Cast In Place and Pre Cast

(Roof System and Roof Slab System)

Group 5

Flat Slab

History
 Floor slabs without beams (called flat slabs or flat plates) that used diagonal and
orthogonal patterns of reinforcing bars. The system still used today—which divides the
bays between columns into column strips and middle strips and uses only an orthogonal
arrangement of bars—was devised in 1912 by the Swiss engineer.
Definition
 The flat slab is a two-way reinforced concrete slab that usually does not have beams and
girders, and the loads are transferred directly to the supporting concrete columns.
 Minimum thickness of flat slab shall not be less than 125 mm.
 Can be constructed ranging from 5 to 9 m

Types
 Flat slab
 Flat slab with drop panel
 Flat slab with column head
 Flat slab with drop panel and column head

Uses of column head

 The thickness of drop panel usually taken 1.25x thickness of the slab
 Drop panels increase the shear strength of flat slab floor.
 Drop panels increase flat slab's negative moment capacity.
 Drop panels reduce deflection by stiffening the flat slabs.
Uses of drop panel
 Shear strength of flat slab is increased by using column heads.
 Column heads reduce the clear or effective span, and therefore, reduce the moment in the
flat slab floor

Advantages of Flat Slab

 Flexibility in room layout.
 Reinforcement placement is easier.
 Ease of Framework installation.
 Building height can be reduced.
 Less construction time.
 Sprinklers, utilities, and other piping are easy to install due to the absence of beams.

Disadvantages of Flat Slab

 Span length is medium.
 Not suitable for supporting masonry partitions
 Use of drop panels may interfere with larger mechanical ducting
 Critical middle strip deflection

Application
 Mostly used in large industrial structures, parking garages, ramps, warehouses, tall
buildings, and hotels.
 They are used where the beam is not required.
 These slabs also used where the structures require less formwork.

Usage
 Parking decks
 Commercial buildings
 Hotels
 Places where beam projections are not desired.

Material Properties
Strength
Reinforced concrete has very good strength in tension as well as compression. This makes
concrete a desired construction material.
Economical
Concrete constituents are widely available worldwide and inexpensive. Similarly, the production
cost of concrete is very low. There is an overall economy by using reinforced concrete because
its maintenance cost is low due to the long-lasting nature of reinforced concrete.
Reinforced concrete durability, resilience, low maintenance requirements and energy efficiency,
concrete structures reduce operating costs related to operational energy consumption,
maintenance, and rebuilding following disasters.
Versatility
Concrete can be placed into various shapes of shuttering or formwork configurations to form
desired shapes, form, surface, texture, and sizes at construction site. This is because fresh
concrete is flowable and is in liquid state. Therefore, it is more suitable for architectural
requirements.
Durability
Due to low permeability, concrete can resist chemicals dissolved in water such as sulfates,
chloride, and carbon dioxide, which may cause corrosion in concrete, without serious
deterioration.
Fire Resistance
 The nature of concrete does not allow it to catch fire or burn. It can withstand heat for 2–6 hours
enabling sufficient time for rescue operations in case of fire. Reinforced concrete buildings are
more fire-resistant than other commonly used construction materials like steel and wood. It is
suitable to fireproof steel and is used in high-temperature and blast applications.

Flat Plate

Definition
  A concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in two or more directions and supported
directly by columns without beams or girders.
 Flat plates are suitable for short to medium spans with relatively light live loads. Since
there are no column capitals or drop panels, shear governs the thickness of flat plate.
 The flat plate floor system is a common floor construction type employed in the
construction of the building.
 The economical span of a flat plate for low to medium loads is usually limited by the
need to control long-term deflection and may need to be sensibly pre-cambered (not
overdone) or prestressed.
Features
The important features of the flat plate floor system are enlisted below:
 One of the important features of a flat plate floor system is the thickness of the floor. It is
constructed with uniform thickness with a flat soffit.
 The soffit constructed for a flat plate system requires simple formwork which hence
makes the construction easier.
 The flat plate floor system is the best choice for serving the purpose of a horizontal floor
over a suspended ceiling.
 The flat plate floor is constructed with an economical span that takes up medium loads
and avoids the chances of long-term deflection.
 A flat plate floor system depending upon the load and deflection criteria can be either
pre-cambered or prestressed.

Advantages
 Inexpensive Formwork
 Ceilings May Be Exposed
 Minimum Thickness
 Fast Erection
 Flexible Column Location
Disadvantages
 Excess Concrete for Longer Spans
 Low Shear Capacity
 Greater Deflections

Construction Details Of Flat Plate Floor System

  A flat plate floor can be constructed with an economical span of 6 to 8m for ordinary
reinforced flat plate floor. For prestressed construction, the economical span can be
increased to 8 to 12m.
In general, if D is the depth of the slab, then
 Span ‘L’ for a Simply Supported Reinforced Concrete Flat Plate System = D x 28
 Span ‘L’ for an End Span Continuous Reinforced Concrete Flat Plate System = D x
30
 Span ‘L’ for an Internal Continuous spanned Reinforced Concrete Flat Plate System =
D x 32
If the flat plate system is prestressed, the span L can change to D x 30, Dx 37 and D x 40
respectively.

