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Hypokalemia
Hypokalemia
Hypokalemia
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Quick Medical Diagnosis & Treatment 2021
Hypokalemia
For further information, see CMDT Part 2104: Hypokalemia
Key Features
Essentials of Diagnosis
Serum K+ < 3.5 mEq/L (< 3.5 mmol/L)
Severe hypokalemia may induce arrhythmias and rhabdomyolysis
Assessment of urine potassium excretion (urine potassium to creatinine ratio) can distinguish renal from nonrenal loss of potassium
General Considerations
Hypokalemia can result from
Insufficient dietary potassium intake
Intracellular shifting of potassium from the extracellular space
Potassium loss (renal or extrarenal)
A low dietary potassium intake is usually not sufficient to cause hypokalemia because the kidneys can lower urine potassium excretion to very low
levels (< 15 mEq/L)
Shift of potassium into cells is increased by insulin and betaadrenergic stimulation
Excess potassium excretion by the kidneys is usually due to increased aldosterone action in the setting of preserved delivery of sodium to the
distal nephron
Magnesium
An important regulator of potassium handling
Low levels lead to persistent renal excretion of potassium; hypokalemia is often refractory to treatment until the magnesium deficiency is
corrected
Loop diuretics (eg, furosemide) cause substantial renal potassium and magnesium losses
Clinical Findings
Usually asymptomatic
When severe, may lead to muscle weakness and cardiac arrhythmias
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Involvement of gastrointestinal smooth muscle may result in constipation or ileus
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Rhabdomyolysis with associated acute kidney injury may occur with potassium levels < 2.5 mEq/L
Clinical Findings Access Provided by:
Usually asymptomatic
When severe, may lead to muscle weakness and cardiac arrhythmias
Involvement of gastrointestinal smooth muscle may result in constipation or ileus
Rhabdomyolysis with associated acute kidney injury may occur with potassium levels < 2.5 mEq/L
May additionally present as polyuria and polydipsia due to diminished concentrating ability of the kidney (nephrogenic DI)
Chronic hypokalemia can lead to kidney disease (tubulointerstitial nephritis)
Diagnosis
Laboratory Tests
Transient hypokalemia is generally secondary to intracellular shift, while sustained hypokalemia is secondary to potassium wasting or rarely
inadequate intake
Assessment of renal potassium excretion can help distinguish renal from nonrenal causes
A 24hour urine collection is the most accurate method for assessing renal handling of potassium, with a level < 25 mEq/day compatible with
appropriate renal potassium retention, and higher values corresponding to renal potassium wasting
A more immediate assessment can be made by measuring a urine potassium to creatinine ratio (UK/UCr) on a spot urine sample
In the setting of hypokalemia, a UK/UCr ratio < 13 mEq/g (or 1.5 mEq/mmol) is suggestive of a nonrenal etiology, most commonly gastrointestinal
losses, intracellular potassium shifts, or inadequate dietary intake; higher values imply renal potassium wasting
Diagnostic Procedures
Characteristic progression of electrocardiogram (ECG) changes as the hypokalemia becomes more severe: initially T wave flattening, subsequently
ST depressions and T wave inversions, ultimately U waves
Typical ECG patterns may be not be observed in all patients
Treatment
Any underlying conditions should be treated and causative drugs discontinued
Magnesium deficiency should be corrected, particularly in refractory hypokalemia
Oral potassium supplementation
Safest for mild to moderate deficiency
However, may cause gastrointestinal upset
Dosages
20 mEq/day is generally sufficient to prevent hypokalemia
In cases of established hypokalemia, 40–100 mEq/day over a period of days to weeks may be needed to treat hypokalemia and fully
replete potassium stores
Intravenous potassium
Reserved for severe hypokalemia (< 3.0 mEq/L)
Requires careful monitoring due to the risk of transient hyperkalemia
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Potassium chloride
May be given through a peripheral intravenous line at rates up to 10–15 mEq/h diluted in 0.5% or 0.9% normal saline
replete potassium stores
Access Provided by:
Intravenous potassium
Reserved for severe hypokalemia (< 3.0 mEq/L)
Requires careful monitoring due to the risk of transient hyperkalemia
Potassium chloride
May be given through a peripheral intravenous line at rates up to 10–15 mEq/h diluted in 0.5% or 0.9% normal saline
Higher rates (up to 20 mEq/h) require central access due to the risk of peripheral vein irritation
In cases of concurrent metabolic acidosis, potassium repletion should take precedence over alkali administration because correction of
the acidosis results in intracellular shift of potassium, further decreasing extracellular potassium concentration
Similarly, potassium should be given in a saline, rather than dextrose solution since dextrose would stimulate insulin release and hence,
intracellular shift
Outcome
FollowUp
Monitor ECG continuously when infusing intravenous potassium for severe hypokalemia
Check serum potassium level every 3–6 hours
Complications
Hypokalemia increases the likelihood of digitalis toxicity
In patients with heart disease, hypokalemia induced by beta2adrenergic agonists and diuretics may impose a substantial risk
Prognosis
Most hypokalemia will correct with replacement after 24–72 h
When to Refer
Patients with unexplained hypokalemia, refractory hyperkalemia, or clinical features suggesting alternative diagnoses (eg, aldosteronism or
hypokalemic periodic paralysis) should be referred for endocrinology or nephrology consultation
When to Admit
Patients with symptomatic or severe hypokalemia, especially with cardiac manifestations, require cardiac monitoring, frequent laboratory testing,
and potassium supplementation
References
Gumz ML et al. An integrated view of potassium homeostasis. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jul 2;373(1):60–72. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2015 Sep
24;373(13):1281.
[PubMed: 26132942]
Palmer BF et al. Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis: Core Curriculum 2019. Am J Kidney Dis. 2019 Nov;74(5):682–95.
[PubMed: 31227226]
Wu KL et al. Identification of the causes for chronic hypokalemia: importance of urinary sodium and chloride excretion. Am J Med. 2017
Jul;130(7):846–55.
[PubMed: 28213045]
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Palmer BF et al. Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis: Core Curriculum 2019. Am J Kidney Dis. 2019 Nov;74(5):682–95.
Access Provided by:
[PubMed: 31227226]
Wu KL et al. Identification of the causes for chronic hypokalemia: importance of urinary sodium and chloride excretion. Am J Med. 2017
Jul;130(7):846–55.
[PubMed: 28213045]
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