FACULTY OF Design and Innovation

ADBC223: BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 3

Title : Construction Process

Issue Date : Week
Due Date : Week
Examiner : Ndlangamandla Musa
student Name : Ngwenya Thokozani
Student ID : 902008497
Class : A
Year & Semester :2022/ s04
Academic Honesty Policy Statement

I, hereby attest that contents of this attachment

are our own work. Referenced works, articles, art,
programs, papers or parts thereof are
acknowledged at the end of this paper. This
includes data excerpted from CD-ROMs, the
Internet, other private networks, and other peoples
disk of the computer system.

Signature & Date of Submission:

___________________________
Contents
FACULTY OF Design and Innovation .................... 1
INTRODUCTION ...................................................... 3
Eswatini Industrial Building ........................... 3
Sidvwashini Industrial site, CTM Building . 3
Site Preparation ....................................................... 4
Identify and manage irrigation system impacts. 6
3 RELATION OF THE TYPE OF FOUNDATIONS WITH
GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS ................................... 6
Foundations.............................................................. 7
2.2.1. FROST ACTION ................................................. 8
Floor Systems ........................................................ 11
2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................. 11
2.3 COLD STORES............................................... 15
2.4 PILE-SUPPORTED FLOORS ......................... 16
LOADINGS ................................................................... 16
The Impact of climate change on buildings ...... 18
Adaptation of building for climate change
............................................................................... 150
Methods for dealing with disaster-type
extreme weather ................................................. 150
Passive ventilation............................................... 152
Lighting and shading .......................................... 154
Bioenergy ............................................................. 157
Wall Systems and Cladding ............................... 159
Selection of Roofing and Wall Material ............ 159
Selection of Framing System ............................. 161
1. Design of Connections and Components...... 162
Materials and Methods ....................................... 162
Constructive Solutions Analyzed ............................ 162
Maintenance Model ............................................. 162
Conclusion ............................................................ 163
REFERENCES............................................................ 163
2. Bibliography ...................................................... 164
 INTRODUCTION
The document is to outline the durable, cost
effective, climate responsive construction details of
industrial buildings. Following the study of the CTM
building at Sidvwashini, here I will be looking into
how the building can be further modified to
withstand the current climate change situation. I
shall be looking from the very fundamentals
foundation elements used or rather needed to hold
an industrial building, which will be affected by the
study done on the site it was built. It also includes
wall structures, cladding and framing, all which will
ensure a strong frame to withstand lateral load
from roof.

Eswatini Industrial Building

Sidvwashini Industrial site, CTM Building
 Site Preparation
1. Identify work sites, prepare plans and
obtain approvals.
a. Identify all work areas that would be needed
for safe construction (e.g. pipeline right-of-
way, extra work space areas, pipe storage
and contractor yards, borrow and disposal
areas, access roads, etc.). Conduct
appropriate cultural, biological and
geotechnical surveys before requesting
internal authorization to use the site. [FERC
comparison - Upland Erosion Control,
Revegetation and Maintenance Plan, IIIA1.]
b. Planning of any activity shall document that
the selection of the methods and techniques
of construction avoid and/or minimize
environmental impact, in accordance with
requirements below.
c. Specific permits, licenses and approvals
(including those for siting construction
camps and temporary worksites, for route
selection of roads and pipelines, as well as
activities such as hydro testing and
associated water abstraction and discharge)
shall be acquired prior to the
commencement of any work on the site.
• The project sponsor must coordinate
with the appropriate Russian Federation
authorities and obtain relevant
recommendations from the authorities
responsible for soil conservation and/or
land management regarding permanent
erosion control and revegetation
specifications.
• If construction activities have the
potential to impact upon any waterbody,
all relevant decisions and permits shall
be obtained prior to commencement of
construction activities in accordance with
RF requirements.
 2. Minimize cleared footprint and avoid and
manage sensitive sites.

a. The area of land to be cleared shall be minimized.