History
Early History 1905 – 1921
 The first American flat plate building was the C. A. Bovey Building in Minneapolis,
Minnesota. It was built by C.A.P. Tuner in 1906. It was raised at the risk of its
inventor but performed well in the loading test.
Application
 Primarily used in hotels, multi-family residential buildings, and hospitals, this system
has the advantages of simple construction and formwork and a flat ceiling, the latter
of which reduces ceiling finishing costs, since the architectural finish can be applied
directly to the underside of the slab
Usage
 Office buildings – Low Rise & High Rise
 Residential buildings – Low Rise & High Rise
 Parking
 Hotels

Economic Span Range

 5-8m (Conventional RC)
 6-10m (post-Tensioned) The primary purpose of the post-tensioning system is to
counteract a large portion of the slab self-weight while mitigating flexural cracking.
Column Capital & Drop Panel
 

Uses Of Column Heads (Capital)

 Shear strength of flat slab is increased by using column heads.
 Column heads reduce the clear or effective span, and therefore, reduce the moment in the
flat slab floor.
 
Uses Of Drop Panels:
 Drop panels increase the shear strength of flat slab floor.
 Drop panels increase flat slab's negative moment capacity.
Drop panels reduce deflection by stiffening the flat slabs.

Material Properties
Strength
Reinforced concrete has very good strength in tension as well as compression. This makes
concrete a desired construction material.
Economical
Concrete constituents are widely available worldwide and inexpensive. Similarly, the production
cost of concrete is very low. There is an overall economy by using reinforced concrete because
its maintenance cost is low due to the long-lasting nature of reinforced concrete.
Reinforced concrete durability, resilience, low maintenance requirements and energy efficiency,
concrete structures reduce operating costs related to operational energy consumption,
maintenance, and rebuilding following disasters.
Versatility
Concrete can be placed into various shapes of shuttering or formwork configurations to form
desired shapes, form, surface, texture, and sizes at construction site. This is because fresh
concrete is flowable and is in liquid state. Therefore, it is more suitable for architectural
requirements.
Durability
Due to low permeability, concrete can resist chemicals dissolved in water such as sulfates,
chloride, and carbon dioxide, which may cause corrosion in concrete, without serious
deterioration.

Fire Resistance
 The nature of concrete does not allow it to catch fire or burn. It can withstand heat for 2–6 hours
enabling sufficient time for rescue operations in case of fire. Reinforced concrete buildings are
more fire-resistant than other commonly used construction materials like steel and wood. It is
suitable to fireproof steel and is used in high-temperature and blast applications.

Erection - Fasteners, Connections

 The main consideration for steel column connection to flat plate is to ensure that the base
plate for the steel columns is cast into the concrete flat plate.
 Hence the positioning and alignment of the base plates are of utmost importance. If
concrete in-fill and column bars are required within the steel hollow section, the starter
bars for the columns must be placed and fixed in position prior to casting of concrete flat
plate.
 In the concrete column with flat plate design, the connection is more simplified without
the need for base plate connection.
 In this case, reinforcement bars should be properly detailed between the columns and
slabs. Punching shear checks are critical and vertical shear reinforcement should be
detailed accordingly.
Fire Resistance
A flat plate under severe fire condition experiences significant load redistribution. When the fire
load is applied beneath the slab, columns restrain slab flexural deformation induced by thermal
gradient, resulting in increased slab negative bending moment near the columns. Moreover, the
slab top reinforcement remains relatively cool while bottom reinforcement heats up. The
elevated temperature may cause the bottom bars at mid-span to yield at low stress. The load
redistribution leads to high negative moment and large inelastic flexural deformation in slab near
columns, which likely triggers to a punching failure of the flat plate structure.

Classification Of Flat Slab

a) Based on structural design
1. Conventional reinforced flat slabs and
2. Post tensioned flat slabs
b) Based on the components of slab
1. Slabs without drop and column head.
2. Slabs without drop and column with column head
3. Slabs with drop and column head

Thickness Of Flat Slab

 - The thickness of flat slab shall be generally controlled by considerations of span to effective
depth ratio.

