Lecture – Week 1&2 Part 1

Technological University of the Philippines CE211-LAB-T

Taguig Campus COURSE CODE &
FUNDAMENTALS OF
COURSE NAME:
SURVEYING

YEAR & TERM: SECOND YEAR / FIRST TERM

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
(STRAIGHT ENGINEERING PROGRAM)
INSTRUCTOR: Engr. Roilene F. Candelaria, CE

I. INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

1. Definition of Surveying
Surveying is the art of science of making measurement as necessary to determine the relative position
of points on, above or below the earth’s surface, or to establish such points. The points maybe located
for the purpose of compiling data for mapping purposes, or maybe set to define lines and grades for
engineering works. Distances, angles or directions and elevations are determined from field survey
and coupled with mathematical calculations to obtain areas, volumes and other parameters used for
engineering design and construction.
2. General Classifications of Surveying
A. Plane Surveying – type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a flat surface, and where
distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the exact shape of the earth is disregarded.
B. Geodetic Surveying – surveys of wide extent which take into account the spheroidal shape of the
earth. The process of surveying involves the following:
a. Field Work – taking actual measurement on the field.
b. Office Projection – computing and drawing necessary info need from the field data.
3. Types of Surveys
A. Cadastral (Land Survey) – survey made for determining and defining land boundaries and areas.
Also used in locating and identifying property lines. Other works covered are:
a. Re-running old lines to determine their length and direction.
b. Re-establishing land lines from recorded lengths and directions and other information as its
possible to secure.
c. Setting monuments to preserve the location of land lines.
d. Calculating areas, distances, and angles or directions.
e. Portraying the data of the survey on a land map.
B. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city or improvements, locating property lines,
fixing reference monuments, determining the physical features and configuration of the land, and
preparing maps.
C. Engineering or Construction – survey on site construction of an engineering nature is to be
undertaken. Include laying out of reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration, location,
elevation, and grades to serve as guides.
D. Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in connection with forest management and mensuration,
and the production and conservation of forests lands.
E. Hydrographic Survey – survey for determining the shape of the bottom of lakes, rivers, harbors, and
oceans. Also includes measurement of flow of water in streams and estimations of water reservoir.
Work consists of:
a. Making topographic survey of shores and banks.
b. Making sounding to determine depth of water and character of bottom.
c. Locating sounding by angular and linear measurement.
d. Plotting hydrographical map.
e. Observing fluctuation of the ocean tide or the change in level of lakes and rivers.
f. Measuring discharge of stream.
F. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of surveying techniques
in ship building, construction and assembly of aircrafts, layout and installation of heavy and complex
machinery, and other industries where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.
G. Aerial Survey – survey utilizing photographs taken from an airplane. Measurements are obtained
from photographs or from 3 dimensional projections of stereo pairs of photographs. The process of
taking such measurements is called “Photogrammetry.”
 H. Topographic – for determining shape of the ground and location of both natural and artificial features
on it. Work consists of:
a. Establishing by angular and linear measurement the horizontal location (of both natural and
artificial features upon it) of the certain points term as the “horizontal control”
b. Determining the horizontal location and elevation of a sufficient number of ground points to
provide data for a map.
c. Determining the elevation of control points by operation of leveling termed as “vertical control”
d. Locating natural or artificial detail.
e. Calculating angles, distances, and elevations.
f. Plotting and finishing topographic map.
I. Route Survey – survey for location and construction of lines, such as for railways, canals, transmission
lines and the like. Work consists of:
a. Locating center line by stakes at short interval
b. By running levels to determine the profile of the ground along center line.
c. Plotting profile and fixing grades.
d. Taking cross-section.
e. Laying out structures, such as culverts, and bridges.
f. Locating right of way boundaries.
J. Underground (Mine Survey) – survey for locating working points below the earth surface, as in
