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Chemistry f1
Chemistry f1
Chemistry f1
O’LEVEL
Grade 10 − 12
GCSE, GCE
NSWANA CHING’AMBU
i
The Authorship and Career Network
‘Impossibility Our Possibility’
Nswana Ching’ambu
asserts the moral right as an author
First edition
ISBN: 978-9982-913-16-4
ii
To the students
Ace Education Book Series aims at giving detailed material in the simplest way to help students
understand and recall information easily. The books also highlight the importance and application of each
topic in real life so that students can understand why they are learning the material, how the material relates to
or can be used in real life.
Ace Education Chemistry O’level consists of 19 units. Each unit begins with the introduction and
overview of the unit, and ends with the review questions and solutions. To fully benefit, students are
advised to cover everything in each unit considered. Students can also learn more from our social media
platforms. On these platforms, students can find additional information, ask questions or participate in
helping other students.
With full confidence, this book will help a number of students, not just by boosting their scores, but also to
understand Chemistry Ordinary Level.
Ace Education
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
iv
1.0 PARTICULATE NATURE OF
MATTER
Introduction
All the things in the world are made up of matter. This book, the pen in your hands, your cellphone, computer,
the air we breathe, the food we eat, etc. are all made up of matter. Even our bodies, bodies of animals, plants
and stones, all consist of matter.
How do we know the properties and how matter interact with each other? It is by studying chemistry!
Chemistry is the study of matter, its composition, properties and how matters interact with each other.
So why study chemistry? As previously stated, all objects around us are made up of matter. By studying
chemistry, we come to know the composition and properties of substances and objects around us. For
example, we understand why sugar dissolves in water, but cooking oil does not, why petrol is used to power
cars, how plastics are made, etc. Chemistry is also applied in other fields such as biology, physics, medicine
and engineering.
This book introduces you to introductory chemistry. The first unit covers the states of matter. Matter is
anything that has mass and occupies space. There are states of matter, namely, solid, liquid and gas. What
happens when matter gains or loses heat? Why do we smell food from afar? This unit covers these and many
more questions.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ State the kinetic theory of matter
❖ State the physical properties and arrangement of particles in:
• Solid
• Liquid
• Has
❖ Describe the following change of states of matter:
• Melting
• Boiling
• Condensation
• Freezing
• Sublimation
• Deposition
❖ Diffusion:
• Define diffusion
• Describe the diffusion in gas
• Describe the diffusion in liquid
• Describe the factors that affect the rate of diffusion
• The state of matter of a substance depends on the arrangement and movement of particles of that
substance.
1. SOLID
❖ Physical properties of solid:
• Solids have a fixed shape and volume.
• Solids are incompressible.
• Solids do not flow.
• Solids have high density.
2. LIQUID
❖ Physical properties of liquid:
• Liquids have a fixed volume.
• Liquids have no fixed shape.
• Liquids are incompressible.
• Liquids have high density.
3. GAS
❖ Physical properties of gas:
• Gases have no fixed volume or shape.
• Gases are compressible.
• Gases have low density.
2. BOILING
• Boiling is the change of state from liquid to gas.
• Particles in a liquid state gain heat energy and move randomly at high speed. Therefore,
this results in particles being further apart, changing the state of a substance to a gas.
• Particles with high kinetic energy escape from the liquid as gas.
• The temperature required to change a liquid substance to gas is called boiling point.
• Substances have different boiling points. Water boils at 100oC.
• The change of state from liquid to gas below the substance boiling point is called
evaporation.
• Evaporation occurs at the surface of a liquid.
3. CONDENSATION
• Condensation is the change of state from gas to liquid.
• Gas particles lose heat energy. As a result, they reduce their vibration and move closer to
each other, changing the substance's state from gas to liquid.
• The temperature required to change gas to liquid is called condensation point.
• Substances condense at different temperatures.
• Water condenses at 100oC, same as its boiling point.
4. FREEZING
• Freezing is the change of state from liquid to solid.
• Particles in liquid substances lose heat energy. As a result, they reduce their vibration and
become tightly packed forming a solid state.
• The temperature required to change liquid to gas is called freezing point.
• Substances freeze at different temperatures.
• Water freeze at 0oC; same as its melting point.
1.3 DIFFUSION
• Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
• During diffusion, particles spread evenly to fill the environment.
• Because of diffusion, we can smell substances from afar. When we smell food, for example, the
scent of the food spread from the pan and are picked up by our nose.
❖ GAS DIFFUSION
• EXPERIMENT: DIFFUSION OF BROMINE GAS
➢ SET UP
i. Place bromine gas into a gas jar and
cover it immediately.
ii. Place another gas jar on top of a jar
with bromine.
ii. Remove the cover.
➢ RESULTS
• Reddish-brown bromine vapour spread
throughout both jar after some time.
➢ EXPLANATION
• Bromine moves from the lower gas jar, a place of higher bromine concentration, to the
upper gas jar, a place of lower bromine concentration.
• Air particles move from the upper gas jar, a place of higher air concentration, to the
lower gas jar, a place of lower air concentration.
➢ RESULTS
• Potassium permanganate crystals
dissolve.
• Pink colour spread throughout the water.
➢ EXPLANATION
• Potassium permanganate particles move from the region of higher concentration to lower
concentration.
• Colour spread throughout shows an even distribution of potassium permanganate
throughout the water.
2. TEMPERATURE
• The higher the temperature the faster the rate of diffusion.
• Higher temperature increases the movement of particles, therefore increasing the rate of
diffusion.
• Lower temperature decreases particle movement, decreasing the rate of diffusion.
4. SOLVENT DENSITY
• The denser the solvent, the slower the rate of diffusion.
• This is so because diffusing particles have much difficulty passing through a denser medium
than a less dense medium.
A. Why do you think the white cloud is formed nearer to the concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl)?
B. Name two other factors that will affect the rate of diffusion.
C. Will the location of the white cloud be affected if the experiment is repeated with double the amount
of hydrochloric acid, HCl? Explain why?
23. i. Solids have a fixed shape because particles in them are in a fixed position and tightly packed.
Though they vibrate, they cannot move from one part of the solid to another.
ii. Liquids flow because particles in them are farther apart and can move about.
iii. Gases can be compressed because there are large empty spaces between their particles. Therefore
particles can be brought closer by compressing the gas.
25. A. White cloud of ammonium chloride is formed near hydrochloric acid because the molecular
weight of ammonia is lower than that of hydrochloric acid. As lighter particles diffuse faster
than heavier ones, ammonia particles diffuse faster than hydrochloric acid particles.
B. Concentration of ammonia and hydrochloric acid and temperature.
C. Yes. Doubling the amount of hydrochloric acid increases its particle diffusion, the white cloud
can be formed near ammonia.
26. A. i. Methane
ii. Sulphur dioxide
B. Nitrogen and carbon monoxide
C. Hydrogen gas
Introduction
Chemistry is a practically oriented discipline of science. It involves several practical methods which are
conducted to accomplish a particular task. To discover a new fact or demonstrate the already existing fact,
experiments are conducted. For example, to prove that salt dissolves in water an experiment can be conducted
where salt and water are mixed. To conduct the experiment students are required to know the instruments
used.
Specific outcomes
This unit covers many instruments often used in chemistry. By the end of this unit, you will be able to know
instruments for:
❖ Measuring volume
❖ Measuring mass
❖ Measuring time
❖ Measuring temperature
❖ Instruments with other functions
Experimental Techniques 11
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
2.1 MEASURING VOLUME
• Volume is the amount of space occupied by matter.
• SI unit: cubic metre (m3)
1 litre = 1000 cm3 = 0.001 m3
1. BEAKER
• It is used to hold, mix store liquid.
• It measures liquid volume according to the graduated mark.
2. CONICAL FLASK
• It is used for holding and mixing liquid by swirling.
• It measures according to the graduated mark.
3. MEASURING CYLINDER
• It is used to measure the volume of liquid.
• It measures volume to 1 cm3 accuracy.
4. BURETTE
• It is used to measure the volume of liquid.
• It measures volume to 0.1 cm3 accuracy.
5. PIPETTE
• It is used to transfer a measured volume of liquid.
6. VOLUMETRIC FLASK
• It is used to measure the fixed amount of liquid.
7. GAS SYRINGE
• It is used to measure the volume of gas produced from the chemical reaction.
12 Experimental Techniques
2.2 MEASURING MASS OF SUBSTANCE
• Mass is the amount of matter in a substance.
• SI unit: kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 1 000 g = 1 000 000 µ
1 tonne = 1 000 kg
• Mass is measured with:
• Triple beam balance
• Electric balance
2.3 TIME
• SI unit: second (s)
• Measured with:
• Stopwatch
• Clock
2.4 TEMPERATURE
• Temperature is the measure of coldness or hotness.
• SI unit: kelvin (K)
• Degree celcius (OC) is commonly used
• K = oC + 273
• Temperature is measured with a thermometer.
Experimental Techniques 13
3.0 METHODS OF PURIFICATION
Introduction
Most substances around us are not pure. Instead, they are a mixture of different substances or contain
impurities. These impurities affect their physical and chemical properties. For example, pure water boils at
100oC. However, impure water boils at a higher boiling point. To obtain a pure substance, purification is
performed. Purification is the physical or chemical removal of contaminants from a substance.
Purification is significant in real life. Though substances around us are impure, most substances need to be
purified before use. For example, petrol is purified before sent for consumption. Pharmaceutical companies
make sure that drugs sent to the market are pure as having impurities might cause a drug to be toxic or
ineffective. Most metals are mined from the earth in their impure states. To be used, they are first purified.
Specific outcomes
This unit covers the methods of purifying substances by physical means. By the end of this unit, you will be
able to describe the following separating techniques:
❖ Separating funnel
❖ Simple distillation
❖ Fractional distillation
❖ Paper chromatography
14 Methods of Purification
METHODS OF PURIFICATION
3.1 PURIFICATION
• A pure substance is a substance that has definite composition and properties which are constant
throughout the sample.
• Pure substances exhibit very well defined physical properties. For example, pure water always
melts at 0oC and boils at 100oC.
• The combination of two or more substances with different compositions forms a mixture.
• A pure substance that has other substances affecting its physical properties become an impure
substance.
• Impurities affect the physical properties of a substance. For example, impurities decrease the
melting point and increase the boiling point of water.
• Purification is the process of separating a mixture into its pure substances by physical means.
• Separation techniques depend on the type of a mixture, its composition, properties and its state.
2. EVAPORATION
• Evaporation is a separation technique used to obtain crystals from solvent by heating.
• The solution is heated to evaporate solvent leaving behind a saturated solution.
• The saturated solution can no longer hold dissolved solutes any more. Therefore, solutes form
solid crystals.
Methods of Purification 15
3. CRYSTALLISATION
• Crystallisation is s separation technique used to obtain dissolved solute from its solution as crystals.
• The solution is heated until it becomes saturated.
• The saturated solution is left to cool.
• Crystals start forming in the solution as it cools.
• This is because the solubility of the solution decreases with low temperature. Therefore, dissolved
solutes form solid crystals.
16 Methods of Purification
❖ MISCIBLE LIQUIDS
• Miscible liquids are liquids that mix together, for example, water and alcohol.
• These liquids can be separated using distillation techniques.
2. SIMPLE DISTILLATION
• Simple distillation is used to separate liquids in a mixture with a wide difference in boiling
points.
• Liquid mixtures to be separated should have different boiling points.
• The mixture is heated. A liquid with a lower boiling point evaporates as vapour, cooled in a
condenser, and formed a liquid called distillate.
• A liquid with a high boiling point remains in the flask.
• Simple distillation is useful in alcohol production industries.
• In desert areas, this technique is used to separate pure water from saltwater.
3. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
• Fractional distillation is used to separate liquids in a mixture with close boiling points.
• It separates a mixture into many fractions based on their boiling points.
• A fractionating column contains beads that condense vapour with a higher boiling point
back into the distillation flask while allowing vapour with a lower boiling point to escape.
• Vapour is cooled by the condenser and changes to liquid that is collected.
• It is used to separate crude oil (petroleum) into fractions, for example, petrol, diesel,
methane.
Methods of Purification 17
3.4 PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
• Paper chromatography is used to separate dye mixture based on solubility and adsorption.
• Solubility is the capacity of a substance to dissolve in a solvent.
• Adsorption is the capacity of a substance to stick to surfaces.
• There are two types of paper chromatography; ascending and descending paper chromatography.
➢ OBSERVATION
• As the solvent rises through the paper, dye is carried with it and produce spots of different
colours on the paper.
➢ EXPLANATION
• The dye is separated into different components due to substances in the dye having
different solubility and adsorption.
• A more soluble substance in the dye is dissolved faster and carried higher by the solvent.
• A substance in the dye with high adsorption tends to stick to the paper, therefore, move
slower on the paper.
• On the diagram above the substance that forms a purple spot has high solubility and low
adsorption therefore it moved faster and is more elevated. Conversely, a substance with a
red spot has low solubility and high adsorption therefore moved slower and it is lower.
➢ RETENTION FACTOR
• Retention factor is the ratio of the distance moved by a spot from the start line to the
distance moved by the solvent.
• Example: During a paper chromatography experiment a pigment moved 3cm while the
solvent moved 4cm. Calculate the Rf value.
3cm
Rf value =
4cm
= 0.75
18 Methods of Purification
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. You accidentally mix cooking oil and water. Which of the following separating techniques would you use
to obtain cooking oil?
A. Filtration
B. Paper chromatography
C. Separating funnel
D. Evaporation
2. Fractional distillation can be used to separate alcohol from water. This method of separation uses the fact
that alcohol and water.
A. Contain different sized molecules
B. Boil at different temperature
C. Contain different pigments
D. Burn at different temperature
3. A mixture contains two substances. What property must the two substances have for them to be separated
by paper chromatography?
A. Both substances must be soluble in the solvent
B. Both substances must have a low boiling point
C. Both substances must be coloured
D. Both substances must be solid at room temperature
4. Which of these methods would separate sand and water?
A. Crystallisation
B. Distillation
C. Filtration
D. Chromatography
5. Which of the following physical properties is a criterion when using filtration?
A. Solid substance insoluble in the solvent
B. Liquid substance immiscible with the solvent
C. Substances with different boiling points
D. Substances with different solubility
6. Salt is separated from seawater by
A. Crystallisation
B. Evaporation
C. Filtration
D. Distillation
7. A. Explain what is meant by a pure substance?
B. i. Many people know that the boiling point of water is 100oC. However, a student of Chemistry
was surprised to find that water he heated boiled at 105oC. State two possibilities that could
have caused an increase in the boiling point of water.
ii. Would you expect the water sample which boiled at 105oC to freeze below or above 0oC at the
same pressure?
C. Why is the purity of substances important in the food industry?
D. Filtration is very vital in everyday life. Give one example of the industrial application of
filtration in everyday life.
Methods of Purification 19
8. The apparatus below was used in the extraction of ethanol from fermented maize grain.
20 Methods of Purification
SOLUTIONS
1. C
2. B
3. A
4. B
5. A
6. B
7. A. Pure substance is a substance that has definite composition and properties which are
constant throughout the sample.
B. i. Presence of impurities in water, higher atmospheric pressure.
ii. Below 0oC (impurities lower melting point, raise boiling point)
C. To make food safe for consumption.
D. Filter tea from tea leaves, tap water is filtered at the distribution centre, air conditioners filter air.
8. A. Y is the condenser.
B. By adding a fractionating column.
C. Continuous supply of cold water provides a cooler environment in the condenser that changes
vapour from the distillation flask into liquid. Water entering from the bottom aids to fill
the entire volume of the condenser with cold water for effective cooling.
D. Simple distillation.
E. Used for obtaining alcohol from fermented grains during alcohol production, obtaining
distilled water from seawater for drinking and medical purpose.
9. A. i. P
ii. Q and R
B. A and C
D. So that the sample does not dissolve in the solvent and affect the results.
Methods of Purification 21
4.0 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND
MIXTURES
Introduction
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into smaller substances by chemical or physical means.
There are 118 known elements. Out of these, 94 are naturally occurring. The elements are represented in the
periodic table, where each element is abbreviated by a chemical symbol. Examples of elements are hydrogen
(H), oxygen (O), carbon (C), calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na).
What if two or more elements are chemically bonded? A compound is formed! A compound is therefore a
group of two or more elements chemically bonded together. For example, when one oxygen atom chemically
bonds with two hydrogen atoms, water (H2O) a compound, is formed.
A mixture is a group of two or more substances that are physically combined. Mixtures are not chemically
bonded. The air is one of the commonest mixtures around us. It consists of a mixture of gases such as oxygen
(O2), nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Elements and compounds are pure substances while mixtures
are not pure substances.
Specific outcomes
This unit differentiates elements, compounds and mixtures. By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Elements:
• Define an element
• Give examples of elements
❖ Compounds:
• Define a compound
• Give examples of compounds
❖ Mixtures:
• Define a mixture
• Give examples of mixtures
❖ Differentiate compounds and mixtures
4.2 COMPOUNDS
• A compound is a group of two or more elements chemically bonded together.
• Exist as covalent compound or ionic compound:
• A covalent, or molecular, compound is a compound that results from the chemical bond of two
or more non-metals. Water (H2O) is a covalent compound as hydrogen and oxygen are non-
metals
• An ionic compound is a compound formed from the chemical bond of a metal and a non-metal.
For example, sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium is a metal and chlorine is a non-metal.
• A compound can be separated into its constituent elements by chemical means.
• The properties of a compound are different from the properties of its constituent elements.