General Considerations For Use Of Flat Slab Floor System

The following are the main factors to be considered before adopting the use of the concrete flat
plate with steel/concrete column system:
1. Spacing of columns
2. Long term deflection of the flat plate
3. Punching shear checks at column areas.
Steps Involved In The Design Of Flat Slab Structures
1) Framing system
2) Engineering analysis
3) Reinforcement design and detailing

Engineering Analysis
Flat plate/slab may be analyzed and designed by any method if they satisfy the strength,
stiffness, and stability requirements of the IS 456:2000 or ACI-318 codes. A typical flat
plate/slab can be analyzed by direct design method or equivalent frame method as prescribed by
the code. However, if the flat plate/slab is a typical one with unusual geometry, with irregular
column spacing, or with big opening then the designer can use finite element method model
analysis using various software. The design of flat slabs irrespective of the methodology used
must first assume a minimum slab and drop thickness and a minimum column dimension to
ensure adequate stiffness of the system to control deflection. The IS 456:2000 code is not clear
on these minimum conditions. However, ACI specifies empirical formulae to arrive at these
minimums. Critical reactions for the load combinations are used for the design of the supporting
columns and foundations.
Seismic Design Of Flat Plate/Slab (Vulnerability And Strength)
Seismic design lateral force is based on the provisions of Indian Standard IS 1893 (Criteria for
Earthquake Resistant Design of Structure), however of IS1893 is not clear about it. Hence a
designer, in addition may use, other codes like UBC-2000 (Uniform Building Code) to design an
effective floor system. As per these codes a common practice is to determine lateral force by
considering either of static or a dynamic procedure. In this paper seismic design is not discussed.
Environmental Impact
  The use of post tensioning can significantly reduce the concrete volume and steel
mass required for a structure, and further result in significant overall building weight
reductions leading to potential foundation material savings.
 It was found that span length greatly influenced the achievable reductions in material
savings when post tensioning is utilised. Due to the carbon dioxide equivalent
emissions being directly proportional to the embodied energy, the savings in
embodied energy and global warming potential using post tensioning was found to be
almost identical. It was evident that the use of post tensioning in structures of spans
smaller than 8 metres is potentially unnecessary from an environmental standpoint as
there is very little improved environmental performance as the embodied energy of
these structures are equal to or less than the embodied energy of spans 10m and larger
when post tensioning is utilised. The outcomes from these results provide
confirmation that post tensioned construction can achieve a capital embodied
environmental impact cost that is less than that of the fully reinforced option. The
effectiveness of post tensioning is also seen to increase with a corresponding increase
in span length.
Study About The Environmental Impact Of Flat Plate Building
 In this research, a flat plate building is investigated considering different column
spacings, concrete strengths, structural component sizes, detailed reinforcements, and
for the application of Reinforced Concrete (RC) and Post-Tensioned (PT)
construction techniques. While the most sustainable designs of slab systems are
attained with shorter slab spans and thinner slab depths, columns having less
longitudinal reinforcement with a moderate rise in dimensions are the best options.
Furthermore, the employment of pre-stressed tendons results in a significant decrease
in material requirements and related embodied impacts, by 26.3–33.5% and 26.6–
33.8%, respectively. The outcomes indicated that reduction in a building's self-weight
does not necessarily mean a decline in embodied emissions, highlighting the trade-
offs between material saving and material carbon intensiveness in the decisions
towards sustainable design and construction.

Case Study
Title: A Study of Flat Plate Slab – column Connections with Shear Plate in Tall Concrete
Building using Experimental and Numerical Analysis
Abstract
The trend of urban building structures shows a type of high rise building due to the concentration
and increase of population into urban cities, rapid increase of land cost, and limited availability
of land. Such a trend is not only a worldly demand but also no exception in Asian cities. To
facilitate the demand of high-rise structures, various types of structural system have been used
domestically. Among those structural systems, there has been a high demand in using a flat plate
slab system specially in the mix use high rise buildings including commercial and residential
uses because the systems have various following advantages. The system can minimize the
ceiling height which can reduce a total building height and reduce the corresponding material
cost. The system also provides a room for flexible spatial planning. It has an advantage of time
saving because it makes easy form installation and stripping because there are no beams. It also
reduces noise transmission between floors due to the thick concrete slab. However, the system
carries a disadvantage of punching shear due to the absence of beams. Reinforcing method of flat
plate-column connection has been studied in this paper. This research is to study the response of
flat plate slab-column connections consisting of various types of shear reinforcement and steel
plate subjected to gravity loadings using the structural experiments and numerical analysis in tall
buildings. The four test specimens were prepared to model the interior bay flat plate slab-column
connections in a typical flat plate slab building. The base specimen has no shear reinforcement,
and the other specimens have shear studs with strip base, shear studs with short steel plates under
the slab and on the top portion of the column, and shear studs with long steel plates under the
slab and on top portion of the column. The base specimen failed due to punching shear generated
from the gravity loading. The three other types of slab shear reinforcement and steel plate
showed effective in resisting punching shear for these types of connections under gravity
loading. The specimen containing studs with steel plate showed the most ductile behavior under
the gravity loading. The structural behavior of the four specimens has been tested using the
structural experiment and the numerical method.
Keywords: Punching Shear capacity, Flat Plate Slab, Shear Studs, Stud with Steel Plate.

