Mechanical Properties

of
Metals

1
 Processing of metals & alloys
• Most metals are first melted in a furnace.
• Alloying is done if required.
• Large ingots are then cast.
• Sheets and plates are then produced from ingots by
rolling Wrought alloy products.
• Products manufactured by hot and cold working the
metal from large ingots are called wrought alloy products
• Channels and other shapes are produced by extrusion.
• Some small parts can be cast as final product.
Example :- Automobile Piston.

2
 Blast Furnace

3
 Ingots

4
 Hot Rolling of Steel
• Hot rolling Greater reduction of thickness in
a single pass.
• Rolling carried out at above recrystallization
temperature.
• Ingots preheated to about 12000C.
• Ingots reheated
between passes if
required.
• Usually, series of
4 high rolling mills
are used.

5
 Cold Rolling of Metal Sheet
• Cold rolling is rolling performed below recrystallization
temperature.
• Hot rolled slabs have to
be annealed before cold
rolling.
• Series of 4 high rolling
mills are usually used.
• Less reduction of
thickness.
• Needs high power.

6
 Extrusion

A plastic forming process in which a material

under high pressure is reduced in cross
section by forcing it through an opening in
a die.
 Extrusion
• Metal under high pressure Die
Container
is forced through opening
in a die.
• Common Products are Metal
cylindrical bar, hollow
tubes from copper, Direct
Extrusion
aluminum etc.
• Normally done at high
Container
temperature.
• Indirect extrusion needs
Metal
less power however has
limit on load applied
indirect
Extrusion
8
 Melt leaving the extrusion die

9
 Forging
• Metal, usually hot, is hammered or pressed into
desired shape.
• Types:- Direct
 Open die: Dies are flat and Forging
simple in shape
* Example products: Steel shafts

 Closed die: Dies have upper Metal

and lower impresion
* Example products: Automobile
Indirect
engine connection rod.
Forging
• Forging increases structural
properties, removes porosity
and increases homogeneity. Die

10
 Basic Shapes for Open -die
Forging

11
A set of closed forging dies used to produce
an automobile connecting rod

12
 Forging

A primary process method for

working metals into useful shapes in
which the metal is hammered or
pressed into shape.
 Drawing
• Wire drawing :- Starting rod or wire is drawn
through several drawing dies to reduce diameter.

Change in cross-sectional area

% cold work = X 100
Original area

Wire or rod
Carbide nib

• Deep drawing:- Used to

shape cup like articles
from flats and sheets of
metals

14
Wire drawing
Wire is pulled from the die
 Casting
Casting mold

Cast parts

Casting Process

16
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Elastic and Plastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation :
If a metal deformed by a force returns to its original
dimensions after the force is removed, the metal is said
to be elastically deformed.

During elastic deformation the metal atoms are displaced 

from their original positions but not to the extent that they take
up new positions. Thus, when the force removed, the metal
atoms return to their original positions and the metal takes back
its original shape.
Elastic
Deformation :
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Elastic and Plastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation :
If a metal deformed by a force dose not return to its original
dimensions after the force is removed, the metal is said
to be plastically deformed.

During plastic deformation the metal atoms are permanently displaced from their
original positions and take up new positions.
Plastic
Deformation :
Plastic Deformation :
The ability of some metals to be extensively plastically deformed without fracture is
one
of the most useful engineering properties of metals.

Example; the extensive plastic deformability of steel enables automobile parts to be

stamped out mechanically without the metal fracturing.
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals Ao

Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain lo

Engineering Stress( σ segma):

Average uniaxial force divided by the original cross-sectional
Area.
F (average uniaxial tensile force)
Engineering Stress  
Ao (original cross  sectional area)

Units: U.S system

lb f /in 2 or psi 1 psi  6.89 103 Pa
SI systemm N/m 2 or Pa (Pascal) 106 Pa  1 mega Pascal  1 MPa
1000 psi  1 Ksi  6.89 MPa
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain
Engineering Stress( σ segma):.
F (average uniaxial tensile force)
Engineering Stress  
Ao (original cross  sectional area)

Example 1: A 0.5 in diameter aluminum bar is subjected to a force of 2500 lbf.

Calculate the engineering stress in pounds per square inch (psi) on the bar.

Example 2: A 1.5 cm diameter bar is subjected to a load of 2500 kg. Calculate the
engineering stress in megapascal (MPa) on the bar.
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain
Engineering Stress( σ segma):.
F

Δl
Ao

lo l lo
Δl=l-lo

F (average uniaxial tensile force)

Engineering Stress  
Ao (original cross  sectional area)
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals F

Stress and Strain in metals Δl

Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain

l lo
Engineering Strain ( ε epsilon):
Changes in length of sample divided by the original length of
sample.
l  lo l (change in length of sample)
Engineering Strain   
lo lo (original length of sample)
Units: U.S system inches per inch (in./in.)
SI system : meters per meter (m/m)

It is common to convert eng. Strain into percent strain or percent elongation:

% engineering strain= eng. Strain *100%=% elongation

 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain ( ε epsilon):
l  lo l (change in length of sample)
Engineering Strain   
lo lo (original length of sample)

In most cases engineering strain is determined by using a small length, usually 2 in.,•
called the gage lengthy, within a much longer, for example, 8 In.:
8 in.

