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Psychology Chapter 3
Psychology Chapter 3
Psychologists collect data from participants which becomes the evidence on which they rely to
draw conclusions (Empirical 经验 )
Data may be quantitative or qualitative
Data may also be objective (quantitative & observation) or subjective (personal opinions,
quantitative/qualitative)
Objective data :
Based on quantitative measurements that can be directly observed and verified by the researcher
Physical, real / can be demonstrated
Free from bias of researcher
Responses that are unconsciously available to participants
Example: counting the number of times a baby smiles
(because it is observable and can be verified by others)
Subjective data :
Based on self-reports (written, verbal or visual) provided by participants, responses that are
consciously available to participants
Information about thoughts, feelings / behaviour we cannot observe
Example:
drug use or criminal behaviour
Recording someone's responses in a clinical interview (because participant is giving
their personal opinions and feelings)
Quantitative & Qualitative, Objective & Subjective
The term quantitative, qualitative, objective & subjective may be combined in three ways to
describe the three methods od assessing psychological responses.
Psychologists use several measures to access psychological construct.
Three main methods to assessing psychological response are:
Objective quantitative
Subjective quantitative
Subjective qualitative
Objective quantitative:
Standardized tests (eg. IQ test, aptitudes test)
Standardized: the test has been designed to be used in exactly the same
way on every occasion
Uniformity in content, instructions, test format, method of scoring
Reveal the individual's performance on the test relative to others
Standardized test are often employed for the purpose of diagnosis and
also to measure aptitude/ability
Physiological measures (eg. Heart rate, brain wave activity, skin conductivity
[perspire using GSR machine] )
Some psychological states, especially those associated with emotions,
are often accompanied by physiological changes (increase in heart rate,
perspiration, blood pressure)
Limitation: This kind of physiological measure do not differentiate
between different kinds of emotional reaction
Examples, anxiety/fear/happiness may give similar readings
Behaviour counts (eg. Number of smiles [observational method, behind a two way
mirror and observed-reduced bias] use camera, video)
Observe a group of people or animal to record instances of particular
behaviours
Very specific: has to determines criteria for the behaviours
Usually participant isn't aware that they are being observed
Common of them act differently of they know that they are bring
observed.
Subjective quantitative:
Questionnaires with rating scale items(eg. many personality tests)
Provide us with a means of quantifying the constructs
It require us to choose from a limited number of response alternatives
It assign a numerical value to each possible response
Subjective qualitative
Questionnaires with open-ended items (Eg. Allow participants to respond freely)
*Open-ended items :
= allow people to respond in any way they wish
= often ask people to state their opinions or describe their experiences
= example, What you think of politicians?
Verbal responses from discussions, focus group & interviews
Visual responses such as pictures drawn by a child
Validity & Reliability
Validity
A measure of whether a test usually measures what it claims to measure (eg. Does the
questionnaire really determine what that person believes is socially acceptable? )
Research techniques that do not have high validity are not particularly useful
It's important because for a research technique to be valid, the technique must
measure what it sets out to measure and not measure some other factor.
Reliability
A term used to describe the consistency of the results of a test or research technique.
Research technique hat do not have high validity and reliability are not particularly useful.