Ribbed / Waffle slab

History

The idea of two-way joist system with holes in the bottom is refer back to about 2500 years ago
in Achaemenid period. According to the archaeologists' analysis, orthogonal wood beams have
been used in the roof of Perspolis. This type of slabs recently are known as coffer slabs which is
the origin of waffle slabs.
Definition

The waffle slab or ribbed slab is a structural component that is plain at its top and has a grid-like
system on its lower surface.

According to engineer Florentino Regalado, ‘the waffle slab belongs to the family of reinforced
concrete slabs that are non-homogeneous, lightened, and reinforced in two orthogonal directions,
forming a ribbed plate’.

Ribbed or waffle slab is a slab system which consists of series of parallel reinforced concrete T
beams framing into reinforced concrete girders. The slab is the flange of the beam and the
extended part is the web. The extended part is known as ribs. The spacing between the ribs
should be in general 20-30 inch. The ribs are tapered in cross-section in its lower part.

Appearance

The top of a waffle slab is generally smooth, like a traditional building surface, but the underside
has a shape reminiscent of a waffle.

• Straight lines run the entire width and length of the slab, generally

• raised several inches from the surface.

• These ridges form the namesake square pockets of the entire length and width of the slab

WHERE THIS SYSTEM IS USED

Waffle slab can be used as both ceiling and floor slab. They are used in the areas where less
number of columns are

• provided, i.e. it is basically used in th areas which has huge spans.

• Waffle slab is not used in typical construction projects. They are used for specialized projects
that involve clean rooms, spaces requiring seclusion from low frequency vibration or those
needing low floor deflections.
• The concrete waffle slab is often used for industrial and commercial buildings while wood and
metal waffle slabs are used in many other construction sites.

• This form of construction is used in airports, parking garages, commercial and industrial
buildings, bridges, residences and other structures requiring extra stability.

• The main purpose of employing this technology is for its strong foundation characteristics of
crack and sagging resistance. Waffle slab also holds a greater amount of load compared with
conventional concrete slabs.

Types of Waffle Slab:

1.One-way Ribbed Slab System:

The one-way joist flooring slab consists of a sequence of small, reinforced concrete T beams
which might be connected with girders carried by the building column.

T beams are known as joists that are formed by installing steel panes at a constant spacing.

Concrete is cast between those spacing to make those ribs.

2.Two-way Ribbed Slab System (Waffle System):

The system was designed to reduce the load of concrete slab.

The dome-shaped type of the matrix, surrounded by orthogonal ribbing forms a two-way
configuration for large-spanning slabs.

The voids between all the domes reduce the dead load, as this width results in a portion of the
slab being less than the flat slab.

Features

Ribbed and waffle slabs provide a lighter and stiffer slab than an equivalent flat slab, reducing
the extent of foundations. They provide a very good form of construction where slab vibration is
an issue, such as laboratories and hospitals.

This type of slab is able, very adequately, to support distributed and point vertical actions, and to
a lesser extent also horizontal actions. They are bi-directional or two-way slabs, because of the
two orthogonal directions of their reinforcement, and slab bending can be broken down and
analysed according to those two reinforcement directions

 they are used on flat sites.

 they are wholly above ground.
  no beam excavation is required.
 no controlled or rolled fill is used.
 cardboard slab panel/void formers are used.
 slab panels are on 1 metre grids (approximately)
 trench mesh or individual bars can be used.
 slab thickness is 85 mm-100
 internal beams are 110-200mm wide
 There is minimal concrete volume
 No beam down drag from clay (above ground slab) occurs
 Shrinkage of slab is lower than stiffened rafts and footing slabs
 They use 30% less concrete than stiffened raft
 They use 20 less steel than stiffened raft

Benefits

 Flexible
 Relatively light, therefore less foundation costs and longer spans are economic
 Speed of construction
 Fairly slim floor depths
 Robustness
 Excellent vibration control
 Thermal mass
 Good for services integration
 Durable finishes
 Fire resistance

 Waffle slabs are used for larger span slabs or floors and used when there is limited
requirement for number of columns.
 The load carrying capacity of waffle slab is greater than the other types of slabs.
 They provide good structural stability along with aesthetic appearance. Hence, it is
constructed for airports, hospitals, temples, churches etc.
 The waffle slab can be made of concrete or wood or steel among those concrete waffle
slab is preferred for commercial buildings and other two are preferred for garages,
decorative halls etc.
 It has good vibration control capacity because of two directional reinforcements. So, it is
useful for public buildings to control vibrations created by movements of crowd.
 Waffle slabs are lightweight and requires less amount of concrete, hence it is economical.
 Construction of waffle slab is easy and quick with good supervision.
 Concrete and steel volume required is small, hence, light framework is enough for waffle
slab.
  Several services like lighting, plumbing pipes, electrical wiring, air conditioning,
insulation materials etc. can be provided within the depth of waffle slab by providing
holes in the waffle bottom surface. This system is called as Holedeck.