F F
2 in. 2.65 in.

Unstressed
Stressed
sample
sample
Gage marking
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain ( ε epsilon):
l  lo l (change in length of sample)
Engineering Strain   
lo lo (original length of sample)
Example 3:
A sample of commercially pure aluminum 0.500 in. wide, 0.040 in. thick, and 8 in. long
that has gage markings 2.00 in. apart in the middle of the sample is strained so that the
gage marking are 2.65 in. apart (Fig.) . Calculate the engineering strain and the percent
engineering strain that the sample undergoes.
8 in.

F F
2 in. 2.65 in.

Unstressed
sample Stressed
sample
Gage marking
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain
Poisson’s Ratio( ν nu):
A longitudinal elastic deformation of a metal produces an accompanying lateral
dimensional change. A tensile stress segma  z produces an axial strain   z and
lateral contraction of x and   y
x  y
 (lateral ) x y
Poisson ' s Ratio ( nu )    
 (longitudin al ) z z

For ideal material, =0.5, for real materials  =0.25 - 0.4 (average 0.3)
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Shear stress ( τ tau):
Shear force S divided by the area A over which the shear force
acts Shear stress, τ  F (shear force)
A (area over which shear force acts)

U .S units : Ib f / in.2 or psi

SI : ( N / m 2 ) or Pa
 Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Shear strain ( γ gamma):
Shear displacement (D) divided by the distance (H) over which
the shear act; Shear stress (tau )  
F
A

D
Shear strain ( gamma )    tan 
H
The relationship between shear stress
and shear strain is

  G
G=elastic modulus
υ ( nu) Poisons Ratio
 ( lateral ) y
Poisons ratio =   
 ( longitudin al ) .z

w  w0
w0 w  
0   0

x
x
x Usually poisons ratio ranges from
0.25 to 0.4.

Example: Stainless steel 0.28

Copper 0.33
A longitudinal elastic deformation of a metal produces an
accompanying lateral dimensional change. A tensile stress segma
produces an axial strain and lateral contraction of   x and   y
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Table 6.1
 Mechanical Property obtained
from the Engineering Tensile
Test
• Modulus of elasticity
• Yield strength at 0.2 percent offset
• Ultimate tensile strength
• Percent elongation at fracture
• Percent reduction in area at fracture
Stiffness - a measure of the resistance offered by an elastic body to elastic
deformation

Ductility - a measure of degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at

fracture

Toughness - used to describe combination of strong and ductile

Strain – the amount of deformation
Elastic – determine how much a material will compress under a
given amount of pressure without undergoing permanent deformation
Strength – is the ability to withstand an applied stress without failure
Brittle – a material that experience very little or no plastic deformation
upon fracture
 Sample Problem
6.25. The following engineering stress-strain
data were obtained for a 0.2% C plain-
carbon steel (a) Plot the engineering
stress-strain curve. (b) Determine the
tensile elastic modulus of this steel (c )
Elastic limit (d ) Determine the 0.2
percent offset yield strength for this steel
(e) Ultimate tensile strength of the alloy
(c) Determine the percent elongation at
fracture
 6.25 page 264 Stress vs Strain

80

70
Strain Stress
60 0 0
0.001 30
50
S tre s s (k s i)

0.002 55
0.005 60
40 0.01 68
0.02 72
30 0.04 74
0.06 75
20 0.08 76
0.1 75

10 0.12 73
0.14 69

0 0.16 65
0.18 56
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.19 51

Strain (in/in)
 Stress and Strain in metals
Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram
Experimental plot of engineering
stress (σ)
Versus
Engineering strain (ε);
σ is normally plotted as the y axis
and ε as the x axis.
 Mechanical properties of metals

Mechanical property data obtained from Tensile test and the Engineering Stress-
Strain Diagram
1. Modulus of Elasticity (E)
The linear elastic region (OP): linear means that the relationship
between stress and strain obeys the uniaxial Hook’s law.
σ=E ε
E (modulus of elasticity)
can be determine by measuring
the slope of the curve in this
region.
E= σ/ε Units of psi or Pa
 • Modulus of elasticity (E) : Stress and strain are
linearly related in elastic region. (Hooks law)
σ (Stress) Δσ
E= Strain E=
Δε
ε (Strain) Δσ

Δε

• Higher the bonding strength, Stress

Linear portion of the
higher is the modulus of elasticity. stress strain curve

• Examples: Modulus of Elasticity of steel is 207 Gpa.

Modulus of elasticity of Aluminum is 76 Gpa

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Mechanical property data obtained from Tensile test and the Engineering Stress-
Strain Diagram

2. The Elastic Limit (E)

Upon continued loading past point
P, a transition to a new region
takes place. In this region (PE),
the relationship between stress
and strain is no longer linear but
the behavior is still elastic.
Point E called the elastic limit. Up
to point E, if one removes the
load, the specimen will regain its
original shape and dimensions.
Mechanical property data obtained from Tensile test and the Engineering Stress-
Strain Diagram

3. Yield Strength (point) (Y)

With additional loading applied

to the specimen, past point E,
the material reaches the yield
point (Y). The deformation
experienced by the material past
point Y is permanent and is
called plastic deformation.
 Mechanical property data obtained from Tensile test and the Engineering Stress-
Strain Diagram

3. Yield Strength (point) (Y)

The stress at which yield occurs, is called the yield strength of the material.
In order to have a unified standard, the 0.2 % offset yield strength is used. Engineers often
design various components to protect against yield.