4.3 MIXTURES
• A mixture is a group of two or more substances that are physically combined.
• Substances can be elements or compounds.
• For example, a salt solution is a mixture of salt and water that is physically combined.
• A mixture can be separated into its pure substances by physical means such as filtration, distillation.
Compound Mixture
Elements chemically bonded Component substances physically mixed
Composition of elements always the same Composition of substances can vary
Properties of compound different from its Properties of mixture same as properties
individual elements of individual substances
Individual elements can be separated by Individual substances can be separated by
chemical means physical means
Introduction
Everything you are seeing; this book, pen, pencil, cellphone, computer, table, chair, a class block and so on
consists of tiny particles called atoms. These atoms are the basic unit of matter. They vary in their mass. What
is the composition of atoms? How do you calculate their mass? This unit gives an introduction to atomic
structure and covers these questions.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Differentiate electron, proton and neutron on charge and mass
❖ Define atomic number
❖ Define mass number
❖ Write the chemical symbol of the given element
❖ Write the electronic configuration of the given element
❖ Define an isotope, and give examples of isotopes
❖ State uses of isotopes
26 Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
5.1 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
• Atom is the smallest unit of matter with the properties of an element.
• An atom contains three particles that are responsible for the mass of the atom and charge:
i. Proton
ii. Neutron
iii. Electron
• Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom located at the centre. Thus, the nucleus of
an atom is called nucleon.
• Electrons orbit the nucleus in electron shells.
• Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons are neutral.
Therefore, an atom has a net charge of zero. Therefore, it is said to be neutral.
• The mass of proton and electron is one atomic mass unit (amu) respectively. However, the mass of
an electron is too small therefore it does not contribute to the mass of an atom.
• The structure and characteristics of an atom are shown below.
X
Mass number A
Chemical symbol of an element
Atomic number Z
Atomic Structure 27
5.4 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
• Electrons are placed in orbits called shells.
• The first shell can contain up to a maximum of 2 electrons. This refers to the duplet or duet rule.
• The second and third shells can contain up to a maximum of 8 electrons. This refers to the octet
rule.
• Electrons that are found in the outermost shell are called valence electrons.
• Valence electrons determine the chemical properties of an atom.
• Valence electrons are also responsible for the chemical bond formation of an atom with other
atoms.
• For example, chlorine has 17 electrons.
• Electronic configuration, of chlorine, for example, is written as 2,8,7 with each comma separating
one shell from another.
5.5 ISOTOPE
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different mass number.
• They have the same number of protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons.
• For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14 isotopes. All have 6 protons and electrons but 6,
7 and 8 neutrons respectively.
• Hydrogen-1 (protium), hydrogen-2 (deuterium) and hydrogen-3 (tritium) isotopes, all have 1 proton
and electron but 0, 1 and 2 neutrons respectively.
❖ PROPERTIES OF ISOTOPES
• Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties and slightly different physical
properties.
• Isotopes can be radioactive. They emit radiations in the form of alpha, beta or gamma radiation.
Gamma radiation can penetrate and destroy body cells, therefore used to treat cancer patients by
killing cancer cells.
28 Atomic Structure
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The three subatomic particles that make up an atom are
A. Proton, electron, nucleus
B. Proton, neutron, nucleus
C. Proton, neutron, electron
D. Neutron, electron, nucleus
2. Which subatomic particle has no charge
A. Proton
B. Electron
C. Neutron
D. Nucleus
3. Which subatomic particle has a negative charge
A. Proton
B. Electron
C. Neutron
D. Nucleus
4. Which subatomic particle has a positive charge
A. Proton
B. Electron
C. Neutron
D. Nucleus
5. Nucleon refers to
A. Protons and neutrons
B. Protons and electrons
C. Electrons and neutrons
D. Electrons only
6. Electrons present in the outermost shell are called
A. Orbit electrons
B. Octet electrons
C. Duplet electrons
D. Valence electrons
7. Which of the following statements accurately describes the masses of subatomic particles?
A. Mass of 1 proton equals the mass of 1 electron
B. Mass of 1 neutron equals the mass of 1840 proton
C. Mass of 1 neutron equals the mass of 1 proton
D. Mass of 1 electron equals the mass of 1840 neutron
8. Which of the following is used to identify an element?
A. Number of electrons
B. Number of nucleons
C. Number of nuclei
D. Number of protons
9. The atomic number is same as
A. Neutron number
B. Nuclei number
B. Proton number
C. Electron number
10. The electronic configuration of calcium is
A. 2,8,8
B. 2,8,2
C. 2,8,8,2
D. 2,8,7
Atomic Structure 29
11. The isotope deuterium of hydrogen has.
A. One proton and no neutron
B. One proton and one neutron
C. One neutron and two protons
D. One neutron and no proton
12. Draw an electronic configuration of magnesium.
13. The diagram below shows an electronic configuration of a particular element X.
30 Atomic Structure
SOLUTIONS
1. C
2. C
3. B
4. A
5. A
6. D
7. C
8. D
9. B
10. C
11. B
Atomic Structure 31
6.0 CHEMICAL BONDING
Introduction
All things around us are made of tiny indivisible units called atoms. This book, your smartphone, computer,
pen, class block, trees and even us humans consists of these atoms. But how do these tiny units make a
complex object? First, they are joined together chemically! This is called chemical bonding. Then, why do
they bond? In simple terms, they do so to become stable.
There are three types of chemical bonding; namely, ionic bonding, covalent bonding and metallic bonding.
This unit covers these types of chemical bonding.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Ion:
• Define an ion
• Differentiate between cation and anion
❖ Ionic bonding:
• Define ionic bonding
• Represent ion bonding of atoms by dots and cross diagram
• State the properties of ionic compounds
❖ Covalent bonding:
• Define covalent bonding
• Represent covalent bonding of atoms by dots and cross diagram
• State the properties of covalent compounds
❖ Metallic bonding:
• Define metallic bonding
• State the properties of metallic compounds
32 Chemical Bonding
CHEMICAL BONDING
6.1 IONS
• Atoms with incomplete outer electron shells are unstable. Therefore, they gain or lose electrons to
attain a full outer electron shell.
• Atoms with 4 to 7 electrons in the outer shell tend to gain electrons that can add up to 8 electrons:
• For example, the oxygen atom has 6 electrons in the outermost shell. It gains 2 electrons to
attain 8 stable outer shell electrons.
• Chlorine atom has 7 electrons in the outer shell. It gains 1 electron to be stable.
• Atoms with 1 to 3 electrons in the outer shell tend to lose electrons in the outer shell to be stable:
• For example, magnesium has 2 electrons in the outermost shell. It loses 2 electrons and remains
with a full and stable lower outer shell.
• Sodium has 1 electron in the outer shell. It loses 1 electron to be stable.
• An exception is the hydrogen atom. It has 1 electron in the shell. It can gain 1 electron to have 2
stable electrons in the shell or can lose its electron and still be stable.
• An atom that has gained or lost electrons is called an ion.
• This atom becomes electrically charged.
❖ TYPES OF IONS
1. CATION
• Cations are ions that carry a positive charge.
• It indicates a loss of electrons.
• They are mainly metals.
• For example, Ca2+ means calcium atom has lost 2 electrons.
• Li+ means lithium has lost 1 electron.
• Remember; caTion has T, therefore posiTively charged ion.
2. ANION
• Anions are ions that carry a negative charge.
• It indicates a gain of electrons.
• They are mainly non-metals.
• For example, O2− means oxygen has gained 2 electrons.
• Cl- means chlorine has gained 1 electron.
• Remember; aNion has N, therefore Negatively charged ion.
Chemical Bonding 33
❖ FORMATION OF MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE (MgCl2)
• Two electrons are transferred from one magnesium to two chlorine atoms.
• Each magnesium atom loses two electrons and becomes positively charged while each chlorine
atom gains one electron and become negatively charged.
❖ CRYSTAL LATTICE
• Ionic substances form a giant crystal lattice.
• Opposite charges attract each other.
• A group of positively and negatively charged ions packed closely to each other form a regular
crystal shape.
• For example, a group of Na+ and Cl- ions assemble closely together and form a NaCl crystal the
common salt.
34 Chemical Bonding
6.3 COVALENT BONDING
• Covalent bonding is a type of bonding formed by sharing of electrons between atoms or molecules.
• It occurs between non-metals.
• An atom or molecule shares its electrons with another atom for both to attain a full outer electron
shell.
• The following are examples of covalent bonds.
❖ FORMATION OF METHANE
Chemical Bonding 35
❖ FORMATION OF OXYGEN MOLECULE
36 Chemical Bonding
6.4 METALLIC BONDING
• Metallic bonding is the type of bonding that involves sharing of electrons between atoms of
metallic elements.
• Each metal atom loses electrons and becomes positively charged.
• This forms a structure of positively charged ions in a sea of delocalised electrons.
• Metals are held by a strong force of attraction between delocalised or free electrons and positively
charged ions.
• They form a giant lattice structure.
Chemical Bonding 37
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. An element that has gained or lost electron is called
A. Cation
B. Anion
C. Ion
D. Molecule
2. When an atom loses an electron, it becomes
A. Cation
B. Anion
C. Neutral
D. Molecule
3. When an atom gains an electron, it becomes
A. Cation
B. Anion
C. Neutral
D. Molecule
4. What is the formula of the ion when potassium achieves a full outer electron shell?
A. K2+
B. K+
C. K−
D. K2−
5. What is the name of the ion when chlorine achieves a full outer electron shell?
A. Cl2+
B. Cl+
C. Cl−
D. Cl2−
6. The bond that involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to another is
A. Metallic bond
B. Ionic bond
C. Covalent bond
D. All the above
7. The bond that involves sharing of electrons between atoms of metal is
A. Metallic bond
B. Ionic bond
C. Covalent bond
D. All the above
8. The bond that involves the share of electrons between non-metals is
A. Metallic bond
B. Ionic bond
C. Covalent bond
D. All the above
9. The bond in MgO is
A. Covalent bond
B. Ionic bond
C. Metallic bond
D. None of the above
10. All of the following are properties of the ionic compounds except
A. They have low melting and boiling point
B. They conduct electricity in molten form
C. They are soluble in water
D. They form regular solids
38 Chemical Bonding
11. Why ionic compounds conduct electricity in liquid form
A. Because positively and negatively ions are closely packed
B. Because the force of attraction between positively charged and negatively ions is strong
C. Because they have free electrons
D. Because the ions can be attracted to oxygen and hydrogen atoms of water
12. Why ionic compounds have high melting and boiling point
A. Because positively and negatively ions are closely packed
B. Because the force of attraction between positively charged and negatively ions is strong
C. Because they have free electrons
D. Because the ions can be attracted to oxygen and hydrogen atoms of water
13. The bond in the oxygen molecule (O2) is
A. Covalent bond
B. Ionic bond
C. Metallic bond
D. None of the above
14. All of the following are properties of covalent compounds except
A. They have high melting and boiling point
B. They are insoluble in water
C. They conduct electricity
D. They do not conduct electricity
15. The bond in the copper wire is
A. Covalent bond
B. Ionic bond
C. Metallic bond
D. None of the above
16. All of the following are properties of metallic compounds except
A. They have high melting and boiling point
B. They are ductile
C. They conduct electricity
D. They do not conduct heat
17. Why metallic compounds are good conductors of electricity
A. Because they have a sea of free electrons
B. Because the force of attraction between metal ions and electrons is strong
C. Because metal ions can slide over each other without breaking the metallic bond
D. All the above
18. Using dot and cross diagrams, show the structures of the following compounds (show all shells)
A. Magnesium oxide
B. Water
C. Oxygen
19. Two elements X and Y represented by the notations below reacted to form a compound.
Chemical Bonding 39
SOLUTIONS
1. C
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. C
6. B
7. C
8. B
9. B
10. A
11. C
12. B
13. A
14. C
15. C
16. D
17. A
18. A.
B.
C.
40 Chemical Bonding
19. A. X loses one electron from its outermost shell. Y gains two electrons to its outermost shell.
B. Ionic bonding
C.
D. The compound formed has a high melting point. Because the force of attraction between ions X+ and
Y2− is strong. Therefore, a large amount of heat is required to break the bond.
E. Na2O
20. i. Ionic compounds result from the transfer of electrons while covalent compounds from sharing
of electrons.
ii. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points while covalent compounds have low
melting and boiling point.
iii. Ionic compounds dissolve in water while covalent compounds do not.
iv. Ionic compounds conduct electricity in liquid form while covalent compounds do not in any
form.
Chemical Bonding 41
7.0 CHEMICAL FORMULA AND
EQUATIONS
Introduction
Unit the previous unit, you learnt that elements chemically join together to form a compound. The compound
formed is represented by a chemical formula. How do you write the correct chemical compound?
Substances that are used up in a chemical reaction are called reactants. Substances that are produced at the end
of the reaction are called products. A chemical equation shows the chemical formula of reactants and products
in a chemical reaction. As no atom is lost or created in a chemical reaction, the number of the same atoms in
the reactants and products must be equal. This is referred to as a balanced chemical reaction. How do you
write a balanced chemical reaction? This unit covers these and many more questions.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Write chemical symbols of elements
❖ Valency:
• Define valency
• State the valency of atoms and compounds
❖ Write the chemical formula of compounds
❖ Write balanced chemical equations
7.2 VALENCY
• Valency is the combining capacity of an element.
• Hydrogen and chlorine can combine with only one atom. Therefore, they have a valency of two.
• Based on the valency of hydrogen and chlorine, the valency of any element can be defined as the
number of hydrogen or chlorine atoms with which an element can combine with.
• For metals, valency is equal to the number of electrons in the outermost shell.
• For non-metals, valency is equal to 8 minus the number of electrons in the outermost shell.
• Below is the valency of elements according to the groups of the periodic table.
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Write the chemical formula of the following compounds.
A. Aluminium chloride
B. Magnesium oxide
❖ SOLUTIONS
A. Aluminium chloride
1. Aluminium chloride
2. Al Cl
3. Al3 Cl1 aluminium is in group 3 and chlorine in group 7
4. AlCl3
B. Magnesium oxide
1. Magnesium oxide
2. Mg O
3. Mg2 O2 magnesium is in group 2 and oxygen in group 6
4. Mg2O2
5. MgO reduced by cancelling 2 on both elements
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Write the chemical formula for a compound formed in the following reactions between an
element and a radical.
A. Chlorine and ammonium
B. Sodium and sulphate
C. Calcium and nitrate
❖ SOLUTIONS
A. 1. H2 + O2 → H2O
2. O left side 2 : right side 1
H left side 2 : right side 2
3. H2 + O2 → 2H2O balance O by adding 2 on H2O
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O balance H by adding 2 on H2
B. C4 O2 C is in group 4; O in group 2
C2O4
CO2
D. C4 H1 C is in group 4; H in group 1
CH4
Introduction
Stoichiometry is the study of the relation between reactants and products of chemical reactions. Chemical
reactions must be balanced. In other words, the number of the same atoms in the reactants and products must
be equal. Therefore, when the amount of reactants are known, using stoichiometric calculations we can find
the amount of products formed and vice versa.
We use stoichiometry in our everyday lives especially when cooking. We add correct ratios of ingredients to
make a good meal. Pharmaceutical companies use the right amount of elements to make a drug. Food
processing industries use the correct amount of raw materials to make good and healthy foods.
Specific outcomes
This unit covers most stoichiometric calculations. By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Differentiate relative atomic mass, relative molecular and relative formula mass
❖ Work out mole − number of particles calculations
❖ Find the molar mass of a compound
❖ Find the percentage composition of an element in a compound
❖ Find the molecular formula of a compound
❖ Find the empirical formula of a compound
❖ Calculate the volume of gases at room temperature and pressure
❖ Calculate the concentration of a substance
❖ Work out dilution calculations
❖ Find the limiting reagent
❖ Calculate the percentage yield
❖ Calculate the percentage purity
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Find the relative molecular mass of the following molecules
A. H2
B. O2
C. H2O
D. CO2
E. C2H6
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. A. H2 = 1 × 2 = 2 Ar of H = 1
B. O2 = 16 × 2 = 32 Ar of O = 16
C. H2O = (1 × 2) + 16 = 18
D. CO2 = 12 + (16 × 2) = 44 Ar of C = 12
E. C2H6 = (12 × 2) + (1 × 6) = 30
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the relative formula mass of the following compounds
A. HCl
B. NaCl
C. MgSO4
D. Na2CO3
E. Pb(NO3)2
F. (NH4)2SO4
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. A. HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 Ar of H = 1; Ar of Cl = 35.5
B. NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 Ar of Na = 23
C. MgSO4 = 24 + 32 + (16 × 4) = 120 Ar of Mg = 24; S = 32; O = 16
D. Na2CO3 = (23 × 2) + 12 + (16 × 3) = 106 Ar of C = 12
E. Pb(NO3)2 = 207 + (14 × 2) + (16 × 6) = 331 Ar of Pb = 207; N = 14
F. (NH4)2SO4 = (14 × 2) + (1 × 8) + 32 + (16 × 4) = 132
8.4 MOLE
• A mole is a unit of particles.
• It corresponds to 6 × 1023 particles called Avogadro’s constant.
• Unit: mol.
• Just like a dozen correspond to 12 items of anything, it can be 12 books, 12 pens, 12 bricks, 12 bags
of cement. Of course, these items have different masses but they are 12 items. This concept is the
same as a mole of a substance.