Drawbacks of Waffle Slab

 Formwork tools required are very costly because of large quantity requirement of pods
and some special tools.
 The floor height should be more hence number of floors are reduced.
 The services provided in the waffle arrangement without proper maintenance may causes
damages to the slab.
 Skilled workers are required during its construction.
 They are not suitable for sloped areas. If there is slope area, the area must be leveled with
filling or by excavating. For soil filling, good soil should be used.
 They are not suitable against high winds or cyclonic areas because of their light weight.

Advantages of Ribbed and Waffle Slabs

1. In this type of slab, the tension stress is eliminated in the tension side of the slab. The
strength of concrete in tension is very small and so elimination of much of the tension
concrete is done by the use of pan forms.
2. Economical where the live loads are fairly small such as apartment houses, hotels. 
3. Long slab spans can be constructed through ribbed and waffle Slabs. In many cases, long
spans are desirable in the building. Ribbed or waffle slabs are an easy solution for this
purpose. 
4. Provide architectural advantages. All the Electrical appliances can be installed easily in
the gap of the ribs which can be architecturally aesthetic. 
5. Slab thickness of ribbed or waffle slabs is less than other slab systems. Therefore the
weight of slab is reduced. This saving of weight can change in structural characteristic.
6. Lighter and stiffer slab than an equivalent flat slab. 
7. Reducing the extent of foundations by reducing the ultimate load. 
8. They provide a very good form where slab vibration is a viable issue.

Disadvantages of Ribbed and Waffle Slabs

 1. Not suitable where the live loads are huge as heavy manufacturing buildings, warehouses.
2. The thickness of the slab is controlled as the requirement of fire resistance. 
3. Formwork cost is high. 
4. Sometimes difficult to install the electric equipment.

Formwork tools required in the construction of waffle slab are:

 Waffle pods
 Horizontal supports
 Vertical supports
 Wall connectors
 Cube junctions
 Hole plates
 Clits
 Steel bars

Waffle Slab Construction Procedure

The construction of waffle slabs can be done by three ways as follows.

 In-situ
 Precast
 Prefabricated
In-situ waffle slabs are constructed by pouring concrete in the site or field with proper
arrangements. In case of precast waffle slab, slab panels are casted somewhere and they are
joined together with proper reinforcement and concrete is filled.

The third case, prefabricated waffle slab is costliest than the other two methods. In this case,
reinforcement is provided in the slab panels while casting with some tension. Hence, they do not
need internal reinforcement in the site.
Horizontal support and vertical supports are arranged first and they are fixed in position by the
connectors. At the edges wall connectors are used to provide connection between wall and slab.
The horizontal beam supports are connected by small beam connectors which form square like
shape in which pods are going to be placed.

The pods are generally made of plastic and they are available in different sizes and different
shapes. Size selection of pod depend upon the requirement and span length. For longer span
large number of pods are required. Same size should be used for one complete slab.

Similarly beam connectors and cube junctions are also available in different sizes based on the
suitability of pod sizes.

Cube junctions are used to fix the corners of pods with the frame work. After fixing the
formwork, reinforcement is placed in the two directions of the slab and then concrete is poured
in the gaps which are called as ribs after hardening. Thin concrete slab is provided on the top and
after its hardening pods and frameworks are removed from the bottom. Thus, the waffle like
shape appears at the bottom surface.

Design

 The design of the waffle slab depends upon the total area on which the waffle slab is
required.
 The thickness of the waffle slab is generally range from 80 mm to 100 mm.
 The overall depth of the waffle slab is limited to 300 mm to 600 mm.
 The width of the beam in the waffle slab ranges from 100 mm to 200 mm.
 The spacing between two consecutive ribs ranges from 600 mm to 1500 mm.
 Waffle slabs can be reinforced with the rebar for additional strength.
 The Reinforcement is provided in the waffle slab is provided in the form of a mesh
or individual bars.
 The reinforcement in the waffle slab is two-directional.
 The main horizontal beams are connected by the small beams which form the grid-
like pattern.
  The construction of a waffle slab is generally suitable for flat areas.
 The Volume of concrete which is used in the waffle slab is less as compared to
other types of slabs.
 Waffle slabs have good shrinkage resistance.
 Waffle slab required very less amount of steel and concrete as compared to other
types of slabs.
 Waffle slabs are the Structural component which is plain from the top and has
a grid-like pattern at the bottom side.
 Waffle slabs can be used for both constructions of the floor slab as well as
ceiling slabs.
 A flat slab cannot be constructed for a longer span and also get cracked.
 Waffle slabs are the special type of slab which is mainly constructed for the longer
span and has a crack and sagging resistance.

