CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

In population statistics, age is one of the most basic demographic variables. It's commonly

utilized in cross-classification with other factors including gender, marital status, and occupation.

It is most typically used to distinguish populations based on the length of time used (usually in

full years), usually from the date of live birth to a specific referenced period (e.g. date of a

particular survey). Age can be assessed in a variety of ways, depending on the population or the

research topic (e.g. infants under one year are measured in completed days, weeks and months

and for persons over one year, in complete years). Although the majority of age data pertains to

live people, certain collections also include information on the ages of those who have passed

away. Age is unquestionably the most essential and relevant attribute of human populations for

demographers. It is referred to as "the demographic variable" since it is so significant for

demographic analysis (Bogue 1969: 147). Its significance stems from the fact that the

demographic processes interact to form the age and sex structure of a population (Horiuchi and

Preston 1988), and the demographic processes are influenced by the age and sex structure. This

variable (for example, age) is an important part of demography (Weeks 2002: 294). The

accuracy, reliability, and validity of inferences, submissions, and conclusions are all dependent

on the quality of sex and age data (Susuman et al., 2015). As a result, at each level of the

analysis, the individual using demographic data must scrutinize the results for probable signals of

mistake. A demographer should determine the amount of data accuracy before studying any

problem (Moultrie et al., 2013). To determine and ascertain the validity and reliability of

population estimates, data evaluation is required. The direction and magnitude of errors can be

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determined by analyzing age data. It serves as a foundation for making modifications to the data,

preventing errors from multiplying and ensuring that the data is of acceptable quality (Pullum,

2006).

Content and coverage errors are the two types of demographic data problems. Coverage errors

affect both the qualitative and quantitative components of data collecting. Omissions cause

under-enumeration, whereas duplication causes over-enumeration, resulting in coverage

mistakes. Coverage mistakes are caused by a number of circumstances. These reasons include,

but are not limited to, respondents' inaccessibility, a lack of cooperation, communication issues,

and incorrect boundary mapping (sketches or descriptions).

On the other hand, content mistakes apply to how qualitative data such as sex, age, economic

activity, and marital status are reported. Content errors arise when a respondent gives an

incorrect answer or when an interviewer records an incorrect response. A inquiry about present

age, for example, can be answered by asking for "current age" or "finished number of years."

Depending on the interviewees' comprehension, these questions may elicit a variety of responses

(Moultrie et al., 2013). Sexe and age are attributed to the majority of demographic and

socioeconomic analysis and variables. Age is an important demographic data point that is used to

analyze various population dynamics. Age is also important for studying population structure

and estimating growth rates (Bello, 2012). Whether in simple summaries or in-depth analysis,

age and sex mistakes have a significant impact on population data (Shryock et al., 1976). Age

and sex are also used to make population estimations and forecasts (Siegel and Swanson, 2004).

Other applications of age population statistics include mortality, fertility, nuptiality, and life

tables (IRD, 1990). For example, a researcher would need data on women of reproductive age

(15-49 years) in order to study fertility rates (Susuman et al., 2015).

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Digital preference may be intentional or non-intentional as individuals may deliberately report

preferred ages during self-reported data gathering or particular numbers may be unintentionally

reported by research assistants (Gilleard, 2016; Tollnek & Baten, 2016). In some societies,

reporting one’s accurate age is seemingly a difficult task, especially where the individual

perceives exact age as having no significance or is ignorant of his/her actual age. In such

societies where there is a high level of age unawareness, people may make guesses of what their

age should be or track it using the calendar or by astrological means (Pardeshi, 2010 et all).

Regardless, age heaping is inimical and threatens the reliability and validity of demographic

data, especially on high profile issues such as policy formulation, for which demographic data

are required (A’Hearn et al., 2009; Bocquier et al., 2011). Age misreporting and digital

preference may be linked to several socioeconomic and socio-cultural factors, of which poor

education and poor awareness is prominent (Blum & Krauss, 2018). Age heaping is considered

as a tool to assess the level of literacy or extent of numeracy skills of a population (Spennemann,

2017). Beyond education, socio-cultural beliefs of the people have been identified as among the

factors associated with age misreporting and digital preference.

Number heaping is a common tendency of humans. What this means is that people tend to round

numbers to the nearest 5 or 10 (especially those that use the decimal system). Age heaping is the

tendency of innumerate people to round their age to the nearest 5 or 10, presumably because they

can’t subtract to infer their current age from their birth year and the current year. Censuses in

developing countries are prone to errors of age misreporting due to ignorance, low literacy levels

and other social, economic and cultural factors. Ages are commonly rounded with great affinity

for 0 or 5. This tendency to digit preference and/or avoidance results in age heaping or

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concentration of ages at certain digits. This study compares digital preference in the 2014

Morocco census data and 2006 Nigeria census data.

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Because age is a variable that offers a crucial basis for demographic classification, the accuracy

of demographic estimates can be affected when it is misrepresented or misreported (Dorjee and

Spoorenberg, 2016; Szotysk, Poniat, and Gruber, 2018). Censuses and surveys that question

about a person's age have mainly revealed that people have a preference for particular digits,

most of which finish in 0s or 5s (A'Hearn et al., 2009; Dahiru & Dikko, 2013; Randall & Coast,

2016). These preferences have been largely reported in the case of certain ages. Individuals may

purposefully indicate chosen ages during the self-reported data gathering process, which is

known as age heaping. On the other hand, particular numbers may be unintentionally reported by

research assistants. Age heaping can be intentional or unintentional (Gilleard, 2016; Tollnek &

Baten, 2016). In some cultures, disclosing one's true age can appear to be a challenging

endeavor, particularly if the individual in question considers his or her age to be of little or no

consequence (Blum & Krauss, 2018) or is just unaware of how old they really are (Pardeshi,

2010). People in civilizations where there is a high level of age unawareness may make educated

assumptions about their age (Pardeshi, 2010), or they may track it using the calendar or by

astrological means. Alternatively, people may make educated predictions about their age (Crayen

& Baten, 2010). Regardless, age heaping is harmful and poses a threat to the reliability and

validity of demographic data, particularly when it comes to high-profile concerns such as the

formation of policy, which necessitates the use of demographic data.

