aspect
ratio of the fiber which makes it seem so; i.e., because a
typical fiber is long and narrow, it buckles easily. On the other
hand, the glass fiber is weak in shear—that is, across its axis.
Therefore, if a collection of fibers can be arranged
permanently in a preferred direction within a material, and if
they can be prevented frombuckling in compression, the
material will be preferentially strong in that direction.

Furthermore, by laying multiple layers of fiber on top of one

another, with each layer oriented in various preferred
directions, the material's overall stiffness and strength can be
efficiently controlled. In fiberglass, it is the plastic matrix
which permanently constrains the structural glass fibers to
directions chosen by the designer. With chopped strand mat,
this directionality is essentially an entire two-dimensional
plane; with woven fabrics or unidirectional layers,
directionality of stiffness and strength can be more precisely
controlled within the plane.

A fiberglass component is typically of a thin "shell"

construction, sometimes filled on the inside with structural
 foam, as in the case of surfboards. The component may be of
nearly arbitrary shape, limited only by the complexity and
tolerances of the mold used for manufacturing the shell.

TABLE OF SOME
Material Specific Tensile Compressive
gravity strength strength

Polyester resin (Not reinforced) 1.28 55 (7.98) 140 (20.3)

Polyester and Chopped Strand Mat 1.4 100 (14.5) 150 (21.8)
Laminate 30% E-glass

Polyester and Woven Rovings 1.6 250 (36.3) 150 (21.8)

Laminate 45% E-glass

Polyester and Satin Weave Cloth 1.7 300 (43.5) 250 (36.3)
Laminate 55% E-glass

Polyester and Continuous Rovings 1.9 800 (116) 350 (50.8)

Laminate 70% E-glass

E-Glass Epoxy composite 1.99 1,770 (257)

S-Glass Epoxy composite 1.95 2,358 (342)

USES OF FIBREGLASS

 Pole vaulting poles

 Equipment handles
 Traffic lights
 Ship hulls
 Rowing shells and oars
 Waterpipes
 Helicopter rotor blades
 Surfboards, tent poles
 Gliders, kit cars, microcars, karts, bodyshells, kayaks, flat
roofs, lorries
 Pods, domes and architectural features where a light weight
is necessary
 High-end bicycles
 Auto body parts and entire auto bodies
 Antenna covers and structures, such as radomes, UHF
broadcasting antennas, and pipes used in hex beam
antennas for amateur radio communications
 FRP tanks and vessels: FRP is used extensively to
manufacture chemical equipment and tanks and
vessels. BS4994 is a British standard related to this
application.
 Most commercial velomobiles
 Most printed circuit boards consist of alternating layers of
copper and fiberglass FR-4
 Large commercial wind turbine blades
 RF coils used in MRI scanners
 Drum Sets
 Sub-sea installation protection covers
 Reinforcement of asphalt pavement, as a fabric or mesh
interlayer between lifts[15]
 Helmets and other protective gear used in various sports
 Orthopedic casts[16]
 Fiberglass grating is used for walkways on ships and oil
rigs, and in factories
 Fibre-reinforced composite columns
 Water slides
BAKELITE

Bakelite or polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride, is an
early plastic. It is a thermosetting phenol formaldehyde resin,
formed from a condensation reaction of phenol with
formaldehyde.

It was developed by the Belgian-American chemist Leo

Baekeland in New York in 1907.
One of the first plastics made from synthetic components,
Bakelite was used for its electrical nonconductivity and heat-
resistant properties in electrical insulators, radio and telephone
casings and such diverse products as kitchenware, jewellery,
pipe stems, children's toys, and firearms. The "retro" appeal of
old Bakelite products has made them collectible.

Bakelite was designated a National Historic Chemical

Landmark on November 9, 1993 by the American Chemical
Society in recognition of its significance as the world's first
synthetic plastic.

PREPARATION OF BAKELITE

Making Bakelite was a multi-stage process. It began with the

heating of phenol and formaldehyde in the presence of a
catalyst such as hydrochloric acid, zinc chloride, or the
base ammonia. This created a liquid condensation product,
referred to as Bakelite A, which was soluble in alcohol,
acetone, or additional phenol. Heated further, the product
became partially soluble and could still be softened by heat.
Sustained heating resulted in an "insoluble hard gum".
However, the high temperatures required to create this tended
to cause violent foaming of the mixture, which resulted in the
cooled material being porous and breakable. Baekeland's
innovative step was to put his "last condensation product" into
an egg-shaped "Bakelizer". By heating it under pressure, at
about 150 °C, Baekeland was able to suppress the foaming
that would otherwise occur. The resulting substance was
extremely hard and both infusable and insoluble.