Material Properties
Strength
Reinforced concrete has very good strength in tension as well as compression. This makes
concrete a desired construction material.
Economical
Concrete constituents are widely available worldwide and inexpensive. Similarly, the production
cost of concrete is very low. There is an overall economy by using reinforced concrete because
its maintenance cost is low due to the long-lasting nature of reinforced concrete.
Reinforced concrete durability, resilience, low maintenance requirements and energy efficiency,
concrete structures reduce operating costs related to operational energy consumption,
maintenance, and rebuilding following disasters.
Versatility
Concrete can be placed into various shapes of shuttering or formwork configurations to form
desired shapes, form, surface, texture, and sizes at construction site. This is because fresh
concrete is flowable and is in liquid state. Therefore, it is more suitable for architectural
requirements.
Durability
Due to low permeability, concrete can resist chemicals dissolved in water such as sulfates,
chloride, and carbon dioxide, which may cause corrosion in concrete, without serious
deterioration.
Fire Resistance
 The nature of concrete does not allow it to catch fire or burn. It can withstand heat for 2–6 hours
enabling sufficient time for rescue operations in case of fire. Reinforced concrete buildings are
more fire-resistant than other commonly used construction materials like steel and wood. It is
suitable to fireproof steel and is used in high-temperature and blast applications.

Analysis of two- way ribbed and waffle slabs with hidden beams Ibrahim Mohammad Arman
Lecturer at An- Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine ibr_moh@najah.edu doi:
10.6088/ijcser.201304010033
Abstract
This paper focuses on analysis of two-way ribbed and waffle slabs with hidden beams. There are
many methods that are used to analyse two-way slabs and the precision of these methods vary
depending on method assumptions. In this study, the ACI direct design method is used as a
manual or hand method of calculation and the solution will be compared with the analysis results
of the three-dimensional structural model done by the computer program Sap2000. The moments
in beams, slab column strip and slab middle strip will be determined. It will be illustrated that the
distribution of moments in two-way slabs with hidden beams likes the distribution of moments in
slabs without beams as the stiffness of the hidden beams is small. It is recommended that the use
of three-dimensional modelling by computer software is the best solution for moment’s
determination and distribution.

Keywords: SAP2000, slab, two-way, ribbed, waffle, direct design method, beams.
 Lift Slab
History
 This method of construction simultaneously began development in 1948 by both
Philip N. Youtz of New York and Thomas B Slick of Texas. Although the first patent
for lift slab construction was given to Slick in 1955, the method of construction is
commonly referred to as the "Youtz-Slick Method".
 Originally , lift-slabs were reinforced with mild steel reinforcing, which limited the
column spacing or required very thick slabs. • With the advent of post-tensioning ,
however the column spacing was increased and the thickness of the slabs were
reduced.
 Developments in the construction field have changed lift slab techniques over its 33
year history, increase use of pumping and prestressing has made cast-in-place flat
plate work more efficient.
Definition
• Lift-slab construction was a • revolutionary idea invented and developed in the
early 1950s by a collaboration of Philip N. Youtz and Thomas B. Slick, resulting
in what came to be known as the Youtz-Slick Lift-Slab Method of Construction.
• Basically, the method entails casting floor and roof slabs on or at ground level and
jacking them up into position.
• Flat plate floors are commonly used because they are so well suited to stack-
casting, requiring for work at only the edges of the slab and at floor openings.
Process
 The traditional lift slab construction sequence as illustrated in the figure.
 Special lifting collars or share heads are provided in the slabs at the columns.
Bond breaking compounds are applied between slabs to separate them.
 After the slabs have cured long enough to reach a prescribed strength
powerful hydraulic jacks mounted on top of the columns lift the slabs into
their respective positions.
 A console connected to each hydraulic jack synchronizes the number of turns
of the check nuts to assure that the concrete slabs is being raised the same
amount at all points.

Stages in Construction
 The steel and concrete columns are first fixed in position and rigidly connected to the
foundation and the ground floor slab is then cast.
 When it has matured itis sprayed with two or three coats of a separating medium
consisting of wax dissolved in a volatile spirit.
 Polythene sheet or building paper may also be used as an alternative.
 The first floor slab is cast inside edge formwork on top of the ground floor slab and when
it is mature it is in turn coated or covered with the separating medium and next floor slab
in cast on top of it.
 The casting of succesive slab continues until all the floors and roof have been cast one on
the other on the ground
 Lifting collars are cast into each slab around each column
 A central control syncronises the process for a uniform lift from all directions.