• One mole of a substance contains 6 x 1023 particles. It can be atoms, molecules or ions.
number of particles
n= where n = mole of a substance
6 × 1023
❖ EXAMPLES
1. How many molecules are in 2 moles of hydrogen gas?
2. How atoms are present in 34.7 moles of magnesium?
3. How many moles are in 2.0 × 1025 molecules of silver nitrate?
4. How many moles are present in 4.09 × 1024 atoms of manganese?
number of particles
2. n = Mole = 34.7
6 × 1023
number of particles = n × 6 × 1023 # of particles = ?
number of particles = 34.7 × 6 × 1023 Avogadro’s constant = 6 × 1023
number of particles = 2.08 × 1025
number of particles
3. n = Mole = ?
6 × 1023
2.0 × 1025 # of particles = 2.0 × 1025
n= Avogadro’s constant = 6 × 1023
6 × 1023
n = 33.3 mol
number of particles
4. n = Mole = ?
6 × 1023 # of particles = 4.09 × 1024
4.09 × 1024
n= Avogadro’s constant = 6 × 1023
6 × 1023
n = 6.82 mol
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Find the molar mass of H2O
2. Calculate the molar mass of CaCO3
3. What is the molar mass of NaCl?
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. Mr (H2O) = (1 × 2) + 16
= 18 g/mol
3. Mr (NaCl) = 23 + 35.5
= 58.5 g/mol
m
n= where
Mr n = mole of a substance
m = mass of a substance
Mr = molar mass
❖ EXAMPLES
1. How many moles are in 5 grams of O2?
2. Find the number of moles in 60 grams of H2SO4?
3. How much does 4.2 moles of Ca(NO3)2?
4. How many grams of potassium sulphate (K2SO4) are there in 25.3 moles?
❖ SOLUTIONS
mass given
1. n = Mole = ?
molar mass Mass = 5g
5
n= Mr (O2) = 32 g/mol
32
n = 0.16 mol
mass given
2. n = Mole = ?
molar mass Mass = 60g
60
n= Mr (H2SO4) = 98 g/mol
98
n = 0.61 mol
4. mass = n × Mr
mass = 25.3 × 174 Mole = 25.3
mass = 4402.2g Mass = ?
Mr (K2SO4) = 174 g/mol
1. EXAMPLES
1. What is the percentage composition of hydrogen in water?
2. What is the percentage composition of oxygen in CO2?
3. Find the percentage composition of sodium in Na3PO4
2. SOLUTIONS
Mr (H)
1. % (H) = × 100% % (H) = ?
Mr (H2 O) Mr (H) = 1 × 2 = 2 g/mol
2 Mr (H2O) = 18 g/mol
% (H) = × 100%
18
% (H) = 11.1%
Mr (O)
2. % (O) = × 100% % (O) = ?
Mr (CO2 ) Mr (O) = 16 × 2 = 32 g/mol
32 Mr (CO2) = 44 g/mol
% (O) = × 100%
44
% (O) = 72.7%
Mr (Na)
3. % (Na) = × 100% % (Na) = ?
Mr (Na3 PO4 )
Mr (Na) = 23 × 3 = 69 g/mol
69
% (Na) = × 100% Mr (Na3PO4) = 164 g/mol
164
% (Na) = 42.1%
• Butene:
• Molecular formula: C4H8
• Empirical formula: CH4
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Find the empirical formula of 2.45g sample of which 1.78g is iron and 0.68g is oxygen.
2. The unknown compound is found to contain 13.5g calcium, 10.8g oxygen and 0.68g
hydrogen. Calculate the empirical formula of this compound.
❖ SOLUTIONS
mass given Mole = ?
1. n (Fe) =
molar mass Mass = 2.45g
2.45 Mr (Fe) = 56 g/mol
n (Fe) =
56
n (Fe) = 0.04 mol
mass given
n (O) = Mole = ?
molar mass
0.68 Mass = 0.68g
n (O) = Mr (O) = 16 g/mol
16
n (O) = 0.04 mol
mol of Fe mol of O
Ratio of Fe = Ratio of O =
smallest mol smallest mol
0.04 0.04
Ratio of Fe = Ratio of O =
0.04 0.04
Ratio of Fe = 1 Ratio of O = 1
❖ EXAMPLES
1. The unknown compound contains 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen. What is the empirical formula
of the compound?
2. Find the empirical formula of the compound containing 28.83% magnesium, 14.24% carbon
and 56.93% oxygen.
% given Mole = ?
n (O) =
molar mass % (O) = 60%
60 Mr (O) = 16 g/mol
n (O) =
16
n (O) = 3.75 mol
mol of S mol of O
Ratio of S = Ratio of O =
smallest mol smallest mol
1.25 3.75
Ratio of S = Ratio of O =
1.25 1.25
Ratio of S = 1 Ratio of O = 3
% given Mole = ?
2. n (Mg) =
molar mass % (Mg) = 28.83%
28.83 Mr (Mg) = 24 g/mol
n (Mg) =
24
n (Mg) = 1.2 mol
% given
n (C) =
molar mass Mole = ?
14.24 % (Mg) = 14.24%
n (C) = Mr (S) = 12 g/mol
12
n (C) = 1.19 mol
% given
n (O) =
molar mass Mole = ?
56.93 % (O) = 56.93%
n (O) = Mr (S) = 16 g/mol
16
n (O) = 3.56 mol
❖ EXAMPLES
1. A sample is analysed and found to have an empirical formula CH2. It has a molar mass of
70 g/mol. Find its molecular formula.
2. A compound of empirical formula P2O5 has a molar mass of 284 g/mol. What is its molecular
formula?
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. Empirical formula = CH2
Empirical mass = 12 + (1 × 2)
= 14
molar mass
n=
empirical mass
70
n=
14
n=5
❖ EXAMPLES
1. What is the number of moles of 3.6 dm3 of oxygen gas at room temperature and pressure?
2. Calculate the moles of nitrogen gas in 700ml at room temperature and pressure.
3. Calculate the volume of 10g of fluorine gas at room temperature and pressure.
❖ SOLUTIONS
volume of gas Mole = ?
1. Mole =
24 dm3 Volume (O2) = 3.6 dm3
3.6 Molar volume = 24 dm3
Mole =
24
Mole = 0.15 mol
𝐧 Where Note
C=
𝐕 C = molar concentration (in mol/dm3, mol/L or M) 1 dm3 = 1 L
n = mole of solute 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
V = volume of solution (in dm3 or L)
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the concentration of a solution containing 15g of NaOH dissolved in 0.3dm3 solution.
2. Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 32g of KMnO4 in 500cm3 of a
solution.
3. Calculate the number of moles in 100cm3 of 1.5 mol/dm3 of H2SO4.
4. How many grams of KNO3 will be required to prepare 800cm3 of 1.4 mol/dm3 of KNO3?
❖ SOLUTIONS
mass given
1. n (NaOH) =
molar mass
15
=
40
= 0.375 mol
n
C=
V
0.375
=
0.3
= 1.25 mol/dm3
mass given
2. n (NaOH) =
molar mass
32
=
158
= 0.2 mol
n
C=
V
0.2
=
0.5
= 0.4 mol/dm3
4. n=C×V
= 1.4 × 0.8
= 1.12 mol
mass of KNO3 = n × Mr
= 1.12 × 101
= 113.12g
8.10 DILUTION
• Dilution is the decreasing of the concentration of a solute by the addition of a solvent.
• Dilution reduces the concentration of a solute by increasing the concentration of a solvent.
• The moles of a solute in the initial solution and diluted solution are the same.
• The following formula calculates dilution.
• Formula:
❖ EXAMPLES
1. If 0.17dm3 of 2 mol/dm3 HCl is diluted to 0.5dm3, what is the concentration of the diluted
solution?
2. What volume of 3 mol/dm3 H2SO4 is required to make 0.7dm3 of 1 mol/dm3 solution?
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. M1V1 = M2V2
M1 V1
M2 =
V2
2 × 0.17
=
0.5
= 0.68 mol/dm3
2. M1V1 = M2V2
M2 V2
V1 =
M1
1 × 0.7
=
3
= 0.23 mol/dm3
❖ EXAMPLES
1. If 4g of hydrogen reacts with 4g of oxygen
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
A. What is the limiting reagent?
B. Calculate the amount of water produced.
3. If 4.8 mole of calcium reacts with 2 moles of nitrogen, what is the limiting reagent?
3Ca(s) + N2(g) → Ca3N2(s)
❖ SOLUTIONS
mass given mass given
1. A. n(H2) = n(O2) =
molar mass molar mass
4 4
= =
2 32
= 2 moles = 0.125 moles
3. The mole ratio of Ca to N2 is 3:1. If 4.8 mol of Ca is used, the mol of N2 required is
3 1
=
4.8 x moles of N2
x moles of N2 = 1.6 mol
𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐲𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝
Percentage yield = × 100%
𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐲𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝
❖ EXAMPLES
1. What is the percentage yield if 14g of CaO produced 24g of CaCO3 when heated?
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2. When 2.8g of nitrogen was reacted with 1g of hydrogen 5.1g of ammonia was produced
A. What is the limiting reagent?
B. What is the percentage yield?
mole ratio of CaCO3 to CaO is 1:1, 0.24 mol of CaCO3 produces 0.24 mol of CaO
mass of CaO produced = mol × molar mass
= 0.24 × 72
= 17.28g
actual yield
Percentage yield = × 100%
theoretical yield
14
= × 100%
17.28
= 81.0185
= 81%
❖ EXAMPLES
1. A 12g sample of copper ore contains 10.2g of pure copper. What is the percentage purity?
2. You have 13.9g sample of impure iron pyrite. The sample is heated in the air to produce iron
(III) oxide and sulphur dioxide.
4FeS2(s) + 11O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
If you obtain 8.02g of iron (III) oxide, what is the percentage purity of iron pyrite in the
sample?
❖ SOLUTIONS
mass of actual substance
1. Percentage purity = × 100%
mass of inpure substance
10.2
= × 100%
12
= 85%
2. Find the mass iron pyrite that reacted with oxygen to produce 8.02g of iron (III) oxide
8.02
n(Fe2O3) =
160
= 0.050125
= 0.05 mol
the mole ratio of Fe2O3 to FeS2 is 2:4, so to produce 0.05 mol of Fe2O3 moles of FeS2 that
reacted is
2 4
=
0.05 x moles of Fe2 O3
x moles of Fe2 O3 = 0.1 mol
% given Mole = ?
24. n (C) =
molar mass % (C) = 40%
40 Mr (C) = 12 g/mol
n (Mg) =
12
n (Mg) = 3.33 mol
% given
n (C) = Mole = ?
molar mass % (H) = 6.99%
6.99 Mr (H) = 1 g/mol
n (C) =
1
n (C) = 1.19 mol
% given Mole = ?
n (O) =
molar mass % (O) = 53.01%
53.01 Mr (O) = 16 g/mol
n (O) =
16
n (O) = 3.31 mol
mass given
B. Molar mass =
mole
3.60
=
0.02
= 180g/mol
molar mass
n=
empirical mass
180
n=
30
n=6
% given Mole = ?
24. A. n (Fe) =
molar mass % (C) = 40%
20.2 Mr (C) = 12 g/mol
n (Fe) =
56
n (Fe) = 0.36 mol
% given
n (S) = Mole = ?
molar mass % (H) = 6.99%
11 Mr (H) = 1 g/mol
n (S) =
32
n (S) = 0.36 mol
% given Mole = ?
n (O) =
molar mass % (O) = 53.01%
23 Mr (O) = 16 g/mol
n (O) =
16
n (O) = 1.44 mol
mol of Mg
Ratio of H2O =
smallest mol
2.52
Ratio of H2O =
0.36
Ratio of H2O = 7
mass given
B. n (FeSO⋅7 H2O) = Mole = ?
molar mass Mass of FeSO⋅7 H2O = 6.95
6.95
n (FeSO⋅7 H2O) = Mr of FeSO⋅7 H2O = 278 g/mol
278
n (FeSO⋅7 H2O) = 0.025 mol
moles
concentration = concentration = ?
volume mole = 0.025 mol
0.025
= volume = 250 cm3 ÷ 1000
0.25 = 0.25 dm3
= 0.1 mol/dm3
actual yield
B. Percentage yield = × 100%
theoretical yield
0.9
= × 100%
1.2
= 75%
the mole ratio of Zn to S is 8:1. A mole of S needed to react with 0.04 mol of Zn is
8 1
=
0.04 x moles of S
8x = 0.04
x moles of S = 0.005 mol
we have 0.05 mol S, so sulphur is excess and zinc is the limiting reagent
B. ratio of Zn to ZnS is 8:8, therefore 0.04 mol of Zn produces 0.04 mol of ZnS
mass of ZnS produced = mol × molar mass
= 0.04 × 97
= 3.88g
ratio of CH3OH to CH3COOH is 1:1, therefore 0.25 mol of CH3OH produces 0.25 mol of CH3COOH
mass of CH3COOH produced = mol × molar mass
= 0.25 × 60
= 15g
actual yield
B. Percentage yield = × 100%
theoretical yield
12
= × 100%
15
= 80%
Introduction
The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements. The first periodic table was made by Dmitri
Mendeleev in 1869. Mendeleev’s periodic table contained 63 elements known at that time. He arranged these
elements in the order of atomic mass.
The modern periodic table contains 118 currently known elements. Of these, 94 elements occur naturally on
earth. Unlike Mendeleev’s periodic table, the modern periodic table has elements arranged in the order of the
atomic number.
Elements with similar chemical properties are placed in the same vertical columns called groups. The
horizontal rows of the periodic table are called periods. This unit describes the groups and periods of the
periodic table.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Differentiate Mendeleev’s periodic table and the modern periodic table
❖ Define group and period of the periodic table
❖ State the properties and uses of the following groups:
• Alkali metals
• Alkaline earth metals
• Halogens
• Noble gases
• Transition metals
76 Periodic Table
PERIODIC TABLE
9.1 HISTORY OF PERIODIC TABLE
❖ MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
• The first periodic table was made by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869.
• He arranged the periodic table in the order of atomic mass.
• He grouped elements with similar properties in vertical columns.
• From left to right, elements were placed in order of increase in atomic mass.
• The table contained 63 elements known at that time.
❖ GROUPS
• Groups are vertical columns of the periodic table.
• The periodic table has eight main groups; I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, O.
• Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in the outer shell.
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
• Group I elements are called alkali metals.
• Group II elements are called alkaline earth metals.
• Elements between Group II and Group III are called transition metals.
• Group VII elements are called halogens.
• Group O, also known as Group VIII, elements are called noble gases.
• From top to bottom the number of electron shells and radius of elements increase.
Periodic Table 77
❖ PERIODS
• Periods are horizontal rows of the periodic table.
• The period number corresponds to the number of shells an element has. For example, hydrogen and
helium are in period I therefore they have one shell. Carbon and oxygen are in period II therefore
they have two shells. Sodium and chlorine are in period III therefore they have three shells etc.
• Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number from left to right.
• Metals are found on the left side while non-metals are on the right side.
• Metallic characteristics of elements decrease from left to right.
• General characteristics of metals: They are shiny solids except for mercury which is liquid. They
are ductile (able to be drawn into a wire). They are malleable (able to be shaped without breaking).
They are good conductors of electricity.
• General characteristics of non-metals are; they are gases except for bromine which is liquid, are not
ductile, are not malleable and are bad conductors of electricity.
• Elements in the middle are called metalloids. They have properties of metals and non-metals.
78 Periodic Table
❖ USES OF ALKALINE EARTH METALS
• Beryllium: it is alloyed with other metals such as copper and used to make springs.
• Magnesium: can be alloyed with other metals. Magnesium aluminium alloy is light in mass and is
used in aircrafts construction. In plants, it is an important component of chlorophyll.
• Calcium: used in the extraction of other metals from their metal oxides. In animals, it is an essential
component of bones.
• Barium: used in X-ray imaging, fireworks.
• Radium is used in the treatment of cancer.
❖ USES OF HALOGENS
• Sodium chloride (table salt): used for food flavouring and food preservation.
• Chlorine: used in disinfectants to kill bacteria, pesticide, weed killer
• Bromine: used in insecticide, photographic film
• Fluorine: used in toothpaste to prevent tooth decay
• Iodine: used in disinfectants to kill bacteria, in photographic films, in humans it is used in the
formation of thyroid hormones
Periodic Table 79
4. GROUP O: NOBLE GASES
• In order of increasing atomic number, noble gases are; helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton
(Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn).
• They have full electrons in the outer shell. Therefore, they are very stable elements.
• They are non-reactive.
• They exist as individual atoms.
• They are colourless gases.
• They have low density. Density increases down the group.
5. TRANSITION METALS
• Transition metals are elements between Group II and Group III.
• They have variable valences, such as iron (Fe) can be Fe2+ or Fe3+.
• They form a coloured compound, such as copper sulphate (CuSO4) is blue. Therefore, they are used
in painting substances.
• Some elements conduct electricity.
• They have high melting and boiling point.
• They have high density.
