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UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND SPORT

Module: Environmental Studies Lecture #4

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the variety of living organisms and the ecosystems and ecological processes of which they
are a part.

Biodiversity can be divided into three categories.

Genetic Diversity: refers to the variety of genes within a species
Species Diversity: refers to the variety of living organisms within a region
Ecosystem Diversity: refers to the variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological
processes in the biosphere.

According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, it is estimated that there are between five (5) million
and thirty (30) million species. Only 1.7 - 2 million species have been formally identified. The greatest
species diversity is exhibited by microbes, insects and small sea organisms.

The areas richest in biodiversity are the tropical moist forests of Southeast Asia, Central Africa and West
Central Africa and Tropical Latin America.

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

Agricultural Importance
Human beings and other animals depend on plants to provide them with food. However, the number of
different kinds of food we eat is limited when compared with the total number of edible species. About
eighty thousand (80,000) are thought to be edible, but only 150 are used as human food.

At least 1650 known tropical forest plants have potential as vegetable crops. Only a few species of animals
have been domesticated for food production. Virtually 100% of the protein from domesticated animals
consumed by people comes from eight species: cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys.

It is also important to maintain a broad genetic base for organisms, which are economically important. Plant
scientists have developed genetically uniform, high yielding varieties of important food crops such as wheat.
However, genetic uniformity resulted in increased susceptibility to pests and diseases.

By crossing these “super strains” with genetically more diverse relatives, disease and pest resistance can
be reintroduced into such plants.

Wild plants therefore represent important sources of genes that can confer useful properties to conventional
crops.
● Wild tomato discovered in the Andes has been used to increase the sugar content in cultivated species.
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● Rice grain in Asia is protected from the main rice diseases by genes brought in from a wild species from
India.
● The sugar cane industry in the US was saved from collapse by disease resistant genes brought in from wild
Asian species.
● A wild barley plant from Ethiopia provided a gene that protects California barley crop from lethal
yellow dwarf virus.

Industrial Importance
Modern industrial technology depends on a broad range of genetic material from organisms, particularly
plants that are used in many products. Plants supply oils, lubricants, perfumes and fragrances, dyes, paper,
lumber, waxes, rubber, resins, poisons, corks and fibres while animals provide wool, silk, fur, leather,
lubricants, waxes and transportation.

The neem tree has been found to be a source of insecticides, spermicides and agents potentially valuable in
birth control such as materials that prevent implantation.

Daisy plants (used centuries ago as a lice remedy in the Middle East) led to the discovery of pyrethrum
insecticides. It is one of the safer insecticides since it decomposes rapidly in sunlight, has few known effects
on mammals and insects do not develop resistance to it. It is used on foodstuffs, in head lice shampoos, in
indoor insect sprays and mosquito coils.

Medicinal Importance
The genetic resources of organisms are vitally important to the pharmaceutical industry, which incorporates
hundreds of chemicals derived from organisms into its medicines. About a quarter of all prescription drugs
are taken directly from plants or are chemically modified versions of plant substances and more than half
of them are modelled on natural compounds. Examples of these products include morphine, codeine,
quinine, atropine and digitalis.

Animals too continue to be sources of drugs and are important in medical research.

Ecosystem Stability
Plants, animals, fungi and other microorganisms are instrumental in many environmental processes without
which humans could not exist.

Forests provide watersheds, from which we obtain water, and reduce the severity and number of local
floods. Many species of flowering plants depend on insects to transfer pollen for reproduction. Soil dwellers
from earthworms to bacteria develop and maintain soil fertility for plants. Bacteria and fungi decompose
organic material, which allows nutrients to recycle in the ecosystem.

Scientific Importance
The study of organisms may lead to breakthroughs in several different fields including medicine, industry,
genetic engineering and agriculture. Scientific research is therefore an important subset of all of these areas.

Genetic Engineering
This is the incorporation of genes from one organism into an entirely different species, making it possible
to use the genetic resources of organisms on a much wider scale.

The gene for human insulin has been engineered into a bacterium which subsequently become tiny chemical
factories manufacturing, at a relatively low cost, the insulin required in large amounts by diabetics.
Genetic engineering has provided us with new vaccines, more productive farm animals, agricultural products
with longer shelf lives and other desirable characteristics.

Genes cannot be made; hence engineering depends on the availability of a broad base of genetic diversity
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from which genes can be obtained.

Aesthetic Value
Organisms provide recreation, inspiration and spiritual solace. The natural world is a thing of beauty
because of its diversity.

Ethical Value
The strongest ethical consideration regarding the value of organisms is how humans perceive themselves in
relation to other species. The traditional view is that humans are masters of the rest of the world subduing
and exploiting other forms of life for their benefit.