mines, tunnels, and aqueducts. This uses the principles of Route Survey. Work consists of:
a. Fixing surface boundaries of mining claims
b. Determining geological formations
c. Calculating excavated volumes
d. Establishing lines and grade for other related mining work
4. Development of Surveying Instruments
A. Astrolabe. The astrolabe of Hipparchus is considered to be one of the best known of the measuring
instruments that have come down from the ancient times. It was developed sometime in 140 B.C.,
and further improved by Ptolemy. The instrument had a metal circle with a pointer hinged at its
center and held by a ring at the top, and a cross staff, a wooden rod about 1.25 meters long with an
adjustable cross-arm at right angles to it. The known length of the arms of the cross staff allows
distances and angles to be determined by proportion. It was originally designed for determining the
altitude of stars.
B. Telescope. The invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally accredited to Lippershey. In 1609,
Galileo constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical observations (Fig.1.1). However, it was
only when cross hairs for fixing the line of sight were introduced, that the telescope was used in
early surveying instruments.
C. Transit. The invention of the transit (Fig.1-2) is credited to Young and Draper who worked
independently from each other sometime in 1830. Both them were able to put together in one
instrument the essential parts of what has long been known as the universal surveying instrument.
D. Semi-circumferentor. An early surveying instrument (Fig.1-3) which was used to measure and lay-
off angles, and establish lines of sight by employing peep sights.
E. Plane Table. One of the oldest types of surveying instruments used in field mapping. It consists of a
board attached to a tripod (Fig.1-4) in such a way that it can be leveled or rotated to any desired
direction.
F. Dioptra. The dioptra (Fig.1-5), which was perfected by Heron of Alexandria, was used in leveling
and for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It consists essentially of a copper tube supported
on a standard and could be rotated in either a horizontal and vertical plane. For measuring
horizontal angles, a flat circular disc with graduations in degrees is used. An arm containing
sighting apertures at either end could be rotated to any desired position on the disc.
G. Roman Groma. The Roman surveyors used the groma (Fig.1-6) as an instrument for aligning or
sighting points. It consisted basically of cross arms fixed at right angles and pivoted eccentrically
upon a vertical staff. Plumb lines were suspended from the ends of the arms. By employing the
groma two lines at right angles to each other could be established on the ground where it is set up.
H. Libella. The Assyrians and Egyptians are believed to be first users of the labella (Fig.1-7). The
instrument had an A-frame with a plumbline suspended from its apex and was used to determine
the horizontal. Archeologists are of the belief that the horizontal foundations of the great pyramids
of Egypt were probably defined by this device.
I. Vernier. The vernier (Fig.1-8) is a short auxiliary scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an
instrument, by means of which fractional parts of the smallest or least division of the main scale can
be determined precisely without having to interpolate. It was invented in 1631 by a Frenchman
name Pierre Vernier. Surveying instruments employ either a direct or retrograde vernier.
J. Diopter. An instrument developed by the Greeks sometime in 130 B.C., and known to be their most
famous surveying instrument. The diopter (Fig.1-9) was used for leveling, laying off right angles.
Since the telescope was not yet invented during the time the diopter was used, peep sights were
employed for sighting and in aligning the device.
K. Compass. The magnetic compass (Fig.1-10) came into wide use during the 13th century for
determining the direction of lines and in calculating angles between lines. It was first introduced for
use in navigation. The compass consists of a magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at the
center of a graduated circle. The needle continues to point toward magnetic north and gives a
reading which is dependent upon the position of the graduated circle.
L. Gunter’s Chain. The Gunter’s chain (Fig.1-11), which was invented by Sir Edmund Gunter in 1620,
was the forerunner of instruments used for taping distances may be recorded in chains and in
decimal parts of the chain. Each part, called a link, is 0.66ft or 7.92in long.
M. Merchet. The merchet was a device for measuring time and meridian. It was first used by the
Chaldeans in about 4,000 B.C. It is consisted of a slotted palm leaf through which to sight and a
bracket from which a plumb bob was suspended. By sighting through the slot and past the plumb
bob string, a straight line could ne projected.