80 Periodic Table
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In Mendeleev’s periodic table elements were arranged in the order of
A. Reactivity
B. Atomic number
C. Density
D. Atomic mass
2. Unlike Mendeleev’s periodic table, the modern periodic table has elements arranged in the order of
A. Reactivity
B. Atonic number
C. Density
D. Atomic mass
3. Which of the following is not true about groups of the periodic table?
A. Elements of the same group have the same valence electrons
B. Elements of the same group have the same density
C. Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties
D. Elements of the same group show a trend in properties
4. Group I elements are called
A. Halogens
B. Transition metals
C. Alkali metals
D. Alkaline earth metals
5. Group II elements are called
A. Halogens
B. Noble gases
C. Alkali metals
D. Alkaline earth metals
6. Group VII elements are called
A. Halogens
B. Noble gases
C. Alkali metals
D. Alkaline earth metals
7. Group O elements are called
A. Halogens
B. Noble gases
C. Alkali metals
D. Transition metals
8. Transition metals are between
A. Group I and II
B. Group II and III
C. Group III and IV
D. Group VI and VII
9. Which of the following is not true about periods of the periodic table?
A. From left to right the metallic characteristics of elements decreases
B. The period number of an element is equal to the number of shells of that element
C. Periods are vertical columns of the periodic table
D. Periods are horizontal rows of the periodic table
10. Which of the following is a property of metals?
A. Ductile
B. Shiny
C. Good conductor
D. All the above
Periodic Table 81
11. The most reactive metal on the periodic table is
A. Sodium
B. Copper
C. Francium
D. Calcium
12. Which of the following is not a property of alkali metals?
A. They have high melting and boiling point
B. They vigorously react with air
C. They vigorously react with water
D. They are soft shiny solids
13. Which of the following elements is an alkali metal?
A. Calcium
B. Sodium
C. Copper
D. Aluminium
14. Which of the following elements is an alkaline earth metal?
A. Calcium
B. Sodium
C. Copper
D. Aluminium
15. Which of the following is not a property of alkaline earth metals?
A. They are shiny, silvery white metals
B. They react with water
C. Melting and boiling point increases down the group
D. Melting and boiling point decreases down the group
16. Which of the following elements is a halogen?
A. Helium
B. Oxygen
C. Chlorine
D. Carbon
17. Which of the following is not a property of halogen?
A. Melting and boiling point decreases down the group
B. They exist as diatomic molecules
C. They are coloured elements
D. They have 7 electrons in the outer shell
18. What is the most reactive non-metal element on the periodic table?
A. Oxygen
B. Fluorine
C. Nitrogen
D. Neon
19. Which of the following elements is a noble gas?
A. Oxygen
B. Fluorine
C. Nitrogen
D. Neon
20. Which of the following property is not a property of noble gases?
A. They are very reactive
B. They are colourless gases
C. They exist as individual atoms
D. They have full electrons in the outer shell
82 Periodic Table
21. Which of the following is not true about transition metals?
A. They have variable valences
B. They have high density
C. They have high melting and boiling point
D. They are poor conductors of electricity
22. What metal is liquid at room temperature
A. Magnesium
B. Mercury
C. Bromine
D. Calcium
23. What non-metal is liquid at room temperature
A. Chlorine
B. Mercury
C. Bromine
D. Oxygen
24. The diagram below shows a representation of a periodic table. Note that letters are not the actual symbol
of the element
Periodic Table 83
25. The diagram below shows a representation of a periodic table. Note that letters are not the actual symbol
of the element
Using letters in the periodic table above, give a letter representing the element which
A. has the lowest density
B. has the largest relative atomic mass
C. liquid at room temperature and pressure
D. is used to make electricity cables
E. forms a divalent cation
84 Periodic Table
SOLUTIONS
1. D
2. B
3. B
4. C
5. D
6. A
7. B
8. B
9. C
10. D
11. C
12. A
13. B
14. A
15. C
16. C
17. A
18. B
19. D
20. A
21. D
22. B
23. C
ii. H element H has 2 electrons in the outer shell. Ion H2+ has lost 2 electrons and therefore
has the electronic configuration of element H.
25. A. J
B. S
C. R mercury and bromine are the only liquid elements at room temperature and pressure.
Element R is bromine
D. Q
E. S divalent cation is a cation with the valence of 2+. Therefore, the element that forms a
divalent cation has to be in group 2 of the periodic table
Periodic Table 85
10 ACIDS, BASES AND ALKALIS
Introduction
We encounter several acids and bases in our everyday lives. Think of the vinegar (acetic acid) we use to
flavour and preserve our food, lemon juice (citric acid) and carbonated drinks (carbonic acid). Ammonia, one
of the commonest bases, is used to make fertiliser.
What are acids? What are bases? What are alkalis? How do acids and bases react with each other and other
substances? How do you test for the presence of acids or bases? This unit covers these and many more
questions.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Acids:
• Define an acid
• State the physical properties of acids
• State the chemical properties of acids
• State the common examples of acids and their uses
• Describe what is meant by acid strength and acid concentration
❖ Bases:
• Define a base
• State the physical properties of bases
• State the chemical properties of bases
• State the common examples of bases and their uses
• Describe what is meant by base strength and base concentration
❖ Describe the pH scale
❖ Describe pH indicators
❖ Differentiate acid oxides, basic oxides, amphoteric oxides and neutral oxides
❖ ACID CONCENTRATION
• Acid concentration is associated with the amount of H+ dissolved in a solvent.
• A concentrated acid solution is a solution with a large amount of H+.
• A dilute acid solution is a solution with a small amount of H+.
❖ USES OF ACIDS
1. Hydrochloric acid is used to remove rust from iron sheets, clean swimming pools and the human
body uses this acid in digestion.
2. Sulphuric acid is used in car batteries. It is also used to make fertiliser, detergents, paints and
plastics.
3. Nitric acid is used to make fertiliser.
4. Ethanoic acid is used in the preservation of food.
❖ USES OF BASES
1. Sodium hydroxide is used to make soap, papers and synthetic fibres.
2. Calcium hydroxide is used to neutralise the acidity of the soil. It is also used to make cement and
bleaching powders.
3. Ammonium hydroxide is used to make fertiliser and plastics.
4. Magnesium hydroxide is used in antacid treatment such as heartburn.
❖ pH INDICATORS
• A pH indicator is a substance that changes colour over a range of pH values when added to the
solution.
• The commonly used pH indicators are litmus and universal indicators.
❖ LITMUS
• Litmus is used to find out whether the solution is acidic or basic.
• Litmus paper comes in two colours, namely blue litmus paper and red litmus paper.
• A blue litmus paper turns red in an acidic solution. However, in a basic and neutral solution, it
stays blue.
• A red litmus paper turns blue in basic solution. However, in an acidic and neutral solution, it
stays red.
Neutral
❖ OTHER pH INDICATORS
1. Phenolphthalein: The indicator is colourless. In an acidic solution, it stays colourless while in a
basic solution it turns pink.
2. Methyl orange: The indicator is orange in colour. In an acidic solution, it turns red. In the basic
solution, it turns yellow.
1. ACIDIC OXIDES
• Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals.
• Examples of acidic oxides include; carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2).
• Acidic oxides react with water to form an acidic solution. For example, carbon dioxide reacts
with water to form carbonic acid.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
• Acidic oxides react with bases to form salt and water. For example, carbon dioxide with react
calcium hydroxide and forms calcium carbonate and water.
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
2. BASIC OXIDES
• Basic oxides are oxides of metals.
• Examples of basic oxides include; magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium oxide (CaO), sodium
oxide (Na2O) and copper (II) oxide (CuO).
• Soluble basic oxides dissolve in water and form an alkaline solution.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq)
• Basic oxides react with acid to form salt and water. For example, magnesium oxide reacts with
hydrochloric acid and form magnesium chloride and water.
MgO(s) + 2HCl(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
4. NEUTRAL OXIDES
• Neutral oxides are oxides that neither show acidic or basic properties.
• They do not react with either acids or bases.
• Examples of neutral oxides include; water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO).
25. Neutralisation
Ionic equation; OH−(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
26. A weak acid is an acid that partially dissociates in water. Example of weak acid; phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
A strong acid is an acid that completely ionises in water. Example of strong acid; hydrochloric acid (HCl).
27. A. Dissolve substance S in water to form an aqueous solution. Insert a blue litmus paper strip into
the solution. If the blue litmus paper turns red, then substance S is acidic.
B. i. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
ii. H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)
28. A. Before adding ammonia, the solution in a beaker containing sulphuric acid has a pH value below
7. As ammonia solution is added the pH value gradually increases from below 7 to above 7.
B. Ionic equation; NH3+(aq) + H+(aq) → NH4+(aq)
C. i. Weak alkali is an alkali that partially ionises in water.
ii. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
D. i. Bubbles come out and the solution turns from colourless to milky white.
ii. CaCO3(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
29. A. Amphoteric oxides are metal oxides that react with both acids and bases.
B. Salt and water
C. SiO2
Introduction
Table salts (sodium chloride) is found in all houses. We use it daily to flavour our foods. However, tablesalt is
not the only salt use in our everyday lives. There are dozens of other salts such as sodium bicarbonate in
baking powder and ammonium nitrate in fertiliser. All salts have similar physical properties. They are
produced by the process called neutralisation, where acid is reacted with a base.
How do salts differ from each other? How are salts prepared? This unit covers these and many more
questions.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Define a salt
❖ State physical properties of salts
❖ Differentiate normal salts, acidic salts and basic salts
❖ State the solubility of each salt
❖ Describe how to prepare salts by:
• Filtration method
• Titration method
• Precipitation method
❖ State how to test for the presence of:
• Cations
• Anions
• Gases
98 Salts
SALTS
11.1 SALTS
• Salt is an ionic compound that contains positively charged ions and negatively charged ions.
• Positively charged ions are called cations while negatively charged ions are called anions.
• The commonest salt is sodium chloride (commonly known as table salt), a salt used in everyday life
for food flavouring and preservation.
• Salts are produced by the process called neutralisation. In this process an acid reacts with a base and
forms salt and water.
• Salts usually have a pH of 7.
❖ PROPERTIES OF SALTS
1. They are ionic compounds. They consist of cations and anions.
2. They are hard, crystalline solids.
3. Most salts are colourless to white unless they contain a transition metal.
4. Most salts have a salty taste and are odourless.
5. They conduct electricity in an aqueous and molten solution.
6. Some salts are soluble in water while others are insoluble in water.
2. ACIDIC SALTS
• Polybasic acids are acids that can donate more than one H+ per molecule.
• Examples of polybasic acids include; sulphuric acid (H2SO4, can donate two H+) and
phosphoric acid (H3PO4, can donate three H+).
• When a polybasic acid is partially neutralised by a base the salt formed is known as acidic salt.
• Acidic salts are formed due to an insufficient supply of base for the complete neutralisation of
the polybasic acid.
• As the polybasic acid could not donate all of its H+ the salt compound formed has hydrogen (H)
atom their chemical formula.
• Examples of acidic salts include sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), sodium bisulphate (NaHSO4)
and monopotassium phosphate (KH2PO4).
3. BASIC SALTS
• Polyacid bases are bases that can release more than one OH− to the solution.
• Examples of polyacid bases include; calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), aluminium oxide
(Al(OH)3).
• When a polyacid base is partially neutralised by an acid the salt formed is called basic salt.
• Basic salts are formed due to an insufficient supply of acid for the complete neutralisation of
the polyacid base.
• As the polyacid base could not release all its OH− the chemical formula of the salt formed has a
hydroxyl (OH) in its chemical formula.
• Examples of basic salts include zinc hydroxide chloride (ZnOHCl) and barium hydroxide
chloride (BaOHCl).
Salts 99
11.3 SOLUBILITY OF SALTS
• Some salts are soluble in water while others are insoluble.
• The table shows the solubility of common salts at room temperature.
Salts Soluble Insoluble
Sodium salts All are soluble None
Potassium salts
Ammonium salts
Nitrate salts
Chloride salts Most are soluble Silver halides
Bromide salts Silver chloride (AgCl)
Iodide salts Silver bromide (AgBr)
Silver iodide (AgI)
Lead halides
Lead (II) chloride (PbCl2)
Lead (II) bromide (PbBr2)
Lead (II) iodide (PbI2)
Sulphate salts Most are soluble Barium sulphate (BaSO4)
Lead (II) sulphate (PbSO4)
Carbonate salts Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) Most are insoluble
Potassium carbonate (K2CO3)
Ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3)
1. FILTRATION METHOD
• This method is used to prepare a soluble salt by reacting an insoluble base (can be an oxide
such as CuO, hydroxide such as Mg(OH)2 or carbonate such as ZnCO3) or metal ion with acid.
• The excess insoluble base is reacted with acid to form a soluble salt and water in a beaker.
• At the end of the reaction, the beaker has the soluble salt and water (products) and insoluble
base (excess reactant).
• Then the soluble salt can be separated from the insoluble base by filtration.
• The filtrate is finally evaporated and crystallised to obtain the desired salt.
• This method can be used to prepare salts such as copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) and magnesium
sulphate (MgSO4), zinc nitrate (Zn(NO3)2) and copper (II) chloride (CuCl2).
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Mg(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(q)
100 Salts
❖ EXPERIMENT: TO PREPARE COPPER (II) SULPHATE
❖ SET UP
1. Add 25cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid in 100cm3 beaker and warm it gently.
2. Add a small portion of copper (II) oxide to the beaker using a spatula and stir with a glass rod
until it dissolves.
3. Add a further small quantity of copper (II) oxide with stirring until it dissolves no more.
4. Allow the solution to cool down.
5. Once the solution is cool, filter it allowing the filtrate to pass into the evaporating dish.
6. Gently heat the solution until a small volume of liquid is left.
7. Leave the remaining solution to cool and crystallise.
❖ ADDITIONAL NOTES
• The reaction between black copper (II) oxide and sulphuric acid produces a blue solution of
copper (II) sulphate and water. This process is called neutralisation.
Word equation
Copper (II) sulphate + sulphuric acid → copper (II) sulphate + water
Chemical equation
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
• Warming sulphuric acid increases the rate of reaction. Do not boil the acid.
• When filtered, copper (II) oxide residues remain on the filter paper and copper (II) sulphate is
obtained as filtrates.
• To obtain a larger crystal do not evaporate all the liquid in the evaporating dish. Allow the
solution to cool down slowly.
2. TITRATION METHOD
• Titration method is used to prepare soluble salts by reacting a soluble base with an acid.
• A known volume of the base is reacted with acid using an indicator.
• The indicator shows the correct volume of acid needed to complete the reaction by changing colour.
• Then, the process is repeated with the acquired volume of acid and base and without an indicator.
• This method can be used to make salts such as sodium sulphate (Na2SO4), sodium chloride (NaCl),
potassium sulphate (K2SO4), sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq)
Salts 101
❖ EXPERIMENT: PREPARATION OF SODIUM SULPHATE
➢ SET UP
1. Add 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide into a conical flask.
2. Add a few drops of indicator. Note the name of the indicator and the initial colour of the
solution.
3. Fill up the burette with dilute sulphuric acid to the zero mark.
4. Add sulphuric acid from the burette into the conical flask slowly. Swirl the flask carefully to
help sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide mix until the indicator changes colour.
5. Read the volume of the acid used to neutralise 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution.
6. Repeat the procedure now without the indicator.
7. Transfer the solution to the evaporating dish and heat gently to evaporate some liquid.
8. Leave the remaining solution to crystallise.
➢ ADDITIONAL NOTES
• The reaction between sodium hydroxide and sulphuric acid produces sodium sulphate and
water. This process is called neutralisation.
Word equation
Sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid → sodium sulphate + water
Chemical equation
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
• The indicator is used to obtain the volume of sulphuric acid needed to complete the reaction
with the known volume of sodium hydroxide.
• As sulphuric acid is added the pH of the solution lowers until all the base has reacted. Then,
sulphuric acid becomes in excess and causes the indicator to change colour.
• The table below shows the commonest indicators used in titration and their colour change.
Indicator Colour in base Colour in acid
Phenolphthalein Pink Colourless
Methyl orange Yellow Red
102 Salts
3. PRECIPITATION METHOD
• This method is used to prepare insoluble salts by reacting an insoluble base with an acid.
• Precipitation is the process by which two soluble substances in an aqueous solution combine and
form an insoluble salt.
• An insoluble salt formed during precipitation is known as a precipitate.
• The method is a two-stage process. Initially, an insoluble base is reacted with acid to form a soluble
salt. Then the soluble salt formed is reacted with another soluble salt to form a precipitate (a desired
insoluble salt).
• This method is used to prepare insoluble salts such as lead (II) iodide (PbI2), silver chloride (AgCl)
and barium sulphate (BaSO4).
Salts
Salts 103
➢ ADDITIONAL NOTES
• The precipitation method is a two stage process.
• The first stage involves the formation of a soluble salt by reacting with an insoluble and acid. For
the above experiment, lead (II) nitrate is formed by reacting lead (II) oxide (insoluble base) and
nitric acid.
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Pb(NO)2(aq) + H2O(l)
• The second stage is a precipitation process which involves the formation of an insoluble salt by
reacting two soluble salts. For the above experiment, lead (II) nitrate (a soluble salt produced in the
first stage) is reacted with potassium iodide (another soluble salt) and produced lead (II) iodide (an
insoluble salt).