• For example, efforts shall be made to upgrade
existing access roads, and coordinate activities
across different Asset and Project Teams to use
existing or joint cleared areas or right-of-ways
(ROWs).
• Tree clearance shall be kept to a minimum, and
limited to the footprint of the site and any safety
buffer zone. Within construction site boundaries
existing vegetation shall be retained wherever
possible. Trees and areas to be preserved and
protected shall be identified and clearly marked as
the work area is defined.
• Construction activities shall be kept strictly to the
footprint of designated site boundaries and/or the
Row.
b. Environmentally sensitive or valuable areas shall be
avoided, such as nature reserves, archaeological
sites, and areas inhabited by sensitive species.
Areas adjacent to surface water bodies are to be
avoided to the maximum extent possible.
c. Where possible, and as informed by survey data,
construction activities shall avoid Red Data Book
(RDB) plants or ensure their translocation to a safe
and suitable area prior to construction.
• Construction personnel shall be briefed about the
location and importance of rare fauna and flora in
the area during the induction process.
d. Site location and design (including route selection
for roads and pipelines) shall be optimized in order
to minimize the amount of soil to be excavated and
disturbed within the site/project boundaries.
• Wherever possible use existing tracks and roads.
• In remote or extremely sensitive areas,
consideration shall be given to using alternatives to
conventional road construction. For example, the
use of temporary/portable road systems and/or
airlifting of equipment, material and personnel
should be considered where practicable.
e. Construction and clearing of areas prone to erosion
or landslides shall be avoided to the maximum
extent practicable (for example, areas of high slope
or sensitive soils).
f. Minimize blasting activities, carry out risk and
impact assessment and determine controls prior to
any blasting activity, and carry out in seasonal
windows that avoid disturbance of hibernating
wildlife.
g. Identify and manage sites and items of cultural
heritage in accordance with the Cultural Heritage
Specification1.
h. Implement the Unexploded Ordnance Procedure
where applicable for sites at risk.
i. Implement river and wetland crossings in
compliance with River Crossings Specification.
j. Implement site preparation and construction in
compliance with Onshore Pipelines Right of Way
Specification.
k. Implement Sakhalin Energy Hunting and Fishing
Policy (applicable for major construction activities),
as per Fisheries, Hunting and Gathering
Specification.
Identify and manage irrigation system impacts.
l. Locate existing drain tiles and irrigation systems;
m. Contact landowners and local soil conservation
authorities to determine the locations of future
drain tiles that are likely to be installed within 3
years of the authorized construction;
n. Develop procedures for constructing through drain
tiled areas, maintaining irrigation systems during
construction, and repairing drain tiles and irrigation
systems after construction;

3 RELATION OF THE TYPE OF FOUNDATIONS

WITH GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS
There is an inevitable connection between
geological conditions and foundation design and
construction. If, for their considerable size, dams,
bridges and transportation structures seem to
induce more difficulties to Engineers, the design of
a building can cause as many problems or even
 1-1 CTM BUILDING FOUNDATION PLAN

