Leading: Human

Factors and Motivation

Leading
Leading is defined as the process of
influencing people so that they will
contribute to organization and group
goals.
■ Involves considering of human factors,
motivation and some other internal human
processes
■ Aim is to establish an environment where
individuals will work together in groups to
achieve common objective.

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 2
The nature of motivation
Definition:
■ Motivation is the set of forces that leads people
to behave in particular ways.
■ The willingness to exert high levels
of effort to reach organizational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy
some individual need.

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 3
The importance of motivation
Performance Equation:
■ (P= M+A+E)
■ Where P= performance,
M= motivation,
A= ability, and
E= environment

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 4
The Motivation Framework
Choice
Need Search for
of
behavior
or
deficienc ways
to satisfy
to
satisfy
y need
need

Determination
of
future needs Evaluation
and
search/choice of
need
for
satisfactio satisfaction
n

The motivation processes through a series of discreet

steps. Content, process, and reinforcement perspectives
on motivation address different parts of this process.
Copyright © by Eijaz Ahmed 10–5 Figure 10.1
Khan
Mcgregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X Assumptions:
1. Average human beings have an inherent
dislike of work and will avoid it if they can.
2. Because of this human characteristic of
disliking work, most people must be
coerced, controlled, directed, and
threatened with punishment to get them to
put forth adequate effort toward the
achievement of organizational objectives.
3. Average human beings prefer to be
directed, wish to avoid responsibility, have
relatively little ambition and want security
above all.

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 6
 Continued…
Theory Y Assumptions:
1. The expenditure of physical effort and mental effort in
work is as natural as play or rest.
2. External control and the threat of punishment are not
the only means for producing effort toward
organizational objectives. People will exercise self
direction and self control in the service of objectives to
which they are committed.
3. The degree of commitment to objectives is in
proportion to the size of the rewards associated with
their achievement.
4. Average human beings learn under proper conditions,
not only to accept responsibility but also to seek it.
5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of
imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of
organizational problems is widely, not narrowly,
distributed in the population.
6. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the
intellectual potentialities of the average human being
are only partially utilized.
* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 7
Content Theories of Motivation
Content theories are also called need theories of
motivation.
The focus of these theories is on the content i.e.
what factors motivate people in the organization
Theories to be discussed:
■ Maslow’s need hierarchy
■ ERG theory
■ Two factor theory
■ McClelland’s individual human needs theory

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 8
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
NEED
General Examples S Organizational Examples

Self- Challengin
Achievemen actualization gjob
t
Jo
Status Esteem
btitle
Friends
Friendshi Belongingnes at work
p s
Pensio
Stability Security
npla
n
Bas
Foo Physiolog
esalar
d y y

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 9
Continued…
Limitations:
Research shows that the need hierarchy does not
generalize very well to all countries.
■ For example, in Greece and Japan, security needs may
motivate employees more than self-actualization needs.
■ Belongingness need is specially important in Sweden,
Norway & Denmark.

Five levels of needs are not always present, the

actual hierarchy of needs does not always
conform to Maslow’s model.
Ordering or importance of needs is not always the
same (importance vary with change in career).

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 10
ERG Theory by Clayton Alderfer
The ERG theory represents an extension
and refinement of the need hierarchy
theory

E R G in The ERG theory stands for

■ E = Existence
■ R = Relatedness
■ G = Growth

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 11
Continued..
Existence needs are those necessary for basic human
survival- roughly correspond to te physiological and
security needs of Maslow’s hierarchy.
Relatedness needs, involving the need to relate to
others, are similar to Maslow’s belongingness and
esteem needs.
Finally, growth needs are analogous to Maslow’s
needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.

ERG suggests that more than one kind of need can

motivate a person at same time unlike Maslow.
ERG theory includes a satisfaction-progression
component and a frustration regression
component.
* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 12
Continued…

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 13
The dual-structure theory
Also known as “Two Factor Theory”
Proponent: Frederick Hertzberg
Two factors were identified from interview
and content analysis.
The Factors are;
■ Hygiene factors
■ Motivating factors

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 14
 The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
(Proponent : Fredrick Hertzberg)
Motivation
• Achievemen
Factors
• Recognition
t
• The work itself
• Responsibility
• Advancement
and growth

Satisfactio No
n satisfaction

Hygiene
•Factors
Supervisor
• Working
s conditions
• Interpersonal relations
• Pay and
• Company
security policies
administratio
and
n
* Dissatisfaction
S. M. Towhidur Rahman No 15

dissatisfaction
Continued…
Limitations:
The theory is method bound as it appears to be,
its validity is questionable.
Critics say the original sample of accountants and
engineers may not represent the general working
population.
The theory fails to account for individual
differences.
Subsequent research has found that a factor such
as pay may affect satisfaction in one sample and
dissatisfaction in another.
The theory does not define the relationship
between satisfaction and motivation.
* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 16
Expectancy Theory
Proponent : Victor Vroom

Basics of expectancy theory:

■ A theory of motivation that suggests that
motivation depends on two things – valence
and expectancy.
■ Force = valence x expectancy
■ So for motivation to occur both these elements
must have values greater than zero i.e.
positive.

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 17
Continued…
The expectancy model:
Outcome Valenc
e

Environmen Outcome Valenc

t e

Motivation Effort Performanc Outcome Valenc

e e

Ability Outcome Valenc

e

Outcome Valenc
e
* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 18
Continued…
Suggests that motivation leads to effort, when
combined with ability and environmental factors,
that results in performance which, in turn, leads
to various outcomes that have value
(valence) to employees.
Efforts to performance expectancy
■ Strong (1.00) , unrelated (0) or some what
related (0 – 1.00)
Performance to outcome expectancy
■ High (1.00), indifferent (0) or moderate (0 –
1.00)
Out comes and valence
■ Positive, negative or indifferent.

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 19
Continued…
Conditions for motivation
■ Effort to performance expectancy > Zero (0)
■ Performance to outcome expectancy >Zero (0)
■ Sum of the valence > Zero(0)

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 20
Equity Theory
Proponent: J. Stacy Adams
Equity theory refers to an individual’s subjective
judgments about the fairness of the reward she
or he got relative to the inputs (effort,
experience, education etc.) in comparison with
the rewards of others.
There should be a balance of the output/input
relationship for one person in comparison with
that for another person.

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 21
Continued…
outcomes (self) outcomes (other)
=
inputs (self) inputs (other)

Results:
■ Inequitable: dissatisfaction, reduced
output, departure
■ Equitable: continuation at the same level
■ More than equitable: harder work,
discounted reward

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 22
Reinforcement Theory
An approach to motivation that explain the role of
rewards as they cause behavior to change or
remain the same over time.
■ Assumes that behavior that results in
rewarding consequences is likely to be
repeated, whereas behavior that results in
punishing consequences is less likely to be
repeated.

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 23
Continued…
Kinds of reinforcements
■ Positive reinforcement (e.g. praise)
■ Avoidance (e.g. escaping reprimands)
■ Punishment ( e.g. fines)
■ Extinction (e.g. withdrawing incentives)

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 24
Continued…

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 25
Personal Reading & Assignment
Personal Reading:
■ McClelland’s individual human needs theory of
motivation.
■ Using reward systems to motivate performance.
Assignment:
■ Make a summary of the 2nd topic (using reward
system….). Limit the summary with in two hundred
words.
■ Submission: December 20, 2022
■ Mode of submission: Upload the photograph of the
handwritten summary at Google classroom. Make sure
to include your ID in the assignment.

* S. M. Towhidur Rahman 26