Pb(NO)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(aq) + 2KNO3(aq)
104 Salts
❖ TEST FOR GASES
Gas Test Observation
Ammonia (NH3) Place a damp red litmus paper in gas The red litmus paper turns blue
Carbon dioxide Bubble the gas through limewater A white precipitate of calcium
(CO2) carbonate is produced
Chlorine (Cl2) Place a damp blue litmus paper in gas The blue litmus paper turns red
Hydrogen (H2) Place a lighted splint in gas The lighted splint burns with a pop
sound
Oxygen (O2) Place a lighted splint in gas The growing splint relights
Sulphur dioxide Place a paper soaked with potassium The paper turns from orange to
(SO2) dichromate in gas green
Salts 105
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The process in which acids and bases reacts to form salts and water is called
A. Hydrogenation
B. Condensation
C. Neutralisation
D. Halogenation
2. The following is not a physical property of salts
A. Salts conduct electricity in an aqueous solution
B. Salts are covalent compounds
C. Salts are hard, crystalline solids
D. Some salts are insoluble in water
3. A salt formed by the complete neutralisation of H+ and OH− in the solution is known as
A. Normal salts
B. Basic salts
C. Acidic salts
D. None of the above
4. A salt formed by partial neutralisation of an acid by a base is known as
A. Normal salt
B. Basic salt
C. Acidic salt
D. None of the above
5. A salt formed by partial neutralisation of a base by acid is known as
A. Normal salt
B. Basic salt
C. Acidic salt
D. None of the above
6. Which of the following is an example of a normal salt?
A. NaHCO3
B. ZnOHCl
C. KH2PO4
D. NaCl
7. Which of the following is an example of an acidic salt?
A. Na2CO3
B. NaHSO4
C. ZnOHCl
D. Pb(NO)2
8. Which of the following is an example of a basic salt?
A. NaHSO4
B. CaCO3
C. CuSO4
D. BaOHCl
9. Among the halides, which of the following salt is soluble?
A. AgI
B. PbBr2
C. PbCl2
D. MgCl2
10. Among the sulphate salts, which of the following salt is insoluble?
A. PbSO4
B. Na2SO4
C. CuSO4
D. MgSO4
106 Salts
11. Among the carbonate salts, which of the following salt is insoluble?
A. K2CO3
B. (NH4)2CO3
C. Na2CO3
D. CaCO3
12. Which is the best pair of substances that can be used to prepare copper (II) sulphate?
A. Cu and H2SO4
B. CuO and H2SO3
C. Cu(OH)2 and H2SO3
D. CuCO3 and H2SO4
13. Which of the salts below can be prepared by an acid-alkali titration method?
A. CuSO4
B. MgCl2
C. NaNO3
D. Zn(NO3)2
14. Which of the following salts cannot be crystallised from an aqueous solution?
A. Barium chloride
B. Magnesium chloride
C. Silver chloride
D. Sodium ethanoate
15. Which of the following salts can be crystallised from its solution?
A. Barium sulphate
B. Lead iodide
C. Silver chloride
D. Silver nitrate
16. Which compound is not formed by the precipitation method?
A. NH4Cl
B. PbSO4
C. BaSO4
D. AgCl
17. Which of the following salts can be prepared by precipitation method?
A. Ammonium sulphate
B. Barium sulphate
C. Lead (II) nitrate
D. Silver nitrate
18. Silver chloride when precipitated by mixing aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and hydrochloric acid, is
initially a white precipitate but turns grey on standing. The reason for this change is that the precipitate
A. Is decomposed by light
B. Reacts with oxygen in the air
C. Reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid
D. Reacts with an excess silver nitrate solution
19. What is the test for oxygen gas?
A. Damp blue litmus paper turns red
B. Damp red litmus paper turns blue
C. Glowing splint relights
D. Lit splint goes with a sound
Salts 107
20. What is the test for carbon dioxide?
A. Limewater turns cloudy
B. Glowing splint relights
C. Lit splint goes with a sound
D. Damp blue litmus paper turns red
21. What is the test for chlorine gas?
A. Glowing splint relights
B. Lit splint goes with a sound
C. Damp blue litmus paper turn red and is then bleached white
D. Damp red litmus paper turns blue
22. What is the test for ammonia gas?
A. Glowing splint relights
B. Lit splint goes with a sound
C. Damp blue litmus paper turn red and is then bleached white
D. Damp red litmus paper turns blue
23. What is the test for hydrogen gas?
A. Glowing splint relights
B. Lit splint goes with a sound
C. Damp blue litmus paper turn red and is then bleached white
D. Damp red litmus paper turns blue
24. What colour precipitate does chlorine ion produce?
A. Yellow
B. Blue
C. Green
D. White
25. What colour precipitate do copper ions produce?
A. Yellow
B. Blue
C. Green
D. White
26. A. Copper (II) sulphate crystals can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting copper (II) carbonate
with a dilute acid
i. Name the dilute acid which reacts with copper (II) carbonate to form copper (II) sulphate.
ii. Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the reaction.
iii. Describe the procedure for the preparation of copper (II) sulphate solution from copper (II)
carbonate and the named acid in i. above.
B. Describe what is observed when an excess of sodium hydroxide solution is added to a solution
containing copper (II) ions and name one product formed.
C. Describe a chemical test to show the presence of sulphate ions in the solution and state what
would be observed.
27. A. Sodium sulphate is a soluble salt that can be prepared from dilute sulphuric acid
i. Name the other chemical that can be reacted with dilute sulphuric acid to prepare the salt.
ii. Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the reaction above.
iii. Describe in detail how you would prepare pure crystals of sodium sulphate using the named
reactants.
B. The salt prepared is a normal salt
i. What is a normal salt?
ii. If the reaction above the reactants were to form an acid salt, give the name of the acid salt
that would be formed from the two reactants and give its chemical formula.
108 Salts
28. The word equation for the reaction used to for the insoluble salt barium sulphate is shown below
Barium nitrate + sodium sulphate → barium sulphate + sodium nitrate
i. Write the ionic equation for this reaction.
ii. Describe how a pure, dry sample of barium sulphate can be obtained from the reaction.
iii. What term is used to describe the method used to prepare the barium sulphate?
Salts 109
SOLUTIONS
1. C
2. B
3. A
4. C
5. B
6. D
7. B
8. D
9. D
10. A
11. D
12. D
13. C
14. C
15. D
16. A
17. B
18. A
19. C
20. A
21. C
22. D
23. B
24. D
25. B
110 Salts
28. i. Ba2+(aq) + SO2−(aq) → BaSO4(s)
ii. Put sodium sulphate into a beaker. Add barium sulphate t the beaker. Stir the solution gently.
A precipitate of barium sulphate is formed. Filter the precipitate from the solution using a filter
funnel and paper. The precipitate remains on the filter paper. Wash the precipitate with water
and leave it to dry in a warm place.
iii. Precipitation
Salts 111
12 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Introduction
Substances combine or break down chemically and form other substances by the process referred to as
chemical reaction. Substances used up in the chemical reaction are called reactants and substances formed are
called products. During the chemical reaction, bonds of reactants are broken down and form new bonds of
products.
What factors affect the rate of reaction? This unit covers this question and many more.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to
❖ Write a chemical reaction
❖ Describe the collision theory
❖ Describe experiments used to determine the rate of reaction
❖ Describe the factors that affect the rate of reaction
❖ Describe the Le Chatelier’s principle
❖ Haber process:
• State conditions for Haber process
• State the importance of the Haber process
• Reactants: Substances used up in a chemical reaction. They are placed on the left side of the
chemical equation.
• Products: Substances formed at the end of the chemical reaction. They are placed on the right
side of the chemical equation.
• Yield arrow: The arrow that indicates the direction of the reaction.
• Coefficient: The number in front of the chemical symbol. It indicates how many molecules of a
substance participate in a chemical reaction.
• The chemical equation has to be balanced.
❖ COLLISION THEORY
• Collision theory states that for a chemical reaction to take place reacting atoms, molecules or
ions must collide with each other.
• The collision should have sufficient energy to break the bonds in reactants. This energy is
called activation energy.
• Reactants should collide with proper orientation. Proper orientation is a collision that occurs at
a right angle and with atoms involved in bond formation.
• The collision that has sufficient energy and with proper orientation is called an effective
collision.
• The more effective collisions, the faster the rate of reactions.
➢ RESULTS
• The gradient on the graph is steepest at
the start of the reaction.
• Gradient gradually decreases with time.
• Finally, the gradient becomes zero.
➢ CONCLUSION
• The rate of reaction is inversely proportional to the time taken.
➢ RESULTS
• The results produce a negative gradient.
• The gradient on the graph is steepest at
the start of the reaction.
• Gradient gradually decreases with time.
• Finally, the gradient becomes zero.
➢ CONCLUSION
• The rate of reaction is inversely proportional to the time taken.
3. TEMPERATURE
• Increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction.
• At higher temperature particles move faster and collide more effectively. This increases the
frequency of effective collision.
4. PRESSURE OF REACTANTS
• Only gases are compressible, so pressure change only affects reactions that involve gases.
• The rate of reaction increases with an increase in pressure.
• Higher pressure moves particles closer. This increases the frequency of effective collision.
5. PRESENCE OF CATALYST
• Catalysts are chemical substances that speed up a chemical reaction without themselves being
changed.
• They speed up a reaction by lowering the activation energy. Activation energy is the minimum
amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction.
• Just a small amount of catalyst is required.
• Catalyst can be reused.
• Most catalysts are transition metals such as titanium, nickel, iron, copper.
❖ EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
• The Haber process is an exothermic process, a process that releases heat to the surrounding.
• Therefore, increasing temperature shifts the equilibrium toward reactants and decreases the
formation of ammonia.
• However, low temperature reduces the rate of reaction.
❖ EFFECTS OF PRESSURE
• The Haber process has four molecules on reactants and two molecules on products.
• Therefore, increasing pressure shifts the equilibrium toward the product, so the formation of
ammonia increases.
3. Iron catalyst
• An iron catalyst increases the rate of reaction.
18. A learner used the experimental arrangement below to investigate the effect of concentration on the rate of
reaction between magnesium and excess dilute hydrochloric acid.
The learner experimented three times using different concentrations of hydrochloric acid. The same mass
of magnesium ribbon was used in each case and the experiments were carried out at a temperature of
25oC. The results are shown in the table below.
No. Concentration of hydrochloric acid Volume of hydrogen formed
(mol/dm3) (min/dm3)
1 0.5 15
2 1.0 30
3 1.5 45
A. From the results, what is the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction between magnesium ribbon
and dilute hydrochloric acid?
B. Explain why concentration affects the rate of reaction.
C. State the effect on the rate of reaction if
i. magnesium powder was used instead of ribbon.
ii. the reaction was carried at 15oC of 25oC.
17. A.
B. i. 48cm3
ii. 34 seconds
C. 50 seconds
D. 70 cm3
E. Temperature and concentration of hydrochloric acid.
18. A. Increasing the concentration of hydrochloric acid increases the rate of reaction.
B. Increasing the concentration of reactants increases the surface area, so more reactant collides.
C. i. Rate of reaction would increase.
ii. Rate of reaction would decrease.
Introduction
All chemical reactions involve some change in energy. Some reactions release energy to the surrounding
while others absorb energy from the surrounding. Chemical reactions that release energy to the surrounding
are called exothermic reactions. Chemical reactions that absorb energy from the surrounding are called
endothermic reactions.
Specific outcomes
This unit covers energy changes that occur during a chemical reaction. By the end of this unit, you will be
able to:
❖ Enthalpy change:
• Define enthalpy change
• Calculate the enthalpy change of reactions
❖ Define activation energy and transition state
❖ Describe exothermic reactions
❖ Describe endothermic reactions
❖ Describe different types of fuels
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Hydrogen and bromine react to form hydrogen bromide according to the equation:
H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g)
The table below shows some bond energies.
Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)
H−H 436
H − Br 366
Br − Br 193
A. Calculate the amount of energy needed to break the bond in 1 mole of H2 and 1 mole of Br2.
B. Calculate the amount of energy produced when 2 moles of hydrogen bromide are produced.
C. Find the ΔH of the reaction above.
2. Hydrogen and chlorine react to form hydrogen chloride gas according to the equation:
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction above using the bond energy below.
Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)
H−H 436
H − Cl 431
Cl − Cl 242
C. ΔH = H(reactant) + H(product)
= − 732 + 629
= − 103 kJ/mol Negative sign indicates energy absorbed
ΔH = H(reactant) + H(product)
= − 862 + 678
= − 184 kJ/mol
ΔH = H(reactant) + H(product)
= −1856 + 1362
= − 494 kJ/mol
❖ TRANSITION STATE
• The transition state is the unstable intermediate state of deformed bonds.
• It has the highest energy state along with the reaction.
2. Formation of ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) + energy ΔH = − 46 kJ/mol
3. Formation of water
1
H2(g) + 2O2(g) → H2O(g) + energy ΔH = − 286 kJ/mol
4. Respiration
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy ΔH = − 2803 kJ/mol
2. Melting
ice + energy → liquid
3. Decomposition by heat
CaCO3(s) + heat → CaO(s) + CO2(g) ΔH = + 178 kJ/mol
1
H2O(l) + heat → H2(g) + 2O2(g) ΔH = + 286 kJ/mol
3
Al2O3(s) + heat → 2Al(s) + 2O2(g) ΔH = + 1676 kJ/mol
13.5 FUEL
• A fuel is any substance that produces a large amount of energy when it undergoes a chemical
reaction.
• Fuels undergo exothermic reactions and produce heat.
• There are various forms of fuels.
1. FOSSIL FUEL
• Fossil fuels are mainly hydrocarbon compounds in wood, coal, crude oil and natural gas.
• Burning of these fuels with oxygen, a process called combustion, releases a large amount of
energy that is used in homes, transport and industries.
• Disadvantages of fossil fuels
i. They are non-renewable. Their supply is limited.
ii. Produces carbon dioxide which contributes to global warming.
iii. Incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide which may be harmful.
iv. Some contain sulphur which during combustion become sulphur dioxide. This may
eventually become acid rain.
3. NUCLEAR ENERGY
• Nuclear energy is the energy released by the decay of radioactive isotopes.
• Nuclear fission, the splitting of a radioactive isotope into smaller nuclei, produces a huge amount of
energy.
• Uranium is commonly used.
• Heat energy produced is used to boil water into steam that turns a turbine, producing electricity.
• Disadvantages of nuclear energy.
i. Expensive to build.
ii. Radioactive are harmful to health.
iii. Radioactive isotopes such as uranium are limited.
12. The diagram below shows the energy level diagram for tissue respiration.
ΔH = H(reactant) + H(product)
= − 3518 + 2628
= − 890 kJ/mol
volume given
ii. n =
molar volume
1.2
=
24
= 0.05 mol
C.
Introduction
Redox reactions are types of reactions that involve reduction and oxidation. This unit covers these types of
reactions. You will learn what oxidation and reduction are, how to write an ionic equation and many more.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Define the following terms:
• Redox reaction
• Oxidation
• Reduction
• Oxidising agent
• Reducing agent
❖ Describe redox reactions in terms of:
• Oxygen
• Hydrogen
• Electrons
• Oxidation number
❖ Write ionic equations
❖ Describe how to test for oxidising agents and reducing agents
• Lead (Pb) is oxidised. As a result, it gains oxygen and forms lead(II) oxide (PbO).
• Silver(I) oxide (Ag2O) is reduced. As a result, it loses oxygen and forms silver metal (Ag).
• Silver(I) oxide is the oxidising agent. It causes the oxidation of the lead metal.
• Lead is the reducing agent. It causes the reduction of silver(I) oxide.
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Identify the substance oxidised and reduced, the oxidising agent and the reducing agent
in the following redox reactions.
A. CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)
B. Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(s)
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. A. Hydrogen gas (H2) is oxidised to water (H2O).
Copper (II) oxide (CuO) is reduced to copper (Cu).
Copper (II) oxide is the oxidising agent.
Hydrogen gas is the reducing agent.
• Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is oxidised. As a result, it loses hydrogen and becomes sulphur (S).
• Chlorine is reduced. As a result, it gains hydrogen and forms hydrochloric acid (HCl).
• Hydrogen sulphide is the reducing agent. It causes the reduction of chlorine.
• Chlorine is the oxidising agent. It causes the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide.
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Identify the substance oxidised and reduced, the oxidising agent and the reducing agent in the
following redox reactions.
A. 4HCl(s) + O2(g) → 2Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)
B. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. A. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is oxidised to chlorine.
Oxygen (O2) is reduced to water (H2O).
Hydrochloric acid is the reducing agent.
Oxygen is the oxidising agent.
5. The sum of oxidation numbers in polyatomic ions is equal to the charge of the compound, for example:
• SO42− = S6+O42− = +6 + 4(−2) = −2
• NO3− = N5+O3− = +5 + 3(−2) = −1
• OH− = O2−H+ = −2 + (+1) = −1
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Find the oxidation number of the following.
A. Na
B. F2
C. Cu2+
D. Ag in AgO
E. Na in Na2O
F. C in CH2Cl2
G. Cr in Cr2O72−
H. Mn in KMnO4
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. A. Na = 0
B. F2 = 0
C. Cu2+ = +2
D. AgO; Ag + (−2) = 0
Ag = +2
H. KMnO4; +1 + Mn + 4(−2) = 0
Mn + 1 – 8 = 0
Mn = +7
3. ELECTRONS IN REDOX
• Oxidation is the loss of electrons. A substance that loses electrons is oxidised.
• Reduction is the gain of electrons. A substance that gains electrons is reduced.
• The reaction below shows a redox reaction involving the gain and loss of electrons.
• Chlorine (Cl2) is reduced. As a result, it gains one electron and become Cl−.
• Hydrogen (H2) is oxidised. As a result, it loses one electron and become H+.
• Chlorine is the oxidising agent.
• Hydrogen is the reducing agent.
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Identify the substance oxidised and reduced, the oxidising agent and the reducing agent in the
following redox reactions.
A. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(aq)
B. 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. A. Sodium (Na) is oxidised to Na+.
Chlorine (Cl2) is reduced to Cl−.
Sodium is the reducing agent.
Chlorine is the oxidising agent.
• Methane (CH4) is oxidised. As a result, the carbon oxidation number increases from −4 to +4.
• Oxygen (O2) is reduced. Therefore, the oxygen oxidation number decreases from 0 to −2.