An alternative view is that organisms have intrinsic value, in and of themselves, and that as stewards of
the life forms on Earth, humans should watch over and protect their existence.

CARIBBEAN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Mangroves
Mangroves refer to a plant community which lies between the sea and the land in areas which are inundated
by tides. Mangrove trees are the only trees that can survive in salt water. There are three main types found
in Jamaica – Red mangroves, Black mangroves and White mangroves.

Mangroves provide valuable environmental services that include:

• protecting the coastline from erosion and reducing damage from hurricanes;
• protecting the quality of coastal water by diluting, filtering and settling out sediments, excess
nutrients and pollutants;
• promotes sediment deposition by slowing the movement of storm water; and
• providing habitat, nursery, breeding and fishing grounds for many species of fish, invertebrates
and plants.

Mangrove forests are threatened by:

• excessive siltation and sedimentation;
• major oil spills;
• reduction in fresh water inflows and alteration in flushing patterns;
• deforestation; and
• dumping up and filling in of mangroves to build hotels and housing schemes.

Additional information on mangroves

Seagrass Beds
Seagrasses are submerged marine plants occupying shallow coastal waters. These plants require sunlight to
survive and therefore need clear, shallow water through which sunlight can penetrate. The three species
dominating the tropical western North Atlantic and Caribbean coastal environments are turtle grass (Thalassia
testudinum), manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme)and shoal grass(Halodule wrightii).

Seagrasses:
• habitat and nursery grounds for species;
• stabilize the sediment and prevent turbidity which would otherwise affect the health of coral reefs usually
found adjacent to seagrass beds;
• reduce wave action; and
• absorb some of the nitrates and phosphates in the water from land run-off, which reduces the amount
reaching adjacent coral reefs.
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By virtue of being close to the coastline, which over the past decades are becoming more
industrialized, seagrass beds are threatened by:
• the release of excess nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) into coastal waters;
• the removal of seagrass beds by dredging for construction;
• propeller damage caused by boating activities;
• anchoring;
• deployment of moorings; and
• fishing and recreational sports

Additional information on seagrasses

Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are collections of biological communities which represent some of the most diverse in the
world. Corals are tiny plant-like animals that depend on clean, clear, warm, shallow sea water to survive.
The coral animals require light for the large number of symbiotic algae, known as zooxanthellae, that live
and photosynthesize in their tissues. Corals live in colonies consisting of many individuals, each of which is
called a polyp. They secrete a hard calcium carbonate skeleton, which serves as a base or substrate for the
colony and provides protection. Coral reefs grow slowly, as coral animals build on the calcareous remains of
organisms before them. There are three different types of coral reefs: fringing, barrier and atoll.

Coral reefs are important to the Caribbean because they:

• provide habitat for marine creatures;
• are a source of food;
• have commercial value such as being a resource for tourism;
• control carbon dioxide levels in the ocean;
• protect coastlines from wave action;
• have medicinal value;
• provide sediments for white sand beaches; and
• are a nursery and breeding ground for many aquatic species.

Coral reefs are threatened by:

• disease;
• tropical storm damage;
• wave action;
• warmer ocean temperatures caused by global warming and thermal pollution (dumping of hot water into
oceans by industrial activities);
• ocean acidification associated with increased carbon dioxide levels;
• unsustainable fishing methods, including overfishing, dynamite fishing and spear fishing;
• pollution from run off, oil spills and sediment; and
•
• mangrove and seagrass removal.

Additional information on coral reefs.

ABIOTIC FACTORS: WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather refers to the conditions in the atmosphere at a given place and time. Climate comprises the average
weather conditions that occur in a place over a period of years. The two most important factors that help to
determine an area’s climate are temperature and precipitation. Precipitation refers to any form of water such
as rain, snow, sleet or hail that falls to the Earth from the atmosphere. Earth has many different climates, and
because each is relatively constant for many years, organisms have adapted to them.

Living organisms have adapted to different climatic conditions (temperature, light, moisture) forming
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communities of plants, animals and soil organisms in particular areas. Consequently, some parts of the earth
have similar biotic and abiotic factors covering a large area. This creates a typical ecosystem in that area and
these major ecosystems are called biomes.

BIOMES
A biome is a large, relatively distinct terrestrial region characterised by similar climate, soil, plants, and animals
regardless of where it occurs in the world. There are several biome classification systems. Some scientists have
included aquatic ecosystems as biomes. However, in this module the term is restricted to terrestrial systems.
The system used in this module classifies biomes into nine major groups. These are the tundra, taiga, temperate
rain forest, temperate deciduous forest, temperate grassland, chaparral, desert, savannah and tropical
rainforest.