At the level of the individual, age heaping may be linked to a number of different socioeconomic

and sociocultural issues, the most prominent of which are low levels of knowledge and

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awareness (Blum & Krauss, 2018). It is common practice to use age heaping as a method for

determining a population's level of literacy as well as the breadth of their numeracy skills

(Spennemann, 2017). (A'Hearn et al., 2009; Bachi, 1951; Myers, 1954) Previous influential

studies on the association between educational level and age heaping found an inverse

relationship between the two variables. [Citation needed] [Citation needed] The socio-cultural

attitudes of the population, in addition to education, have been recognized as one of the elements

that are connected with age heaping. For example, there is a significant amount of symbolic

contact and importance placed on characters in the cultures of Korea and Japan, in addition to

certain nations in East Africa (Poston, 2005). People often prefer having an age that ends in the

numeral 3, and they want to avoid having a number that ends in 4. The reason for this is that

some people believe that the former resembles the word or character for life, whereas the latter

has the same sound as the word for "death." This is why this is the case (Poston, 2005). The

phenomenon that is among the factors that are responsible for the advancement of industrialized

nations worldwide is among those that are accounted for by the census and the data that are

derived from the census. This makes the importance of the census and the data that are derived

from the census very prominent in any economy. According to A'Hearn et al. (2009), Bocquier et

al. (2011), and Randall and Coast (2016), the foundational premise for the planning and

development of any nation is essentially dependent on the availability of accurate and

comprehensive demographic data of the nation. This is something that can be made a reality

through the use of census data and the willingness of people involved to provide information of

this kind. All efforts made to improve the case of age misreporting have been hampered and

hindered as a result of carelessness in giving proper age report, deliberate affinity attached to a

particular age, and proclivity to round up ages to one that ends in certain desirable numbers (say

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0 and 5). The purpose of this study is to evaluate and compare the quality of the population and

housing census data from the years 2014 Morocco and 2006 Nigeria accordingly.

1.3. RESEARCH QUESTION

1. Are there digital preference in 2014 Morocco population and housing census?

2. Are there digital preference in 2014 Morocco population and housing census?

3. Are there any similarities in the digital preference between 2014 Morocco and 2006 Nigeria

population and housing census?

1.4. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of this study will be considered in two ways, namely: the main objective and the

specific objective.

1.4.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE

The main objective of the study is to compare the digital preference in 2014 Morocco and 2006

Nigeria population and housing census using whipple and meyer index approach.

1.4.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

The specific objectives are to:

1. Assessment of digital preference in 2014 Morocco population and housing census

2. Assessment of digital preference in 2006 Nigeria population and housing census

1.5. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

The hypothesis of this study will be considered in two ways;

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 1. H0: There is no digital preference in the 2014 Morocco population and housing census

H1: There is digital preference in the 2014 Morocco population and housing census

2. H0: There is no digital preference in the 2006 Nigeria population and housing census

H1: There is digital preference in the 2006 Nigeria population and housing census

1.6. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

An understanding of the level of age misreporting and digital preference is necessary and

required to improving age reporting and proper planning. The outcome of this study will be of

great benefit to researchers, policy makers, and the society at large.

With reference to the researcher, the study is to provide a detailed report of digital preference in

the 2014 Morocco and 2006 Nigeria census and also serve as reference for further empirical

studies in future research. The citizens of both countries and other citizens of the world would

also know the level of digital preference in both countries if there is any.

Policy makers in both countries and other international bodies like WHO, UNICEF, UNITED

NATIONS, ETC, will also be made aware of the level of digital preference in the census data

while making use of it for policy making and programmes for adequate policy making and

effective programmes.

1.7. DEFINITION OF TERMS:

The keywords are comparative Analysis, Assessment, Digital Preference, Population and

Housing Census.

1. A comparative analysis details how data or processes compare to one another and explains

how they relate. This provides context for the analysis so the differences and similarities

in the relationships between data sets are clear.

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2. Assessment; In education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or

tools that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness,

learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of students.

3. Digital Preference;  This is the tendency of innumerate people to round their age

to the nearest 5 or 10, presumably because they can’t subtract to infer their

current age from their birth year and the current year. Digital preference refers to

the affinity an individual has to a certain number. This explains a situation where

by an individual over/under report their age as a result of the preference to the

acclaimed age.

4. Morocco Population and Housing Census; Population census is the total head counts of

people living in a delineated area. A population census is the total process of collecting,

compiling, evaluating, analyzing and publishing or otherwise disseminating demographic,

economic and social data pertaining, at a specified time, to all persons in a country or in a

well- delimited part of a country. Housing census on the other hand is the total count of

living quarters in a geographical area. A housing census is the total process of collecting,

compiling, evaluating, analyzing and publishing or otherwise disseminating statistical data

pertaining, at a specified time, to all living quarters and occupants thereof in a country or in

a well- delimited part of a country.