• Methane is the reducing agent.
• Oxygen is the oxidising agent.
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Identify the substance oxidised and reduced, the oxidising agent and the reducing agent in the
following redox reactions.
A. Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(g) + 3CO2(g)
B. H2(g) + I(g) → 2HI(g)
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. A. Iron(III) oxide is reduced. As a result, the iron oxidation number decreases from +3 to 0.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is oxidised. As a result, the carbon oxidation number increases
from +2 to +4.
Iron(III) oxide is the oxidising agent.
Carbon monoxide is the reducing agent.
B. Hydrogen (H2) is oxidised. As a result, the hydrogen oxidation number increases from 0
to +1.
Iodine (I2) is reduced as. As a result, the iodine oxidation number decreases from 0 to
−1.
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Write the ionic equation and net ionic equation of the following molecular formula.
A. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
B. MgCl2(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq) → 2AgCl(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. A. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
23. When chlorine gas is bubbled into iron(II) chloride solution the following reaction takes place.
FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) → FeCl3(aq)
A. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction above.
B. What colour change is observed in this reaction?
C. Which substance is oxidised? Give a reason for your answer.
D. Which substance is reduced? Give a reason for your answer.
E. Write an ionic equation for the reaction above.
22. A. Redox reaction is a chemical reaction in which one substance is reduced and another is oxidised
Simultaneously.
B. i. KMnO4; +1 + Mn + 4(−2) = 0
Mn + 1 − 8 = 0
Mn − 7 = 0
Mn = +7
iii. HCl; +1 + Cl = 0
Cl = −1
C. Reduction, because manganese (Mn) oxidation number decreases from +7 in KMnO4 to +2 in MnCl2.
D. Oxidation, because chlorine (Cl) oxidation number increases from −1 in HCl to 0 in Cl2.
Introduction
What happens when an electric current is passed through the ionic compound in an aqueous solution? The
ionic compound is split into smaller components. This process is called electrolysis. Electrolysis has several
real life applications. Most metal objects we use are coated with another metal to prevent rusting or to make
them attractive. This is done by electrolysis. The process is also used to extract and purify some metals.
Specific outcomes
This unit covers electrolysis. By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Define the following terms:
• Electrolysis
• Electrolyte
• Anode
• Cathode
❖ Describe the preferential discharge theory
❖ Describe the electrolysis of:
• Lead (II) bromide
• Acidified water
• Sodium chloride
• Copper (II) sulphate using graphite electrode and copper electrode
❖ Describe the extraction of aluminium
❖ Describe electroplating and galvanising
❖ Work out electrolysis calculations
146 Electrolysis
ELECTROLYSIS
15.1 ELECTROLYSIS
• Electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound into its components using an electric
current.
❖ COMPONENTS OF ELECTROLYSIS
1. ELECTROLYTE
• An electrolyte is an ionic compound in a molten or aqueous solution to be decomposed.
• An electrolyte should conduct electricity.
2. ELECTRODE
• An electrode is an electric conductor that carries an electric current in and out of the
electrolyte.
• Commonly used electrodes are platinum and graphite.
3. ANODE
• An anode is a positively charged electrode.
• It attracts anions, the negatively charged ions.
• On anode, negatively charged ions lose electrons and become neutral elements.
• Therefore, anions are oxidised at the anode. The oxidation process takes place here.
• For example, two chloride ions (Cl−) lose two electrons, form a bond and become chlorine
gas (Cl2).
2Cl−(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e−
4. CATHODE
• A cathode is a negatively charged electrode.
• It attracts cations, positively charged ions.
• On cathode, positively charged ions gain electrons and become neutral atoms.
• Therefore, cations are reduced at the cathode. Reduction takes place here.
• For example, copper ion (Cu2+) gains two electrons and become a copper atom.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
Electrolysis 147
15.2 DISCHARGE
• Discharge is the formation of neutral atoms from ions.
• Negative ions lose electrons and become neutral atoms.
• Positive ions gain electrons and become neutral atoms.
• Ions that are lower in the electrochemical series preferentially get discharged than those
above them.
• For example, if an electrolyte has H+ and Ag+, Ag+ get discharged instead of H+.
However, if it contains H+ and Ca2+, H+ gets discharged instead of Ca2+.
3. NATURE OF ELECTRODE
• If the electrolysis contains inert electrodes such as graphite or platinum, these
electrodes do not take part in the chemical reaction of the electrolysis.
• If it contains active electrodes such as copper or silver, they take part in the chemical
reaction and are discharged.
148 Electrolysis
15.3 ELECTROLYSIS OF LEAD(II) BROMIDE
• Lead(II) bromide is heated until it becomes molten. Lead(II) bromide has to be in molten form so
that is it able to conduct electricity.
• Electricity is passed through the molten lead(II) bromide.
• Electrolyte used: molten lead(II) bromide.
• Electrode used: graphite.
• Ions present: Pb2+ and Br−.
❖ REACTION AT CATHODE
• Cathode attracts lead ions (Pb2+).
• Pb2+ gains two electrons from the cathode and become Pb atom.
• The half equation at the cathode.
Pb2+(aq) + 2e− → Pb(l)
❖ REACTION AT ANODE
• Anode attracts bromide ions (Br−).
• Br− loses an electron and becomes a bromine atom.
• Two bromine atoms bond and become bromine gas (Br2).
• Bromine gas bubbles out.
• Test for bromine: it decolourises when shaken with alkene solution.
• The half equation at the anode.
2Br−(aq) → Br2(g) + 2e−
❖ OVERALL EQUATION
Pb2+(aq) + 2Br−(aq) + 2e− → Pb(l) + Br2(g) + 2e− add half equations at cathode and anode
Pb2+(aq) + 2Br−(aq) → Pb(l) + Br2(g) cancel 2e− on both sides
Electrolysis 149
15.4 ELECTROLYSIS OF ACIDIFIED WATER
• This is the electrolysis of water into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
• The electrolyte used: diluted sulphuric acid.
• Electrode used: graphite or platinum.
• Ions present: H+, OH− and SO42−.
❖ REACTION AT CATHODE
• Cathode attracts hydrogen ions (H+).
• H+ gain an electron from the cathode and become hydrogen gas.
• Two hydrogen atoms formed bonds and become hydrogen gas (H2).
• Hydrogen gas bubbles out.
• Test for hydrogen gas: produce a pop sound when lit.
• The half equation at the cathode.
2H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g)
❖ REACTION AT ANODE
• Anode attracts hydrogen ions (OH−) and sulphate ions (SO42−).
• OH− is preferentially discharged over SO42−.
• OH− loses an electron to the anode and become oxygen gas (O2) and water (H2O).
• Test for oxygen: glowing wooden splint relights.
• The half equation at the anode.
4OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e−
❖ OVERALL EQUATION
4H+(aq) + 4OH−(aq) + 4e− → 2H2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e− add both half equations
+ −
4H (aq) + 4OH (aq) → 2H2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) cancel 4e− on both side
150 Electrolysis
15.5 ELECTROLYSIS OF SODIUM CHLORIDE (BRINE)
• This is the electrolysis of sodium chloride to produce hydrogen gas and chlorine gas.
• Electrolyte used: sodium chloride (brine) solution.
• Electrode used: graphite.
• Ions present: Na+, H+, OH− and Cl−.
❖ REACTION AT CATHODE
• Cathode attracts sodium ions (Na+) and hydrogen ions (H+).
• H+ is preferentially discharged over Na+.
• H+ gains an electron from the cathode and become a hydrogen atom.
• Two hydrogen atoms formed bonds and become hydrogen gas (H2).
• Hydrogen gas bubbles out.
• Test for hydrogen gas: produce a pop sound when lit.
• The half equation at the cathode.
2H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g)
❖ REACTION AT ANODE
• Anode attracts hydrogen ions (OH−) and chloride ions (Cl−).
• Cl− is preferentially discharged over OH−.
• Cl− loses an electron and become chlorine atom.
• Two chlorine atoms bond and form chlorine gas.
• Chlorine gas bubbles out.
• Test for chlorine: a pale green gas with a pungent odour, it turns a damped blue litmus paper red
then bleached to white.
• The half equation at the anode.
2Cl−(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e−
❖ ELECTROLYTE RESIDUE
• Na+ and OH− remain in the solution as electrolyte residue.
• These ions chemically bond and form sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
❖ OVERALL EQUATION
• 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → H2(g) + Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
Electrolysis 151
15.6 ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER(II) SULPHATE SOLUTION
• This is the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate to form copper metal and oxygen gas.
• Electrolyte used: copper(II) sulphate (CuSO4).
• The electrode used: electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate is performed using graphite or copper
electrodes.
1. USING GRAPHITE ELECTRODE
• Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate using graphite electrode produces copper metal and
hydrogen gas.
• Ions present: Cu2+, H+ (from H2O), SO42− and OH− (from H2O).
❖ REACTION AT CATHODE
• Cathode attracts copper ions (Cu2+) and hydrogen ions (H+).
• Cu2+ is preferentially discharged over H+.
• Cu2+ loses two electrons to the cathode and become copper metal. As a result, it forms a
deposit on the surface cathode.
• Half reaction at the cathode.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
❖ REACTION AT ANODE
• Anode attracts sulphate ions (SO42−) and hydroxide ions (OH−).
• OH− is preferentially discharged over SO42−.
• OH− loses an electron to the anode and become oxygen gas (O2) and water (H2O).
• The half equation at the anode.
4OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e−
❖ OVERALL REACTION
2Cu2+(aq) + 4OH−(aq) + 4e− → 2Cu(s) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e− add both half equations
2Cu2+(aq) + 4OH−(aq) → 2Cu(s) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) cancel 4e− on both side
152 Electrolysis
2. USING COPPER ELECTRODE
• This is the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate using copper electrode produces copper metal and
copper ions.
• Copper metal is deposited at the cathode while the copper electrode at the anode is dissolved.
• The mass of copper deposited at the cathode is equal to the mass of copper dissolved at the anode.
• This process is used in the purification of copper.
• Ions present: Cu2+, H+ (from H2O), SO42− and OH− (from H2O).
❖ REACTION AT CATHODE
• Cathode attracts copper ions (Cu2+) and hydrogen ions (H+).
• Cu2+ is preferentially discharged over H+.
• Cu2+ loses two electrons to the cathode and become copper metal. As a result, it forms a deposit
on the surface cathode.
• The half reaction at the cathode.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
❖ REACTION AT ANODE
• Anode attracts sulphate ions (SO42−) and hydroxide ions (OH−).
• However, copper anode discharges itself producing copper ion (Cu2+).
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e−
❖ OVERALL REACTION
Cu2+(aq) + Cu(s) → Cu(s) + Cu2+(aq)
Electrolysis 153
15.7 EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
• Aluminium is mined from bauxite. Bauxite is a mixture of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and other
minerals.
• Electrolysis is used to obtain aluminium from aluminium oxide.
• Aluminium oxide is heated until it becomes molten.
• Cryolite (Na3AlF3) is added to reduce the melting point of aluminium oxide.
• Electrode used: graphite.
• Ions present: Al3+ and O2−.
❖ REACTION AT CATHODE
• Cathode attracts aluminium ions (Al3+).
• Al3+ gains three electrons and become aluminium metal.
• The half reaction at the cathode.
Al3+(aq) + 3e− → Al(s)
❖ REACTION AT ANODE
• Anode attracts oxide ions (O2−).
• O2− loses two electrons and become an oxygen atom.
• Two oxygen atoms bond and form oxygen gas.
2O2−(aq) → O2(g) + 4e−
❖ OVERALL REACTION
4Al3+(aq) + 6O2−(aq) + 12e− → 4Al(s) + 3O2(g) + 12e−
4Al3+(aq) + 6O2−(aq) → 4Al(s) + 3O2(g)
154 Electrolysis
15.8 ELECTROPLATING
• Electroplating is the process of coating an object with a layer of metal by electrolysis.
• Electroplating protects objects and makes them attractive.
• During electroplating;
i. cathode must contain an object to be electroplated.
ii. anode must contain an electroplating metal.
iii. electrolyte must contain electroplating ions, for example, CuSO4 for copper electroplating,
AgNO3 for silver electroplating, ZnSO4 for zinc electroplating.
❖ GALVANISING
• Galvanising is the process of electroplating iron or steel with zinc metal.
• Galvanised iron or steel is protected from rust.
• During galvanising, the cathode must contain steel to be electroplated. In addition, the anode
must contain zinc metal and zinc sulphate electrolyte is used.
➢ AT CATHODE
• Zinc ion (Zn2+) gains two electrons and form zinc metal.
• Zinc metal formed is coated on steel metal.
➢ AT ANODE
• Zinc metal loses two electrons and forms Zn2+ ion.
• Zn2+ ions are released into the solution.
• The anode supplies more Zn2+ ions to the solution.
Electrolysis 155
15.9 ELECTROLYSIS CALCULATION
1. CHARGE TRANSFER
• When electric current passes through the electrolyte the negatively charged electrode (cathode)
attracts positively charged ions (cations) while the positively charged electrode (anode) attracts
negatively charged ions (anions).
• At the cathode, cations gain electrons and become neutral atoms. Therefore, cations are reduced
to neutral atoms.
• At the anode, anions lose electrons and become neutral atoms. Therefore, anions are oxidised to
neutral atoms.
• The amount of charge transfer depends on the amount of current flowing and the time taken.
• Formula:
Q = It where
Q = charge transfer (in Coulomb, C)
I = current flow (in Ampere, A)
t = time (in seconds, s)
❖ EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the amount of charge transferred when 8A current is used for 30 minutes during
electrolysis.
2. A current of 3A was passed through a solution of sulphuric acid for 10 minutes. How many
coulombs were passed through the solution?
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. Q = It Q=?
Q = 8 × 1800 I=8A
Q = 14400 C t = 30 × 60s
= 1800s
2. Q = It Q=?
Q = 3 × 600 I=3A
Q = 1800 C t = 10 × 60s
= 600s
2. MOLE CALCULATION
• During electrolysis, the amount of a substance in moles produced depends on the amounts of
charges transferred.
• According to Faraday, 96500 coulombs is equivalent to one mole. This value is Faraday’s constant.
• Therefore, knowing the amount of charges transferred during the electrolysis the number of moles
of a substance can be calculated.
• The formula for calculating the mole of a substance produced during electrolysis is as given:
Q where
n= or
F n = number of moles (in mol)
Q = charge transferred ( in C)
It
n= F = Faraday’s constant = 96500 C
F I = current flow (in Ampere, A)
t = time (in seconds, s)
156 Electrolysis
❖ EXAMPLES
1. How many moles of copper is produced if a current 1.5A is passed for 1 hour?
2. How many moles of aluminium is produced from an aqueous solution of aluminium chloride using
20A current for 10 min?
❖ SOLUTIONS
It n=?
1. n =
F I = 1.5A
1.5 × 3600 t = 1h × 60min × 60s
n=
96500 = 3600s
n = 0.06 mol F = 96500 C
It n=?
2. n =
F I = 20A
20 × 600 t = 10min × 60s
n=
96500 = 600s
n = 0.006 mol F = 96500 C
3. MASS CALCULATION
• When the number of moles is known the mass of a substance produced during electrolysis can be
calculated.
• The formula for calculating the mass of a substance produced during electrolysis is as given:
m = n × Mr where
m = mass produced (in grams)
n = moles of substance (in mol)
Mr = molar mass of substance (in g/mol)
❖ EXAMPLES
1. How many grams of copper can be plated out from an aqueous copper (II) nitrate solution using
a 3A current for 40 min?
2. How much silver can be plated out with a 12A current running for 3.5 hours?
❖ SOLUTIONS
It n=?
1. n =
F I = 3A
3 × 2400 t = 40min × 60s
n=
96500 = 2400s
n = 0.075 mol F = 96500 C
Electrolysis 157
It n=?
2. n=
F I = 12A
12 × 12600 t = 3.5hr × 60min × 60s
n=
96500 = 12600s
n = 1.57 mol F = 96500 C
4. VOLUME CALCULATION
• The volume of gas produced during electrolysis at room temperature and pressure can be calculated
from the known number of moles.
• Note; 1 mole of any substance at room temperature and pressure occupies 24dm3. This value is
known as molar volume.
• The formula for calculating the volume of a gas produced during electrolysis is as given:
❖ EXAMPLES
1. 0.2 moles of chlorine gas were produced during the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
Calculate the volume of chlorine at room temperature and pressure
2. What volume of oxygen is formed by passing 10A through acidified water for 30min at room
temperature and pressure?
❖ SOLUTIONS
1. Volume of gas = mole of gas × 24 dm3 Volume of Cl2 = ?
Volume (Cl2) = 0.2 × 24
Mole of Cl2 = 0.2 mol
Volume (Cl2) = 4.8 dm3
Molar volume = 24 dm3
It n=?
2. n =
F I = 10A
10 × 1800 t = 30min × 60s
n=
96500 = 1800s
n = 0.026 mol F = 96500 C
158 Electrolysis
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is likely not the application of electrolysis?