Stages in Construction
 It is the system of construction in which the floor slab and the flat roof are cast one over
the other at ground level at around columns or in situ cast service. Stairs and lift cores.
 Jacks operating from the columns or cores pull the roof and floor slabs up into position
 The consecutive slabs are separated through a medium like- wax dissolved in volatile
spirit or polythene sheets or buliding paper.
 The slabs are cast monolithicaly and can be designed to span continuously between and
across points of support and so employ least thickness of slab.
 Balconies and other extensions columns as part of the slab
The Sequence Of Lifting Slabs In Depends Upon
 The sequence of lifting slabs in depends upon
 Weight of the slabs
 Height of the building
 Lifting capacity of jacks
 Cross sectional area of columns during initial lifting

 The base of the columns are rigidly fixed to the foundations 50

 That during lifting they act a5 vertical cantilevers.
 The loads that the column can support at the beginning of the lift limits the length of the
lower column height and no. Of slabs that can be raised one at a time.
 As the slabs are raised they serve as horizontal props to vertical cantilevers and so
increasingly stiffening them.
Advantages Of System
 Can be an advantageous system in buildings with similar floor plans throughout the
height of the building and where flush slab may be desired.
 Eliminates need for redundant formwork 45 only shuttering
 Required on the edges - hence simplicity in casting.
 May also be employed to give waffle grid however compromising on the ease of casting.

General Considerations
 The lift slab method of construction presents certain unique engineering considerations,
during both the design phase and the construction phase of a project.
 These considerations must be recognized and adequately addressed during the structural
design, during the planning of the lift-slab operation, during the preparation of the shop
drawings, and during the construction.
 Structural engineering is required in all of these phases by various engineers employed by
different organizations and with different responsibilities.
The Principle Of Lifting The Load
 Main components of machine are the cylinders and two threaded winches between two
steel beams. Winches are connected with screw bundle concreted into the ceilings, lower
bridge of the machines is underpinned by steel pipes.
 When piston reaches the clearence, weight of lifted bundle is loaded over from upper
bridge to lower bridge and upper bridge is let back to zero setting. (Nuts on winches are
driven by cogwheels, so that the winch gets into lifting position again.)
 Lifting is carried out in 10 cm steps so, that this way is also done in controlled parts.
 Slip Form Method

History

 The slip forming technique was in use by the early 20th century for building silos and
grain elevators. James MacDonald, of MacDonald Engineering of Chicago was the
pioneer in utilizing slip form concrete for construction.
 His concept of placing circular bins in clusters was patented, with photographs and
illustrations, contained in a 1907 book, “The Design of Walls, Bins, And Grain
Elevators”.
 In 1910, MacDonald published a paper “Moving Forms for Reinforced Concrete Storage
Bins,” describing the use of molds for moving forms, using jacks and concrete to form a
continuous structure without joints or seams. This paper details the concept and
procedure for creating slip form concrete structures.
 On May 24, 1917, a patent was issued to James MacDonald of Chicago, "for a device to
move and elevate a concrete form in a vertical plane.
 The first residential houses built with Slip forming, was erected 1950 in Västertorp

Definition

 Slip form is a method of construction in which concrete is poured into the top of a
continuously moving formwork.
 As the concrete is poured, the formwork is raised vertically at a speed which allows the
concrete to harden before it is free from formwork at the bottom.
 Slip forming is an economical, rapid and accurate form of construction that can be to
build concrete, reinforced concrete, or pre stressed concrete structures
 Slip forming is not suitable for all types of structures, it can be used to construct a wide
variety of structures such as chimneys, building cores, bridge piers, and cooling towers.
 Slip form work used for vertical as well as horizontal continues structure.

Components of Slip Form Method

 Sheathing - Vertical forms can be wood staves, metal, plywood, glass-fibre reinforced
plastic or a combination of these materials. The function of vertical forms is to shape the
concrete.
 Wales -is also an important component of vertical slip forms supports and holds vertical
forms in place. This transmits the lifting force from the yoke to the vertical forms and
other elements of the form. It also supports various platforms and scaffolding.
 Yokes- is the component of vertical slip formwork supports the Wales at regular interval
with their legs. It transmits the lifting forces from the jacks to the Wales and resists the
lateral force of plastic concrete within the form
  Jacks- is installed on the yoke’s beam, it mounts on the jack rod which provides the
necessary force to lift the entire slip form system. Various platforms, decks and scaffolds
complete the slip form system, provides space for storage of concrete, reinforcing steel
and embedding. In short, they serve as a work area for placing and finishing.