Foundations
more, especially in what concerns foundation
design.
To design the foundations of a structure it is
necessary to follow three operations:
To determine the nature of the foundation bed
that will act as support;
To calculate the loads that the structure will
transmit to the foundation and this one to the soil;
To design the foundation structure to fit the results
of the two previous operations, resisting to the
loads and enabling the soil to also resist to them.
In fact, the geological and geotechnical conditions
have a big influence on foundation design. As to
the geological conditions the primordial factor will
be the depth of the bedrock. According to this
depth, the foundation design characteristics may
change, depending if the bedrock lies at the ground
surface or so close that the building can be founded
upon it. The bedrock may also occur at a depth
below the ground surface that still makes possible
the transfer of loads to it. Alternatively, the bedrock
may be so far from the surface that the building will
have to be founded in weaker geological material.
In the first and third cases shallow foundations may
be used but while in the first it is not necessary to
have big concern with the design, in the third,
foundations in soil, adequate subsurface
investigations are imperative, being necessary an
exploratory work until a depth at least twice the
width of the structure. These foundations in soil, in
which the geotechnical conditions are of extreme
importance, are the most common in Engineering.
In the second case, with bedrock within reach,
normally piles are used to transmit the loads of the
structure to the hard rock (deep foundations).
These piles can be in concrete (with the
preoccupation of high sulfate content in the
groundwater), in steel (but the possibility of
corrosion has to be studied) or in wood (accounting
for the fact that wood will deteriorate under
alternating wet and dry conditions, so variations of
groundwater level cannot occur).
Given those three different situations and despite
the considerable differences of geotechnical
conditions, both in Kaunas as in Porto the use of
shallow foundations is very common.
With reference to the three cases of bedrock depth,
the geotechnical conditions of the city of Porto are
closer to the first situation, despite the fact that in
some parts of the region the granitic formations
closer to the surface are much too fragmented,
while the conditions of Kaunas can be integrated in
the third case and so, as it was seen before, in both
cases the shallow foundations are the most
recommended.
It must be said that is a simplification to think that
these two cities only present this type of geological
conditions. However, these ones are the most
common from what can be gathered from the
technical literature.
In spite of shallow foundation being the most used
type of infrastructure for buildings in both cities,
the soils of Porto present better resistance
characteristics and so the design of this element
can be done in a more favorable environment in
terms of safety.
2.2. WEATHER CONDITIONS
2.2.1. FROST ACTION
In the regions of the globe where the winter is
more rigorous, the variation of temperature in the
soil water becomes a factor to take into account in
the engineer daily work. In every site it is necessary
to know the alterations in the soil created by the
freeze and thaw of the water contained in it, since
the variation of volume and of bearing capacity can
be very prejudicial to the constructions. To explain
the influence of frost action in Civil Engineering
works, it is necessary to introduce three concepts,
frost heave, thaw weakening and permafrost.
2.2.1.1 FROST HEAVE
Frost heave is a phenomenon that only occurs in
places where the temperature in winter persists for
some time too much below 0 ºC. The temperature
in the soil increases with depth, so when the
surface is at 0 ºC all the soil is above this
temperature, but when the surface is at a much
lower temperature a thick layer of soil can be below
zero. When this happens the water in the soil
freezes and the ground surface rises because of the
water volume increase of about 9%. With this
increase of water volume all the soil above freezing
level will also increase in volume up to 5%,
depending on the void ratio.
Frost heave occurs primarily in soils containing fine
particles. Clean sands and gravels are non-frost
susceptible. In 1932, Casagrande proposed the
following widely known rule-of-thumb criterion for
identifying potentially frost susceptible soils:
"Under natural freezing conditions and with
sufficient water supply one should expect
considerable ice segregation in non-uniform soils
containing more than 3% of grains smaller than
0.02 mm, and in very uniform soils containing more
than 10% smaller than 0.02 mm. No ice
segregation was observed in soils containing less
than 1% of grains smaller than 0.02 mm, even if
the groundwater level is as high as the frost line."
With prolonged low temperature in soils with
sufficient saturation much greater volume
increases can occur with the formation of ice
lenses. When some water in the voids freezes some
moisture deficiency is created and capillary tension
in areas next to ice crystals. This tension will
provoke the suction of water upwards from below
the frost line, provoking its freezing too and
consequently the increase of the volume of frozen
water, the ice lenses (Figure 2.5). Such ice lenses
will increase in size with prolonged low
temperatures creating in this way the frost heaves
due to the vertical upwards pressure that they
exert.
Fig.2.5 – Formation of ice lenses (WAPA Asphalt
Pavement Guide)

The depth of the frost line may change with region

and country but normally will be below one meter.
The increase of the soil volume is very prejudicial
to constructions, so this phenomenon has to be
prevented in the projects. In the case of a building
it is enough to place the footings below the frost
line, but for a highway pavement or a railway line
other techniques have to be employed directly in
the soil. Some of these techniques are listed below:
Remove and replace the frost-susceptible soil by
one free of silt or clay;
Lower the phreatic level by means of drains or
ditches;
Use impervious blankets of plastic or asphalts
cements (costlier).
In Figure 2.6 it is shown what can happen to a
pavement if this phenomenon is not prevented.
But frost heave is not the only enemy of
engineering works. Associated to the frost action
also is thaw weakening.
 Floor Systems