Tundra – this is the northernmost biome. It is characterised by permafrost (layer of ice underlying a thin soil
layer), by low growing vegetation and by a very short growing season.

Taiga – or boreal forest, lies south of the tundra and is dominated by large conifers.

Temperate deciduous forest – occurs where precipitation is relatively high and is dominated by broad-leaved
trees that lose their leaves with the seasons.

Temperate grasslands – typically possess deep, mineral rich soil, have moderate precipitation and are well
suited to growing grain crops.

Chapparal – characterised by thickets of small-leaved evergreen shrubs and trees and a climate of wet, mild
winters and very dry summers.

Tropical grassland – also called savannahs, have widely scattered trees interspersed with grassy areas.

Deserts – found where there is little precipitation and have communities that are specially adapted for water
conservation.

Tropical rain forest – found in Central and South America, Africa and Southeast Asia, and covers 6% of the
earth’s land area. Occur where temperatures are warm throughout the year and precipitation occurs almost
daily. Yearly precipitation is 200-400 cm. These areas have highly weathered, mineral poor soils. It is rich in
species diversity with no single species dominating the biome. Trees form a dense multi-layered canopy. Roots
are often shallow, concentrating near the surface in a mat only a few centimetres thick. Animals include the
most abundant and varied insects, reptiles and amphibians on Earth. Birds are varied and are often brightly
coloured.

Deforestation is a major problem in tropical rain forests. 40% of tropical deforestation occurs in South America.
Haiti has lost 98%, Philippines 97% and Madagascar 84% of its original forest cover. Deforestation is a complex
problem with three major agents. These are subsistence agriculture, commercial logging and cattle ranching.

To learn more about the world’s biomes you may visit the following link. You will notice that the definition of
the term “biome” has been expanded to include aquatic ecosystems. You will, however, find information on
the biomes listed in the text above.

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/index.php
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SPECIES ENDANGERMENT AND EXTINCTION

Threatened Species: A threatened species is any species of animal, plant, fungi etc. which is vulnerable
to extinction in the near future. According to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature),
the leading authority on the world’s threatened species there are three categories of threatened species
based on the degree to which they are in danger of extinction. These include:

1. Vulnerable Species – these are the least critical in terms of endangerment. These species are likely to
become endangered unless circumstances threatening its survival and reproduction improve e.g. Jamaican
Yellow-Billed Amazon parrot, cheetah, lion, polar bear, giant panda, komodo dragon. Vulnerability is usually
caused by habitat destruction or complete habitat loss.

2. Endangered Species – these are species which face a very high risk of extinction in the near future,
e.g. Giant swallowtail butterfly, Jamaican Black-Billed Amazon parrot, blue whale, tiger, Tasmanian devil.
These species are in danger of extinction due to their relatively few numbers due to environmental changes,
increased predation pressure and/or habitat destruction. According to the IUCN approximately 11% of the
species listed on the IUCN Redlist are endangered.
(http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/state_of_the_world_s_species_factsheet_en.pdf).

3. Critically Endangered Species – these species face an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate
future e.g. Jamaican Iguana, Vaquita. This is the highest risk category according to IUCN nomenclature.
Critically endangered species have also been described as those whose population numbers have decreased,
or will decrease by 80%, within three generations.

Extinct species: A species that no longer survives anywhere in the world. A species is not considered to be
extinct until extensive surveys are done to ensure that no individual of the species may be found on earth.
Some species which are thought to be extinct but there is not yet certainty, are still categorized as “critically
endangered”. The IUCN has put in place two categories of extinct: “extinct” and “extinct in the wild”. The
latter suggests that there are some individuals of the species in question in captivity but none may be found
in the wild.

Mass Extinction: Refers to certain periods in the earth’s history (5 to 6 times) during which numerous
species disappeared during a relatively short geological time period.

Range: Refers to the particular area in which a species is found.

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Characteristics of Endangered Species

i. Occupy an extremely small (localised)

range
This makes them particularly prone to
extinction if their habitat is altered. If
animals have adapted to only living in a
specific area then if that habitat is disturbed
they may not be able to migrate to other
areas and there are no other individuals in
their species that can re-populate the site
from other areas. E.g. the vaquita is a marine
mammal that can only be found in the
northern end of the Gulf of California.