Calculation method of the yield strength

 Yield Strength

• Yield strength is strength at which

metal or alloy show significant
amount of plastic deformation.

• 0.2% offset yield strength is that

strength at which 0.2% plastic
deformation takes place.

• Construction line, starting at 0.2%

strain and parallel to elastic region
is drawn to fiend 0.2% offset yield
strength.
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Mechanical property data obtained from Tensile test and the Engineering Stress-
Strain Diagram

4. Ultimate Tensile strength (UTS)

 With continued loading past the

yield point (Y), the specimen
undergoes severe plastic deformation.
Although the specimen becomes
longer and thinner in this region, it
retains its cylindrical shape up to point
U.
 The stress corresponding to point U
is called ultimate strength of the
metal. It represents the largest stress
or the peak point in the stress-strain
diagram.
Mechanical property data obtained from Tensile test and the Engineering Stress-
Strain Diagram

4. Ultimate Tensile strength (UTS)

In region YU, as the metal plastically deforms,

it becomes stronger, i.e, one needs to apply
larger loads to cause the same level of
deformation. This phenomenon is called strain
hardening).

Also in this region (YU), as the length

increases, the cross-sectional area of the
specimen becomes smaller. This is called
Poissons effect.
 Ultimate tensile strength
• Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum strength
reached by the engineering stress strain curve.
• Necking starts after UTS is reached.

• More ductile the metal is, more is the necking before

failure.
• Stress increases till failure. Drop in stress strain curve is
due to stress calculation based on original area.

47
 Tensile Test (Cont)

Commonly used
Test specimen

Typical Stress-strain
curve

48
Mechanical property data obtained from Tensile test and the Engineering Stress-
Strain Diagram

Necking

 This is the point at

which the specimen
undergoes extensive
necking; where the
diameter drops sharply
in an unstable manner.
Necking occurs at point
U.
 Mechanical properties of metals
Stress and Strain in metals
Mechanical property data obtained from Tensile test
and the Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram
5. Percent Elongation

The amount of elongation that a tensile specimen undergoes

during testing provides a value for the ductility of a metal.
Ductility of metals is most commonly expressed as percent
elongation.
l  lo
% elongation   100 %
lo
 Percent elongation is a measure of the ductility of the metal and is also an index of
quality of the metal.
Mechanical property data obtained from Tensile test
and the Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram

6. Percent reduction in area

The ductility of a metal or alloy can also be expressed in terms

of the percent reduction in area.
Ao  A f
% reduction in area   100 %
Ao
 Percent reduction in area is a measure of the ductility of the metal and is also
an index of quality.
 Percent Reduction in Area
• Percent reduction area is also a measure of ductility.
• The diameter of fractured
end of specimen is meas-
ured using caliper.

Initial area – Final area

% Reduction =
Area
Final area

• Percent reduction in area

in metals decreases in case Stress-strain curves of different metals
53 of presence of porosity.
Seatwork : Mechanical Properties of Metal
The following engineering stress-strain data were obtained
at the beginning of a tensile test for a 0.2% C plain-carbon
steel. (a) Plot the engineering stress-strain curve for these
data. (b) Determine the modulus of elasticity of this steel
(c) Determine the 0.2 percent offset yield strength for this
steel (d ) Elastic limit (e) Ultimate tensile strength

Engineering
Stress
0 15 30 40 50 66 66 70 72
(ksi)

Engineering
strain 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.0020 0.0035 0.004 0.006 0.008
(in./in.)
Diameter of the rod: 12.8 mm

Load Length Engineering Stress %

(N) (mm) (N/m2) Strain

0 50.8 0.00E+00 0
7330 50.85 5.70E+07 0.10
15100 50.9 1.17E+08 0.20
23100 50.95 1.80E+08 0.30
30400 51 2.36E+08 0.40
34400 51.05 2.67E+08 0.50
38400 51.31 2.98E+08 1.00
41300 51.82 3.21E+08 2.00
44800 52.83 3.48E+08 4.00
46200 53.85 3.59E+08 6.00
47300 54.86 3.68E+08 8.00
47500 55.88 3.69E+08 10.00
46100 56.9 3.58E+08 12.00
44800 57.66 3.48E+08 13.50
42600 58.42 3.31E+08 15.00
36400 59.18 2.83E+08 16.50
 Load & Engineering Stress vs Strain
4.E+08 50000

45000
4.E+08

40000
3.E+08
Strain
35000
Load
3.E+08
30000
Stress (N/m2)

Load (N)
2.E+08 25000

20000
2.E+08

15000
1.E+08
10000

5.E+07
5000

0.E+00 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Strain (Percentage)