lsotopes Isotopes are different atoms of a single element that have the same number of protons in their nuclei, but different numbers of neutrons. Therefore, isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different mass numbers, + Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because the number and arrangement of electrons in them are the same. + Isotopes of an element have slightly different physical properties because they have different numbers of neutrons which give them slightly different masses. Isotopy is the occurrence of atoms of a single element that have the same number of protons in their ‘nuclei, but different numbers of neutrons Examples Chlorine Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes: Cl and ?Cl. Table 3.2 The isotopes of chlorine Poco) isotope al 75% 35 gel 25% 7 ‘Carbon Carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes: '{C, |}C and “C. Table 3.3 The isotopes of carbon Peers ere] re Rn ee a uC 98.89% 12 6 6 6 6 nC 110% 1B 6 6 6 NC 001% 4 6 6 6 Carbon-14 is radioactive. Radioactive isotopes ‘The nuclei of some isotopes are unstable and spontaneously undergo radioactive decay, during which they eject small particles and radiation. These are called radioactive isotopes and they eject these particles to become more stable. They may produce atoms of one or more different elements at the same time. The time taken for half of the nuclet in a sample of a radioactive isotope to undergo radioactive decay is called its halite.Uses of radioactive isotopes + Carbon-14 dating The age of plant and animal remains, up to about 60 000 years old, can be determined by carbon-14 dating, Living organisms constantly take in carbon from carbon dioxide or food ‘molecules, 0.01% of which is radioactive carbon-14, This keeps the percentage of carbon-14 in living organisms constant. When an organism dies, it stops taking in carbon and the percentage of carbon-I4 in its body decreases as it undergoes radioactive decay. As the half-life of carbon-14 is 5700 years, if the percentage of radioactive carbon-14 left in plant and animal remains is measured, it can be used to determine their ages. * Cancer treatment (radiotherapy) Cancerous cells in tumours can be destroyed by directing a controlled beam of radiation from radioactive cobalt-60 at the cells. Alternatively a radioactive isotope can be injected directly into. the cancerous tumour, e.g. radioactive iodine-131 is used to teeat thyroid cancee. * Energy generation Electricity is generated in nuclear power stations using radioactive uranium-235. Ifa uranium-235 atom is struck by a fast moving neutron, it splits into two smaller atoms. As it splits, two or three neutrons and a large amount of heat energy are released. The neutrons can then strike other atoms causing them to split and release more neutrons and energy. This causes a chain reaction which releases very large amounts of heat energy. If the chain reaction is controlled, the energy can be used to generate electricity. If the chain reaction is not controlled, a nuclear explosion (for example, from an atom bomb) can occur.Figure 3.1. The chain reaction created by splitting a uranium-235 atom + Tracers Very tiny quantities of radioactive isotopes can be observed and traced using special equipment in medical investigations and biological research, For example, the functioning of the thyroid gland can be checked by giving patients radioactive iodine-131 and radioactive carbon-14 is used to study carbon dioxide uptake and photosynthesis in plants + Heart pacemakers Heart pacemakers are usually powered by chemical batteries which have to be replaced by a surgical procedure about every 10 years. Batteries containing plutonium-238 should be able to power pacemakers for a patient’ lifetime without having to be replaced, since the halF-life of plutonium-238 is about 87 years. The mass of atoms Because an atom of any element is so small, ts absolute mass (actual mass) is very difficult to measure, e.g, the absolute mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.67 x 10 g. Consequently, the masses of atoms are usually compared using relative atomic mass. Relative atomic mass (A, )is the average mass of one atom of an element compared to one-twelfth the ‘mass of an atom of carbon-12.‘A catbon-12 atom has been assigned a mass of 12.00 atomic mass units or amu. This means that 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom has a mass of 1.00 amu, and relative atomic mass compares the masses of atoms to this value, Being a comparative value, relative atomic mass has no units When the relative atomic mass of an element is calculated, the relative abundance of each isotope is taken into account. As a result, relative atomic masses of elements are not usually whole numbers, eg. the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 3555 (see p. 20),