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Successful floors are the result of an integrated and
detailed planning process that addresses the needs
of the user in a readily understandable way. To play
their part in this process, owners and users should
have a basic understanding of how floors are
constructed, the advantages and limitations of the
various techniques, and the implications for joint
layout, surface regularity, and racking layout.
The majority of floors perform satisfactorily,
however, it is important that owners and users
have reasonable expectations of their floor
surfaces. Floors are built in an on-site environment
from naturally occurring materials, which are
themselves variable. End results may vary more
than, for example, a factory-produced product.
Floors are not perfectly flat and uniform in colour
and are unlikely to be totally free from cracks or
surface crazing.
FLOOR CONSTRUCTION METHODS
establishing specific requirements, having
carefully con- A ground-supported floor slab is
made up of layers of sidered each of the aspects
described in Chapters 3,4 and 5 materials and
components, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. The
benchmarking against existing floors. Where
possible references to these floors should be
included in the contract
details.
There is no single ideal solution for each situation;
as in all design, compromises have to be reached
based on needs and costs. Also, techniques and
materials are being constantly developed to provide
better performance and better value.
An ideal floor would be perfectly flat and level and
have no joints. However, there are limits on the
dimensional accuracy of any construction and, as
concrete shrinks after construction, it is not
possible to dispense with joints completely. Joints
are
also required because there are practical limitations
on the area of floor that can be constructed at any
one time.
At the design stage the designer should plan the
joint layout, give indications of the expected
performance throughout the life of the floor, and
set out the expected number and performance of
the joints. Attention should be given to the early
life of the floor as contraction and shrinkage take
place and over the long term. The performance
factors to be considered. construction method has
a bearing on a number of aspects of the
performance of the floor. The principal
considerations relate to shrinkage, and flatness and
levelness (surface regularity). The various
construction methods also have different
outcomes in terms of speed of construction, joint
construction, joint frequency and cost. As noted
earlier, cost aspects of floor
construction is not discussed in this report.
2.2.1 Large area construction - jointed
Large floors up to several thousand square metres
in area can be laid in a continuous operation (Figure
2.2). Fixed forms are used only at the edges of the
construction at intervals of typically 50 m. Concrete
is discharged into the floor area and spread either
manually or by machine. Levels are controlled
either manually using a target staff in conjunction
with a laser level transmitter or by direct control of
laser-guided spreading machines.
Over such large areas, it is not possible to control
the surface regularity in relation to fixed formwork
and so there are limitations on the accuracy that
can be achieved unless specific
Concrete industrial ground floors

Wearing
surface

Steel
fabric

reinforcement
Slip membrane/ methane barrier

Sub-base
Subgrade

Figure 2.1: Typical slab construction.

Figure 2.2: Large area construction. In the

background (left) a laser screed machine is
spreading and levelling the concrete. To the right a
dry shake
finish is being spread mechanically. In the
foreground, the concrete placed several hours
earlier is being finished by a power float and a ride-
on power trowel.
measures are adopted. This form of construction is
commonly used to construct free-movement areas,
see Chapter 4. Section 4.7 gives guidance on
conversion of such floors from free-movement to
defined-movement floors, which have tighter
tolerances on surface regularity.

With large area jointed construction, tighter surface

regularity tolerances can be achieved by using
additional measures. For example, pre-positioned
screed rails can provide a guide for finishing
operations. See also long strip construction in
Section 2.2.3. On machine-laid floors, additional
manual levelling techniques often referred to as
'bump

10
cutting' can be used on the stiffening concrete
surface to remove 'high spots' and to also create
tighter tolerances.
After the floor has been laid and finished, it is sub-
divided into panels by sawn restrained-movement
joints to relieve shrinkage-induced stresses,
typically on a 6 m grid in both directions. Formed
free-movement joints are used at the edges of each
area. Typically, these free-movement joints open
by 4-5 mm.
2.2.2 Large area construction - joint less
Joint less floors are built using large area
construction methods. The word 'joint less' can be
misleading, as there is a practical upper limit to the
area of concrete that can be placed in a single
continuous operation. No joints are sawn, but steel
fibres incorporated into the concrete mix control
the width and distribution of cracks caused by
shrinkage. It is not usually possible to guarantee
that there will be no visible cracks in the floor.
Therefore, performance criteria with regard to the
width and frequency of cracks should be
established.
A benefit of joint less floors to the building user is
the opportunity of having relatively large areas of
floor with no joints. However, the formed free-
movement joints at the edges of each area will be
wider than in floors with multiple sawn
joints and will typically open by 20 mm.
2.2.3 Long strip construction
The floor is laid in a series of strips typically 4 to 6
m wide, with forms along each side (Figure 2.3).
Strips can be laid alternately, with infill strips placed
later. They can also be laid consecutively or
between 'leave-in-place' screed rails. With the
latter method, large areas can be poured in a
method similar to large area construction. Strips
are laid in a continuous operation and joints are
sawn transversely across each strip about 6 m
apart to accommodate longitudinal shrinkage.
Formed free-movement joints are provided at
 Floor construction methods and surface characteristics