A. Purification of sodium
B. Purification of copper
C. Manufacture of hydrogen
D. Electroplating
2. Ion compound in an aqueous solution that is decomposed during electrolysis is known as
A. Cathode
B. Electrode
C. Electrolyte
D. Anode
3. An electric conductor that brings and take away electric current from the electrolyte is known as
A. Cathode
B. Electrode
C. Anode
D. Conductor
4. The positively charged electrode is called
A. Cathode
B. Electrode
C. electrolyte
D. anode
5. The negatively charged electrode is called
A. Cathode
B. Conductor
C. Electrolyte
D. Anode
6. The positively charged ion is known as
A. Cation
B. Cathode
C. Anion
D. Anode
7. The negatively charged ion is known as
A. Cation
B. Cathode
C. Anion
D. Anode
8. What ions are attracted to the anode?
A. Positively charged ions
B. Negatively charged ions
C. Neutral atoms
D. All the above
9. What charge is attracted to the cathode
A. Positively charged ions
B. Negatively charged ions
C. Neutral atoms
D. All the above
10. At the anode, negatively charged ions are
A. Oxidised
B. Reduced
C. Oxidised and reduced
D. None of the above
Electrolysis 159
11. At the cathode, positively charged ions
A. Oxidised
B. Reduced
C. Oxidised and reduced
D. None of the above
12. Which of the following statements is true concerning lead (II) bromine electrolysis?
A. Lead ions are attracted to the anode
B. Bromine ions are attracted to the cathode
C. Lead(II) bromine electrolyte is heated to a molten state
D. All the above
13. What gases are produced during the electrolysis of acidified water?
A. Hydrogen only
B. Oxygen only
C. Sulphur only
D. Hydrogen and oxygen
14. What are the products of sodium chloride electrolysis?
A. Hydrogen and oxygen
B. Oxygen, chlorine and sodium hydroxide
C. Hydrogen, chlorine and sodium hydroxide
D. Sodium hydroxide and water
15. During electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate, what happens at cathode and anode when copper electrodes are
used
A. At the cathode, copper ions are reduced to copper metal while at the anode hydroxide ions are
oxidised to water and oxygen.
B. At the cathode, copper ions are reduced to copper metal while at the anode copper metal is oxidised to
copper ions.
C. At the cathode, hydroxide ions are reduced to water and oxygen while at the anode copper metal is
oxidised to copper ions.
D. At the cathode, hydroxide ions are reduced to water and oxygen while at the anode sulphate ions are
oxidised to sulphur dioxide.
16. During aluminium extraction, what happens at cathode and anode
A. At the cathode, aluminium ions gain electrons and become aluminium metal while at node oxide ions
lose electrons and form oxygen gas.
B. At the cathode, oxide ions gain electrons and become oxygen gas while at the anode aluminium ions
lose electrons and become aluminium metal.
C. Both A and B are true.
D. None of the above.
17. During galvanising of steel with zinc, what should be placed at cathode and anode
A. At cathode zinc and anode steel
B. Zinc at cathode and anode
C. Steel at cathode and anode
D. At cathode steel and anode zinc
18. Electrolysis is used in the purification of copper
A. During the purification of copper, state the names of the following
i. electrolyte
ii. cathode
iii. anode
B. Draw a simple diagram showing how copper is purified
C. Write ionic equations for the reactions taking place at the electrode
D. A current of 10A is passed through the electrolyte for 20 minutes during the purification of copper.
Calculate the mass of pure copper obtained in 20 minutes
160 Electrolysis
19. Aluminium is extracted from bauxite by electrolysis of molten alumina dissolved in cryolite
A. State why cryolite is used during aluminium extraction.
B. Write down the formula of two ions present in the molten electrolyte.
C. Write equations for the reactions taking place at electrodes.
20. The diagram below shows the apparatus used in the silver plating of an iron article. During the
electroplating, a current of 3A was passed through the aqueous electrolyte for 40 minutes.
A. Define electroplating.
B. State the names of electrode L and electrolyte M which must be used for successful plating to occur.
C. Write equations for the reactions occurring at the electrodes.
D. What mass of silver is deposited on the iron article?
E. What changes are seen at the anode during electrolysis?
F. If the iron article was to be coated with copper instead of silver, state the materials needed to be used
for electrode M and electrolyte M.
G. State two reasons why electroplating is used.
H. State three other applications of electrolysis.
Electrolysis 161
SOLUTIONS
1. A
2. C
3. B
4. D
5. A
6. A
7. C
8. B
9. A
10. A
11. B
12. C
13. D
14. C
15. B
16. A
17. D
B.
It
D. n=
F
10 × 1200
n=
96500
n = 0.124 mol
162 Electrolysis
20. A. Electroplating is a coating of an object with metal using electrolysis.
B. Electrode L: silver
Electrolyte M: silver nitrate
C. At cathode: Ag+(aq) + e− → Ag(s)
At anode: Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e−
It
D. n =
F
3 × 2400
n=
96500
n = 0.075 mol
Electrolysis 163
16 METALS
Introductions
About three-quarters of all the known elements are metals. In real life, they have countless uses. For example,
we use metals such as copper to make utensils and electric wires, iron for construction and gold to make
jewellery pieces. Most metals are mined from the earth’s crust as ore. How are metals extracted from their
ore? Can metals be combined? This unit covers these and many more questions.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to
❖ State the physical and chemical properties of metals
❖ State the reactivity series of metals
❖ Describe the following reactions:
• Metals with oxygen
• Metals with water
• Meals with dilute acid
• Displacement reaction
• Metal oxide with carbon
• Metal oxide with hydrogen
• Decomposition of metal carbonates
❖ Describe the extraction of the following metals:
• Iron
• Copper
• Zinc
❖ State the uses common metals
❖ Define an alloy, types and their uses
❖ State ways of preventing rusting
164 Metals
METALS
16.1 PROPERTIES OF METALS
❖ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
• They are strong and hard.
• They are ductile; that is, they can be stretched into a thin wire.
• They are malleable; that is, they can be bent into a without breaking
• They are shiny (lustrous) when polished.
• They are good conductors of electricity and heat.
• They have a high melting point and boiling point.
• They have high density.
• They are solid at room temperature except for mercury which is liquid.
• They are sonorous; produce sound when hit.
• Metals form a positive ion when they react with other substances such as oxygen, water or acid.
• Reactivity series arrange metals in order of reactivity, the tendency of a metal to react with other
elements to form compounds.
• The more reactive a metal is, the faster it reacts with other elements.
• The more reactive a metal is, the easier it loses electrons and become a positive ion.
• A very reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal.
• The more reactive a metal is, the more susceptible it is to be corroded with oxygen from air or
water. For example, sodium readily reacts with air. Therefore it is kept in oil to prevent reaction
with air. On the other hand, metals like gold are not easily corroded therefore they are found in pure
form naturally.
• The more reactive a metal is the more difficult it is to extract it from its metal ore.
• Aluminium appears to be less reactive than its position in the reactivity series because it rapidly
forms an aluminium oxide layer on the metal surface. This oxide layer tends to reduce its reactivity.
Metals 165
16.3 REACTION OF METALS WITH OXYGEN
• The process by which a metal reacts with oxygen in the air at room temperature is called corrosion.
• Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxide.
M(s) + O2(g) → MO(s)
• Very reactive metals readily burn in air.
2Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
• Moderate reactive metals readily burn in the air when heated.
2Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
• Less reactive metals do not burn brightly while others do not burn at all. However, they still react
with oxygen to form metal oxide when strongly heated.
4Ag(s) + O2(g) → 2Ag2O(s)
166 Metals
16.7 REACTION OF METAL OXIDE WITH CARBON
• Carbon reacts with metal oxide and forms metal and carbon dioxide.
• Very reactive metals such as potassium sodium form strong metal oxide bonds. Therefore it is
difficult for carbon to displace a metal from metal oxide.
• Less reactive metals form a weak metal oxide bond; therefore, it is easy for carbon to displace a
metal from metal oxide.
• The lower the position in the reactivity series the easier for carbon to remove oxygen from the metal
oxide by heating.
2Ag2O(s) + C(g) → 4Ag(s) + CO2(g)
2CuO(s) + C(g) → 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
Metals 167
16.11 EXTRACTION OF IRON
• Iron is extracted from iron ore using a blast furnace.
• There are four types of iron ores; hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4) , limonite (2Fe2O3∙3H2O)
and siderite (FeCO3). Hematite and magnetite are the commonest iron ores.
• Hematite contains iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3).
• Limestone (calcium carbonate) and coke (carbon) are required in iron extraction.
• Hematite, limestone and coke are loaded from the top of the blast furnace.
• The furnace is heated to a temperature over 1000oC.
❖ PRODUCTS
• Molten iron and slag are the necessary products from the blast furnace.
• Iron from the furnace is cooled into the iron cast.
• Iron casts are ready for use or alloyed into steel.
• Slag is used for road construction.
168 Metals
16.12 EXTRACTION OF COPPER
• Copper is extracted from copper ore using roasting in a furnace.
• There are various types of copper ore with different ore concentrations such as chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2), chalcocite (Cu2S), cuprite (Cu2O), bornite (Cu5FeS4) and malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2).
• Chalcopyrite (also called copper pyrite) is the commonest copper ore. However, it is a low grade
copper ore. Therefore, the ore contains a low percentage of copper.
❖ REACTIONS
1. Zinc sulphide is heated in air to form zinc oxide and sulphur dioxide
ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
2. Oxygen in the air reacts with coke and form carbon dioxide
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
3. Carbon dioxide reacts with coke and form carbon monoxide
CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
4. Zinc oxide is reduced by carbon monoxide to zinc and carbon dioxide
ZnO(s) + CO(g) → Zn(s) + CO2(g)
Metals 169
16.14 USES OF METALS
1. Copper is used for making electrical wires and cooking utensils because it is a good conductor of
heat and electricity.
2. Iron is used in building constructions because it has high tensile strength.
3. Gold, silver and platinum are used for making jewellery because they are luster and malleable.
4. Zinc is used as a protective coat of iron.
5. Aluminium is used in aircraft bodies because it is a light metal.
16.15 ALLOY
• Alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or metals and non-metals.
• Most alloys are a mixture of metals.
• A pure metal is too soft for use because layers of atoms slide over each other easily.
• Mixing two metals with different atom sizes decreases the sliding of atoms. Therefore, the
formed metal is strong and tough for everyday use.
❖ TYPES OF ALLOYS
1. STAINLESS STEEL
• Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, carbon, nickel and chromium.
• It is hard and resistant to corrosion from air and water.
• It is mainly used for cutleries such as knives, spoons and forks.
2. INVAR
• Invar is an alloy of iron and nickel.
• It expands very little when heated.
• It is used in temperature sensitive devices such as precision instruments, engine valves,
clock arms.
170 Metals
15.16 RUSTING
• Iron reacts with water and oxygen and forms a solid brown product called rust. The process is
called rusting.
• Rust is a hydrated iron(III) oxide.
• Water and air are needed for rusting to occur.
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 2Fe2O3∙H2O(s)
2. Sacrificial protection
• Coat iron with another metal.
• The coated metal must be more reactive than iron.
• Therefore, the coated metal corrodes first instead of iron.
• Galvanising is coating iron or steel with zinc.
3. Stainless steel
• Iron alloyed with less reactive metals.
• This causes iron to be more resistant to rusting.
Metals 171
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is a property of metals?
A. They are good conductors of heat and electricity
B. They are malleable
C. They are ductile
D. All the above
2. Which of the following correctly lists the metals in decreasing order of reactivity?
A. Potassium, copper, magnesium, gold
B. Silver, sodium, aluminium, zinc
C. Sodium, magnesium, zinc, silver
D. Lead, calcium, copper, iron
3. Gold is often found in a pure state naturally because
A. It is very rare
B. It is very reactive
C. It is very unreactive
D. It is easily corroded
4. Metals react with oxygen to form
A. Metal oxide
B. Metal hydroxide
C. Salts
D. None of the above
5. Which of the following statements concerning the reaction of meals with water is correct?
A. Very reactive metals such as potassium and sodium react with cold water and form metal hydroxide
and hydrogen gas
B. Moderate react metals such as magnesium and aluminium react with steam and form a metal oxide
and hydrogen gas
C. Such metals such as gold and silver do not react with cold water or steam
D. All the above
6. Which of the following metal carbonate can be decomposed to a metal completely by heating?
A. Silver
B. Calcium
C. Potassium
D. Magnesium
7. What happens to iron(III) oxide in a blast furnace
A. It is oxidised by calcium carbonate to iron
B. It is reduced by carbon monoxide to iron
C. It is oxidised by calcium carbonate to iron
D. It is reduced by carbon monoxide to iron
8. Comparing pure iron and steel, pure iron is
A. Harder
B. Softer
C. Tougher
D. All the above
9. What two conditions are necessary for the rusting of iron?
A. Oxygen and hydrogen
B. Hydrogen and nitrogen
C. Oxygen and water
D. Water and hydrogen
172 Metals
10. Bronze is an alloy of
A. Copper and tin
B. Copper and iron
C. Copper and zinc
D. Copper and lead
11. Brass is an alloy of
A. Copper and tin
B. Copper and iron
C. Copper and zinc
D. Copper and lead
12. Which of the following is not a good method of preventing rust?
A. Painting
B. Greasing
C. Heating
D. Galvanising
13. Which alloy is mainly used in cutlery?
A. Brass
B. Bronze
C. Invar
D. Stainless steel
14. Zinc is used in galvanising iron than copper because
A. It is more reactive than iron
B. It is less reactive than iron
C. It does not corrode
D. None of the above
15. Iron is extracted using a blast furnace
A. Name two ores of iron
B. Write the formula of the two ores mentioned above
C. What two other substances are introduced in the blast furnace together with iron ore
D. Write a chemical equation for the reduction of any ore named above
E. What property does iron have for it to be used to make iron sheets
F. Explain why aluminium is extracted by electrolysis while iron is extracted by reduction with carbon
16. Metals have a wide range of properties
A. State any three physical properties and three chemical properties of metals.
B. Explain why metals are lustrous.
C. Two or more metals can be mixed together or mixed with non-metals
i. What name is given to a mixture of metals.
ii. Name any metallic mixture, state the elements present in it and its use.
iii. Give two reasons metals are mixed.
D. Metals can be extracted by electrolysis or chemical reduction. Name two metals that can be extracted
i. electrolysis
ii. chemical reduction
E. List three problems associated with the extraction of metals.
F. Give three advantages of metal recycling.
Metals 173
SOLUTIONS
1. D
2. C
3. C
4. A
5. D
6. A
7. D
8. B
9. C
10. A
11. C
12. C
13. D
14. A
Chemical properties
i. metals react with oxygen to form metal oxide.
ii. metals react with dilute acids to form salt and hydrogen gas.
iii. metals react with water to form metal hydroxide or metal oxide and hydrogen gas.
B. Metals are lustrous because the surface of the metal reflects light which gives them a shiny
appearance.
C. i. Alloy
ii. Bronze. It contains a mixture of copper and tin. Bronze is used to decorate objects.
iii. To make objects attractive.
To protect objects from corrosion.
174 Metals
17 ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
The earth’s atmosphere contains a mixture of naturally occurring gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. In addition to these gases, some harmful gases are introduced into the atmosphere such as carbon
monoxide and sulphur dioxide. These gases pose a threat to the globe. What are the sources of these gases?
How can we reduce the emission of these gases? This unit answers these questions.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ State the composition of air
❖ Describe an experiment used to calculate the composition of oxygen in the air.
❖ State the source, harmful effect and prevention of the following pollutants:
• Carbon monoxide and carbon soot
• Sulphur dioxide
• Oxides of nitrogen
• Unburnt hydrocarbons
❖ Describe the effect of CFC on the ozone layer.
❖ Describe the greenhouse effect.
❖ COMPOSITION OF AIR
Composition of air
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon 0.9%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Other 0.09%
Equation
Oxygen + copper → copper (II) oxide
O2(g) + 2Cu(s) → 2CuO(s)
• A known volume of gas in the gas syringe is passed over the burning copper powder.
• The burning copper uses oxygen in the air hence decreasing the volume of gas in the gas
syringes.
• The percentage composition of oxygen in the air can be calculated by finding the volume of
oxygen used and multiply it by 100%.
Volume of O2 = initial volume of air in gas syringes − final volume of air in gas syringes
volume of O2
Percentage composition of O2 = × 100%
initial volume of air
❖ PREVENTION
i. Install catalytic converter in cars. Catalytic converters reduce air pollutant emissions from car
engines by converting them to harmless substances. For example, it can convert carbon monoxide to
carbon dioxide.
ii. Install electrostatic precipitators in industries and factories to reduce the emission of carbon soot.
2. SULPHUR DIOXIDE
• Sulphur dioxide is a pungent and colourless gas.
• Fossil fuels contain sulphur elements.
• Burning of these fossil fuels combine sulphur and oxygen and form sulphur dioxide.
Sulphur + oxygen → sulphur dioxide
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
• Sulphur dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater and form dilute sulphuric acid called acid rain.
Sulphur dioxide + oxygen → sulphur trioxide
SO2(s) + O2(g) → SO3(g)
Sulphur trioxide + water → sulphuric acid
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
❖ PREVENTION
i. Reduce using fossil fuels.
ii. Desulphurisation. The process of removing sulphur dioxide from smoke by treating it with
calcium carbonate.
Sulphur dioxide + calcium carbonate → calcium sulphate + carbon dioxide
SO2(g) + CaCO3(s) → CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)
Calcium sulphate can further be oxidised to produce gypsum. Gypsum is used to make
plasterboard for lining interior walls and ceilings.
❖ HARMFUL EFFECTS
i. Inhaling oxides of nitrogen irritate lungs.
ii. Become acid rain with rainwater. Acid rain kills living organisms on land and in the aquatic.
❖ PREVENTION
i. Install catalytic converter in cars. Catalytic converter can convert oxides of nitrogen to nitrogen
gas.