PROPERTIES
 Phenol- formaldehyde resins having low degree of
polymerization are soft. They possess excellent adhesive
properties and are usually used as bonding glue for
laminated wooden planks and in varnishes and lackuers.
 Phenol- formaldehyde resins having high degree of
polymerization are hard, rigid, scratch-resistant and
infusible. They are resistant to non-oxidising acids, salts
and many organic solvents. They can withstand very
high temperatures. They act as excellent electrical
insulators also.
USES OF BAKELITE
 They are used for making moulded articles such as radio
and TV parts, combs, fountain pen barrels, phonograph
records etc.
 They are used for making decorative laminates, wall
coverings etc.
 They are used for making electrical goods such as
switches, plugs etc.
 They are used for impregnating fabrics wood and paper.
 They are used as bonding glue for for laminated wooden
planks and in varnishes and lackuers.
 Sulphonated phenol-formaldehyde resins are use as ion-
exchange resins.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 MATERIALS AND METHODS

EXPERIMENT
AIM:
To prepare phenol formaldehyde resin. (Bakelite) and
determine the optimum temperature and analyse the property.

CHEMICALS USED:
Glacial acetic acid, 40% formaldehyde solution, Phenol,
conc. H2SO4.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Glass rod, beakers, funnel, measuring cylinder, dropper
and filterpaper.

PRINCIPLE:
Phenol formaldehyde resins (PFs) are condensation polymers
and are obtained bycondensing phenol with formaldehyde in
the presence of an acidic or alkaline catalyst. They were first
prepared by Backeland, an American Chemist who gave
them the name as Bakelite. These are thermosetting
polymers.
PREPARATION:
PFs are prepared by reaction of phenol with formaldehyde in
the presence of acidic orbasic catalyst. The process may be
carried out as follows:
A mixture of phenol and formaldehyde are allowed to react in
the presence of a catalyst. The process involves formation of
methylene bridges in ortho, para or both ortho and para
positions. This results first in the formation of linear polymer
and then in to cross-linked polymer called phenol-
formaldehyde resin or Bakelite.

PROCEDURE:
 Place 5ml of glacial acetic acid and 2.5ml of 40%
formaldehyde solution in a 500ml beaker and add 2
grams of phenol.
 Add few ml of conc. Sulphuric acid into the mixture
carefully. With in 5 min. a large mass of plastic is
formed.
 The residue obtained is washed several times with
distilled water, and filtered product is dried and yield
is calculated.
Precautions:
The reaction is sometimes vigorous and it is better to be
little away from the beaker while adding conc. HCl.
Phenol should be stirred in the formaldehyde solution for
at least10 mints to make it a saturated solution.
Conc. hydrochloric acid should be added drop wise carefully.

For determining the optimum temperature

 First make the Phenol-formaldehyde reaction mixture by
mixing 25 g 36-40% formaldehyde + 20 g phenol+ 55
mL glacial acetic acid.
 Under a hood, measure 25 mL of the phenol-
formaldehyde reaction mixture into a 150-mL beaker.
 Place the beaker on a white paper towel. Add 10 mL of
concentrated hydrochloric acid, slowly, with stirring.
 Add additional hydrochloric acid, dropwise, with
stirring. (You will need approximately 2 mL of HCl.)
 As the polymerization point is reached, a white
precipitate will form and dissolve.
 At the point where polymerization begins, the white
precipitate will not dissolve.
 Continue to stir as the plastic forms and becomes pink in
color.
 Wash the plastic well before handling
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

 The weight of the phenol formaldehyde resin is __5_ g.

For Determining Optimum Temperature

PROPERTY ANALYSIS
CONCLUSION
 CONCLUSION
Phenol- formaldehyde resins having low degree of
polymerization are soft. They possess excellent adhesive
properties and are usually used as bonding glue for laminated
wooden planks and in varnishes and lacquers. Phenol-
formaldehyde resins having high degree of polymerization
are hard, rigid, scratch-resistant and infusible. They are
resistant to non-oxidizing acids, salts and many organic
solvents. They can withstand very high temperatures. They
act as excellent electrical insulators also. They are used for
making moulded articles such as radio and TV parts, combs,
fountain pen barrels, phonograph records etc. They are used
for making decorative laminates, wall coverings etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite

 http://www.khalidshadid.com/uploads/3/9/2/0/3920808/

phenol_formaldehyde_resin._bakelite.pdf

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberglass

 https://polymerizationchem.wordpress.com/introduction/