Type of Construction

 Slip forming: The concrete form may be surrounded by a platform on which workers
stand, placing steel reinforcing rods into the concrete and ensuring a smooth pour.
Together, the concrete form and working platform are raised by means of hydraulic jacks.
 Horizontal slip forming: Horizontal slip forming for pavement and traffic separation
walls concrete is laid down, vibrated, worked, and settled in place while the form itself
slowly moves ahead
 Tapered slip forming: It is also used in the construction of conical chimneys, cooling
towers, piers and other tall concrete structures involving constant or changing thickness
in walls, diameters and/or shapes.
 Egg-shaped slip forming: It is based on the jump from principle that can be adapted to
any geometric shape. Individual curvature adjustment can be obtained by adjusting the
axis and vertical circumferential slope. The system can be adjusted independently on
each side of the wall as well as products of optimal working condition

Application

 Service cores for commercial buildings

 Lift and stair shafts.
 Silos.
 Chimneys.
 Concrete gravity structures
 Bridge pylons and piers.
 Mine headgear towers.
 Surge shafts.
 Shaft linings.

Advantages

1. Careful construction planning processes can achieve high production rates.

2. Slip formwork doesn’t require the crane to move upwards, minimizing crane use.

3. Provision of a joint less structure.

4. A saving of shuttering material both initially as well as lesser wastage of shuttering

material.
 5. Scaffolding is not required

6. Very rapid concreting. It is at least four times faster.

7. Better finishing of concrete.

8. No plastering required.

9. Accuracy is more than regular formwork.

10. Strength is more than regular formwork.

11. Save formwork material.

12. Economical/reasonable for the structure above a certain size.

Disadvantages

1. The greater time required for arranging of various components of slip formwork.

2. Expert operations and supervision needed for uniform movement of the slip form
system.

3. Stocking of material on the construction site is difficult.

4. Good coordination and site organization required.

5. Large quantities of equipment needed.

6. Labour force may require familiar with equipment & methods.

7. The operation must be continued in any weather/climate.

8. High initial expense.

9. Need 24-hour service facilities.

Economical Consideration
1. This type of form works economical when the height of the structure is a minimum of 16m
high.

2. The thickness of the wall should be a minimum of 15cm.

3. This system is only suitable for a structure like silo, cooling towers, chimneys, tall building
and piers.

Cost And Sustainability

 The formwork system is easy to clean and reuse with little formwork waste generated
compared to traditional formwork.
 Climbing formwork systems offer simplicity, safety and cost effectiveness for certain
high-rise building structures.
 Many repeated uses of formwork are possible before maintenance or replacement is
needed, the number of uses depending on the quality of the surface finish of concrete
specified.

Safety And Environmental Impact

 Building with slipform construction provides the safest, quickest and most economical
results. As it does not require any dismantling and reassembling using heavy pieces of
equipment, the entire process is very secure. The method uses hydraulic slipform jacks
that allow the whole construction formwork to be continuously raised at a height. To
learn about safety tips for slipform construction, businesses can contact reputed slipform
engineering or slipform construction specialists and also get a better understanding of
slipform construction.
 Working platforms, guard rails, ladders and wind shields are normally built into the
completed system.
 Less congested construction site due to minimal scaffolding and temporary works.
 Completed formwork assembly is robust.
 Strength of concrete in the wall below must be closely controlled to achieve stability
during operation.
 Site operatives can quickly become familiar with health and safety aspects of their job.
 High levels of planning and control mean that health and safety are normally addressed
from the beginning of the work.

Other Considerations

 This formwork is more economical for buildings more than seven storeys high.
  Little flexibility for change once continuous concreting has begun therefore extensive
planning and special detailing are needed.
 Setting rate of the concrete had to be constantly monitored to ensure that it is matched
with the speed at which the forms are raised.
 The structure being slipformed should have significant dimensions in both major axes to
ensure stability of the system.
 Standby plant and equipment should be available though cold jointing may occasionally
be necessary.

CASE STUDY Title: Slip-Form Application to Concrete Structures

Abstract

Because of superior speed and productivity, slip forms were extensively utilized as a potential
formwork candidate in constructing concrete structures for the past few decades. Typical projects
that employ this formwork technique are: Core of high-rise buildings, silos, telecommunication
towers, cooling towers, heavy concrete offshore platforms, etc. The research presented in this
paper aims at studying slip-form application to cores and silos, assessing its productivity, and
determining its appropriate speed as well as auxiliary resource combinations. Simulation models
are developed in which the potential control units in a slip-form system are described for cores
and silos. Data are collected from several case study projects. A set of charts has been developed
to predict productivity considering different stoppages, core cross section area, slipping (jacking)
rate, and concrete placing methods. These charts play an essential role in managing slip-form
application to cores and silos. Results show that the developed simulation models predict the
productivity of case study projects with 99.70 and 99.30% accuracy for cores and silos,
respectively. The presented research is relevant to both researchers and practitioners. It provides
practitioners with charts that assist in scheduling and managing the required resources