❖ HARMFUL EFFECTS
i. Unburnt hydrocarbons are carcinogenic. They cause cancer.
ii. Photochemical smog causes eye, nose, throat and lung irritation.
❖ PREVENTION
i. Install catalytic converters in cars to prevent unburnt hydrocarbon release.
ii. Stop using chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) products. These products deplete the ozone layer.
Introduction
Organic chemistry is simply the study of organic compounds. Organic compounds are compounds with
carbon−hydrogen bonds. The main element of organic compounds is carbon. However, organic compounds
usually have other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus.
Organic compounds are very important in our daily lives. For example, petrol and diesel, the fuels we use to
power cars are naturally occurring organic compounds. A large portion of our body consists of organic
compounds. They are found in the food we eat. In addition, they can also be synthesized to form plastics and
clothes we wear.
This unit introduces you to organic chemistry. You will learn that organic compounds in the same group
have similar structures and properties.
Specific outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to
❖ Define the following terms:
• Organic chemistry
• Organic compound
• Functional group
• Homologous series
❖ Name an organic compound
❖ Define the following terms:
• Hydrocarbon
• Saturated compound
• Unsaturated compound
❖ Alkanes:
• Describe alkanes
• State the reactions of alkanes
❖ Alkenes:
• Describe alkenes
• State the reactions of alkenes
❖ Alcohols:
• Describe alcohols
• Describe the formation of alcohols
• State the reactions of alcohols
❖ Carboxylic acids:
• Describe carboxylic acids
• Describe the formation of carboxylic acids
❖ Esters:
• Describe esters
• Describe the formation of esters
❖ FUNCTIONAL GROUP
• A functional group is a group of atoms that is responsible for the chemical properties of
compounds.
❖ HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
• A homologous series is a group of organic compounds with the same functional group and
similar chemical properties.
• The compound in the same homologous series shows a trend in physical properties with the
increase in the number of carbon atoms or molecular mass.
• Homologous series studied at this level are alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic acids and
esters. The table below shows the functional group of these compounds.
• The prefix of an organic compound is a group of letters at the beginning of the molecule’s name.
• They indicate the number of carbon atoms in the compound. For example, butane has four carbons;
ethanoic acid has two carbons; propene has three carbons.
• The table below shows the common prefixes.
Prefix Number of carbon atoms Example
1 Meth- Methane
2 Eth- Ethanol
3 Prop- Propanoic acid
4 But- Butane
5 Pent- Pentanol
6 Hex- Hexane
7 Hept- heptane
8 Oct- Octanoic acid
9 Non- Nonene
10 Dec- Decane
❖ HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS
• Hydrocarbon compounds are compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms
• Alkanes and alkenes are hydrocarbon compounds
❖ SATURATED COMPOUNDS
• Saturated compounds are organic compounds that contain only single bonds
• All carbon atoms in a saturated compound are bonded to four hydrogen or carbon atoms
• Examples of saturated compounds; all alkanes are saturated compounds
❖ UNSATURATED COMPOUNDS
• Unsaturated compounds are organic compounds that contain a double bond
• Examples of unsaturated compounds; all alkenes are unsaturated
❖ REACTIONS OF ALKANES
1. COMBUSTION
• Alkanes burn in air with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.
C5H12(l) + 8O2(g) → 5CO2(g) → 6H2O(l)
• With insufficient oxygen, carbon monoxide and water are produced.
• Alkanes are usually used as fuels, for example, petrol and diesel.
❖ CRACKING OF ALKANES
• Long chain alkanes can be broken down into shorter chain alkanes and alkenes using heat. This
process is called cracking.
• The process is done at high temperature and pressure in the presence of zeolite (aluminium oxide
and silicon dioxide) catalyst.
• For example, decane can be broken down into pentane and pentene.
C10H22(l) → C5H12(l) + C5H10(l)
• Cracking is important in the formation of more useful smaller such as petrol and diesel from long
chained alkanes and the formation of alkenes.
❖ USES OF ALKENES
• Alkenes are commonly used in industries as starting materials for the synthesis of other
substances.
• They are used in the synthesis of alcohol, acids, fuel and other substances such as plastics.
❖ REACTIONS OF ALKENES
1. COMBUSTION OF ALKENES
• Alkenes burn with sufficient oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.
• With insufficient oxygen, they produce carbon monoxide.
2C5H10(l) + 15O2(g) → 10CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
2. HYDROGENATION
• Alkenes can be converted to alkanes by reacting them with hydrogen gas.
• This is an addition reaction. Hydrogen atoms are added to the C = C double bond.
• The process occurs at high temperature and pressure in the presence of nickel catalyst.
• Hydrogenation is used in the formation of margarine from vegetable oil.
5. POLYMERISATION
• Polymerisation is the process by which smaller molecules are chemically combined to form large
molecules.
• Smaller repeating molecules that are chemically combined to form a large molecule are called
monomers.
• A large molecule formed by polymerisation is called a polymer.
• Smaller alkenes can be combined chemically to form a large molecule.
• For example, thousands of ethene molecules can be joined together to make poly(ethene). Ethene is
a monomer and poly(ethene) a polymer.
• Importance of polymerisation
• Polymerisation is used in plastic formation.
❖ USES OF ALCOHOL
i. Alcoholic drink
ii. Preservative
iii. Organic solvent
iv. Fuel
❖ FORMATION OF ALCOHOL
1. FERMENTATION OF SUGAR
• Alcohol is produced by fermenting sugar with yeast.
glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide
C6H12O(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
2. OXIDATION
• Oxidation of alcohol produces carboxylic acid and water.
• Oxidising agents such as oxygen and acidified potassium dichromate oxidises alcohol to
carboxylic acid and water.
ethanol + oxygen → ethanoic acid + water
C2H5OH(aq) + O2(g) → CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l)
3. ESTERIFICATION
• The reaction between alcohol and carboxylic acids produces an ester (− O − group) and water.
5. DEHYDRATION OF ALCOHOL
• When alcohol is heated with heated at 170oC with excess concentrated sulphuric acid it gives off
alkene and water.
• This reaction is an elimination reaction, where the water (H−OH) molecule is removed from the
alcohol.
• For example, ethanol gives ethene and water.
30. A. The following compounds are members of the homologous series of alkenes.
CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10, and C5H12
i. State the formulae of the next two members in the series.
ii. State the reason whether the compound C9H18 belongs to the family of alkanes or not.
iii. Among the five members given state with the reason the one with the highest boiling point.
B. The demand for petrol worldwide increases every year. To meet the demand, large molecules of
hydrocarbons are cracked.
i. What do you understand by the term cracking?
ii. State two types of cracking.
iii. Write down the two possible products when the compound C11H24 is cracked.
31. A. Name the organic compounds with the structural formulae shown below.
B. A hydrocarbon belonging to the alkane family has the molecular formula C4Hx, where x is the
number of hydrogen atoms in one molecule of the hydrocarbon.
i. State the general formula of the alkanes.
ii. Use the general formula to find the value of x in C4Hx and state the name of the hydrocarbon.
iii. Draw the structures of the two isomers of the above hydrocarbon.
32. 4.2g of a gaseous hydrocarbon Z was analysed and was found to contain 3.6g carbon and 0.6g of hydrogen.
The relative formula mass of hydrocarbon Z is 28
A. Using the information provided above deduce the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon Z
B. Draw the molecular structure of hydrocarbon Z
C. i. To which homologous series does hydrocarbon Z belong?
ii. Write the general formula of the homologous series to which hydrocarbon Z belongs
D. The analysed hydrocarbon was later burn in limited supply in the air although such a reaction is
dangerous
i. Explain why the burning of hydrocarbon Z in a limited supply of air is dangerous
ii. Write the balanced chemical equation for the burning of hydrocarbon Z in a limited supply of
air. Include the state symbols
E. Can hydrocarbon Z be polymerised? Give a reason for your answer
33. An ester is formed from carboxylic acid and alcohol. The carboxylic acid has the molecular formula C4H8O2
A. i. Name the carboxylic acid
ii. Draw the structural formula of the carboxylic acid
iii. What is the empirical formula of a carboxylic acid?
B. Analysis of the alcohol shows it has the following percentage composition by mass, 52.2% carbon,
13.0% hydrogen and 34.8% oxygen
i. Work out the empirical and molecular formulae of the alcohol (Mr = 46)
ii. Draw the full structural formula of the alcohol and state its name
iii. Write a chemical equation of the reaction between the carboxylic acid in A.i. and alcohol in
B.ii. using structural diagram
A. Describe how the above ester can be prepared in the laboratory by naming the reagents and the
conditions needed for a successful reaction
B. What observation will confirm that an ester has been formed in the rection?
30. A. i. C6H14
ii. C9H18 does not belong to the alkane family because it lacks two hydrogen atoms.
iii. C5H12 has the highest boiling because of the strong force of attraction between molecules.
B. i. Cracking is the process of breaking down longer hydrocarbons into shorter ones using heat.
ii. Catalytic cracking and steam cracking.
iii. C6H14 and C5H10
31. A. i. Propanol
ii. Ethanoic acid
iii. Polyvinyl chloride
B. i. CnH2n + 2
ii. x = 10
name of hydrocarbon; butane
iii.
mol of Mg mol of C
Ratio of C = Ratio of H =
smallest mol smallest mol
0.3 0.6
= =
0.3 0.3
=1 =2
molar mass
n=
empirical mass
28
n=
13
n=2
B.
C. i. alkane
ii. CnH2n
D. i. Burning hydrocarbon Z in limited air produces carbon monoxide that causes suffocation.
ii. C2H4(g) + 2O2(g) → 2CO(g) + 2H2O(g)
ii.
iii. C2H4O
% given Mole = ?
B. i. n (C) =
molar mass % (C) = 52.2%
52.2 Mr (C) = 12 g/mol
=
12
= 4.35 mol
% given Mole = ?
n (C) =
molar mass % (H) = 13%
13.0 Mr (H) = 1 g/mol
=
1
= 13 mol
% given Mole = ?
n (O) =
molar mass % (O) = 53.01%
34.8 Mr (O) = 16 g/mol
=
16
= 2.175 mol
molar mass
n=
empirical mass
46
n=
46
n=1
iii.
34. A. The reaction can be prepared by reacting propanol and ethanoic acid in the presence of concentrated
sulphuric acid.
B. A pleasant smell of ester.
Introduction
Plastics play essential roles in our daily lives. Think of plastic bags, plastic containers, plastic housing
smartphones and computers, pens, and some clothes. All these materials consist of larger molecules that were
made by chemically joining smaller molecules. These larger molecules are called macromolecules. Some
macromolecules are naturally occurring while others are synthesized. The commonest naturally occurring
macromolecules are carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the nutrients found in most food we eat.
Specific outcomes
This unit covers common synthetic macromolecules. By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
❖ Define the following terms:
• Macromolecule
• Monomer
• Polymer
• Polymerisation
❖ Differentiate addition polymerisation and substitution polymerisation
❖ Write the structure and state the uses of the following synthetic macromolecules:
• Nylon
• Terylene
❖ State examples of natural macromolecules
202 Macromolecules
MACROMOLECULES
19.1 MACROMOLECULES
• Macromolecules are large molecules made by chemically joining together many small molecules.
• Smaller molecules that are chemically joined are called monomers.
• A large molecule formed by chemically joining smaller molecules is called a polymer.
• Polymerisation is the addition of monomers to form one large polymer.
❖ TYPES OF POLYMERISATION
1. ADDITION POLYMERISATION
• Addition polymerisation is the formation of a polymer by joining monomers without the
production of other substances.
• In addition polymerisation, no atoms are lost.
• The process occurs with unsaturated monomers such as alkenes.
• For example, thousands of ethene molecules can be joined together by addition
polymerisation to make poly(ethene). Ethene is a monomer and poly(ethene) a polymer.
• Poly(ethene) is used to make plastics.
2. CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
• Condensation polymerisation is the formation of polymers by joining of monomer with the
elimination of smaller molecules.
• In condensation polymerisation, each time a bond is formed between two monomers a
smaller molecule is lost usually water.
• Common polymers formed by condensation polymerisation are nylon and terylene.
❖ NYLON
• Nylon is formed by polymerisation of dicarboxylic acid (adipic acid) and diamine
(hexamethylene diamine).
• The linkage between the monomers is called an amide linkage. Therefore, the polymer
is called polyamide.
• The formation of amide results in a loss of water.
Macromolecules 203
❖ USES OF NYLON
i. Making clothing
ii. Fishing nets
iii. Rugs and carpets
iv. Parachutes
❖ TERYLENE
• Terylene is formed by polymerisation of dicarboxylic acid (terephthalic acid) and diol (ethylene
glycol: alcohol with 2 −OH groups).
• The linkage between the monomers is called an ester linkage. Therefore, the polymer is called
polyester.
• The formation of amide results in a loss of water.
❖ USES OF TERYLENE
i. Making clothing
ii. Plastic bottles
iii. Safety belts and ropes
2. PROTEINS
• Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur.
• The monomers of proteins are amino acids.
• Condensation polymerisation of amino acids produces proteins.
• The peptide bond between two amino acids is similar to the amide linkage found in nylon.
• Proteins can be broken down into amino acids by the process called hydrolysis reaction.
204 Macromolecules
3. FATS
• Fats contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• The monomers of fats are fatty acids and glycerol.
• A single fat molecule contains one glycerol and three fatty acids.
• The bond between a fatty acid and glycerol is similar to the ester linkage found in terylene.
• Fats can be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol by hydrolysis reaction.
Macromolecules 205
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The process by which smaller molecule units are chemically joined to form larger molecules is called?
A. Cracking
B. Polymerisation
C. Esterification
D. Hydrolysis
2. Smaller molecule units that are reacted to form a large molecule are called?
A. Monomer
B. Polymer
C. Ester
D. Amide
3. A large molecule formed by reacting smaller units is known as
A. Alkane
B. Monomer
C. Ester
D. Polymer
4. By what reaction type is a polymer formed from monomers
A. Addition reaction
B. Substitution reaction
C. Condensation reaction
D. Hydrolysis
5. By what reaction type is a polymer broken down into monomers
A. Elimination reaction
B. Substitution reaction
C. Condensation reaction
D. Hydrolysis
6. A type of polymerisation which involves the formation of a large molecule from smaller molecules
without the production of other molecules is known as
A. Substitution condensation
B. Condensation polymerisation
C. Addition condensation
D. Elimination polymerisation
7. A type of polymerisation which involves the formation of a large molecule from smaller molecules with
the production of other molecules such as water is known as
A. Substitution condensation
B. Condensation polymerisation
C. Addition condensation
D. Elimination polymerisation
8. Which of the following does not describe a polymer?
A. Polymers are large molecules
B. Polymers are made of monomers
C. Polymers are broken by the process of hydrogenation
D. Polymers usually form by covalent bond
9. A polymer formed by polymerisation of ethene is known as
A. Terylene
B. Nylon
C. Bakelite
D. Polyethene
206 Macromolecules
10. PVC (polyvinyl chloride) is prepared by the polymerisation
A. propene
B. 1-fluoroethene
C. 1-chloroethene
D. Ethene
11. A polymer formed by polymerisation of dicarboxylic acid and diamine is known as
A. Polyvinyl chloride
B. Nylon
C. Bakelite
D. Terylene
12. A polymer formed by polymerisation of dicarboxylic acid and diol is known as
A. Teflon
B. Nylon
C. Polyvinyl chloride
D. Terylene
13. Which of the following plastics is thermally stable?
A. Polyethene
B. Polypropene
C. Polyvinyl chloride
D. Polytetrafluoroethylene
14. The basic units of proteins are
A. Fatty acids and glycerol
B. Amino acids
C. Glucose
D. Nucleic acids
15. The basic units of carbohydrates are
A. Fatty acids and glycerol
B. Amino acids
C. Glucose
D. Nucleic acids
16. The basic units of fats are
A. Fatty acids and glycerol
B. Amino acids
C. Glucose
D. Nucleic acids
17. Which of the following can be used to obtain amino acids from proteins?
A. Condensation
B. Decomposition
C. Hydration
D. Hydrolysis
18. Terylene is a polyester formed from carboxylic acid and alcohol units
A. Name two monomers used to make terylene
B. Draw the structural formula of terylene showing only four monomer units
C. State two uses of terylene
19. Nylon is a polyamide used to make clothing material
A. Name the two monomers used to make nylon
B. Draw part of the structure of nylon showing at least three monomer units
C. Which natural macromolecule contains the amide linkages?
Macromolecules 207
20. The structure of tetrafluoroethylene is shown below
A. Draw the structure of the polymer formed when tetrafluoroethylene molecules polymerise (show
at least four monomer units). Give the name of the polymer.
B. What type of polymerisation is involved in the formation of the polymer above?
C. When 10 tonnes of tetrafluoroethylene polymerised, 9 tonnes of the polymer were obtained.
Calculate the percentage yield.
D. Name another commercially available polymer containing a halogen and state its uses.
208 Macromolecules
SOLUTIONS
1. B
2. A
3. D
4. C
5. D
6. C
7. B
8. C
9. D
10. C
11. B
12. D
13. D
14. B
15. C
16. A
17. D
B.
C. Uses of terylene
i. making clothing materials
ii. making plastic bottles
B.
C. Protein
20. A. Structure;
B. Addition polymerisation
actual yield
C. Percentage yield = × 100%
theoretical yield
9
= × 100%
10
= 90%
D. Polyvinyl chloride
Uses of polyvinyl chloride
i. Pipes
ii. Cables
iii. Plastic bottles
iv. Window frames
v. Plastic tubes
Macromolecules 209