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaquita#/media/File:Cetacea_range_m
ap_Vaquita.PNG

ii. Require a large territory to survive

Some species require a large territory to survive and may be threatened with extinction when all or part of
their territory is modified by human activities. A species’ territory is the area that is defended by an
individual, or a group of individuals, within the same species. If their habitat is encroached upon by humans
and becomes fragmented, then fewer individuals can be accommodated because resources have diminished
and there is not enough space to accommodate the territories needed. E.g. male tigers need a territory of
between 60 to 100 km2.

iii. Living in isolation

Populations that live in isolation (e.g. on an island, separated by mountain ridges, streams, artificial selection)
are unable to mix with other populations of the same species. As they evolve and adapt to their environment,
they can develop their own characteristics and may eventually become new species. Since they live in
isolation they are only able to reproduce with individuals within their own population, which may result in
limited genetic variability. While their adaptations might allow them to do well in the environment that they
are in, it might also make them vulnerable to new threats such as competitors, predators, climatic changes
and disease since their population cannot be replenished by the migration of new individuals, and there is
limited genetic variability within their population.

iv. Low reproductive rates

Organisms that invest a lot in caring for few young may also be more susceptible to becoming endangered. For
example, female blue whales produce a single calf every other year. Since they’re producing very few young,
it may take a long time for the population to recover should something impact it.

v. Low reproductive success

If only a few of your young survive, regardless of the number produced, then you become more susceptible
to being endangered. For example, a turtle may lay 200 eggs in a nest. However, only 1 in 1000 may survive.

vi.Breed only in specialised areas

If you have very specific breeding habitats, then if they are destroyed or disturbed this could have serious
consequences for the species. For example, sea turtles tend to nest on the beaches where they were born.
If these beaches are disturbed then they won’t nest.
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vii. Highly specialised feeding habits

If organisms have very specialised diets, then if that diet is affected, it will reduce the animal’s ability to
survive. For example, the giant panda only eats bamboo.

In order for a species to survive its members must be present within their range in large enough numbers for
males and females to mate. The minimum population density and size that ensures reproduction success
varies from one type of organism to another. If population density and size falls below a critical minimum
level the population declines, becoming susceptible to extinction.

Endangered and threatened species represent a decline in biodiversity, because as their numbers decrease their
genetic variability is severely diminished.

To be more informed about endangered species and their protection visit the following links

https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/
https://www.iucnredlist.org

Human Causes of Species Endangerment and Extinction

Habitat Destruction -Most species facing extinction today are endangered because of the destruction of
habitats by human activities. Even habitats that are left undisturbed are degraded by human produced acid
rain, ozone depletion, and climate change.

Biotic pollution is the introduction of a foreign or exotic species into an area where it is not native. This often
upsets the balance among the organisms living in that area. The foreign species may compete with native
species for food or habitat or may prey on them. Humans are usually responsible for biotic pollution. E.g.
lionfish, mongoose

Hunting – Sometimes species become endangered or extinct as a result of deliberate efforts to eradicate or
control their numbers. Many of these species prey on game animals or livestock. In addition to predator
and pest control, hunting is done for three other reasons:

• Subsistence hunting – kill animals for food

• Sport hunting – kill animals for recreation
• Commercial hunters – kill animals for profit

CONSERVATION BIOLOGY
This is the study and protection of biological diversity. It includes two types of efforts that are being made to
save organisms from extinction:

In situ conservation – this includes the establishment of parks and reserves. It concentrates on preserving
biological diversity in nature. Restoring damaged or destroyed habitats.

Ex situ conservation – this involves conserving biological diversity in human controlled settings e.g.
breeding of captive species in zoos and the seed storage of genetically diverse plant crops. Special techniques
such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer are also examples.
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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between species biodiversity, genetic biodiversity and ecosystem biodiversity.

2. Explain why it is important to maintain biodiversity.

3. a) What is a “threatened species”?

b) Three main categories of threatened species exist. State these categories and differentiate between
them.

4. Describe the characteristics of endangered species using examples in your descriptions.

5. Discuss ways in which biodiversity can be protected.

6. a) Describe the main causes of extinction and endangerment of species?

b) Differentiate between ex situ and in situ conservation providing advantages and
disadvantages of each conservation method.
c) Provide examples of situations where in-situ conservation would be the more viable, advantageous
conservation option i.e. advantageous to the species in question. Do the same for ex-situ conservation.

7. Differentiate between weather and climate. Which characteristic(s) of climate determine the nature of the
biome formed?

8. State the major characteristics and the general geographical locations of the following biomes of the
earth:
•Tundra
•Taiga
•Tropical rainforest
• Desert

Originally Compiled By: Raymond Martin

First Revision Done By: Nikki Bramwell, Raymond Martin and Damian Nesbeth

Second Revision Done By: Christine O’Sullivan, May 2012

Third Revision Done By: Christine O’Sullivan, January 2016

Updated By: Christine O’Sullivan, June 2021