Floors built in strip construction will have more formed

joints than those built by large area methods, but these joints Wearing slab
are usually designed to be in non-critical positions such as
under storage racking, see Sections 8.7 and 8.10. Slip membrane

2.2.4 Wide bay construction Insulant

Wide bay construction is a variation on large area con- Vapor barrier

traction but with bay widths limited to 12 to 15 m. Limiting Screed/heaters
the bay width permits access for the use of 'bump cutting'
techniques on the concrete surface to control the surface toll
Base slab
erances more closely.
2.2.5 Two-layer construction
Slip membrane
In two-layer construction, a hardened slab is overlain with a
second layer that is placed between accurately levelled Sub-base
screed rails at relatively close spacing’s (typically about 4 m)
on the lower slab. This method of construction is more
complex than others but can be used for very flat floors. The
Subgrade
principle is similar to that used for levelling screeds, as
(10)
described in BS 8204-2 .
Figure 2.4: Typical construction layers in cold stores.

intervals similar to those in large area jointed

construction, see Section 2.2.1.
As formwork can be set to tight tolerances, and as
the distance between the forms is relatively small,
this method lends itself to the construction of very
flat floors, see Chapter 4.

Figure 2.3: Long strip construction, allowing access

for levelling using a highway straightedge.
2.3 COLD STORES
Floors in cold stores are built by similar techniques
to other industrial floors but they incorporate an
insulation layer above a heater mat to protect the
sub-base from frost. The layer structure is shown
in Figure 2.4.
Specific references are made to cold stores
elsewhere:
Soils and sub-bases: Chapter 6
Joints: Chapter 8
Concrete maturity: Section 10.2.3
Use of admixtures: Section 11.3.6
Information on cold store heater mats and other
aspects of cold store construction can be found in
Guidelines for the specification, design and
construction of cold store floors (11).
2.4 PILE-SUPPORTED FLOORS
If geotechnical investigations indicate that ground
conditions are inadequate for a ground-supported
floor, the floor may be constructed on piles. In
principle, any of the construction methods
discussed earlier can be used, but most such floors
are built with a joint less method.
For narrow aisle warehouses, the design of the joint
layout arrangement has to take into account both
the piling grid and the racking grid. This may
require particular attention where long strip
construction of a pile-supported slab is planned, as
the preferred positioning of the strip joints under
the storage racking may not be compatible with the
piling grid.

LOADINGS

3.1 STATIC LOADS

Uniformly distributed load (UDL)

kN/m (Section 3.1.2)
2

Load acting Block stacked pallet loads

uniformly and paper reels (unit loads)
over Loads from fixed machinery
relatively and
large area equipment
Nominal loadings for light
commercial and
recreational use
 Line load (LL) - kN/m (Section 3.1.3)
Load acting Mobile dense racking
uniformly systems
over Partition walls
extended Rail mounted fixed
length equipment
Point load (PL) - kN (Sections 3.1.4 and 3.2)
Concentrated Arena seating
load from Clad rack buildings
baseplate or Mezzanine legs
wheel Point loads from fixed
machinery
Stacker crane rail
mountings Storage racking
legs
Wheel loads from materials
handling equipment
(Section 3.2)
3.1.1 Introduction
There are three types of static load, as defined in
Table 3.1. Descriptions of common static
equipment follow.

Table 3.1: Definitions and examples of load types.

Figure 3.1: Block stacking
of unit loads.
 3.1.2 Uniformly distributed loads
Block stacking
Block stacking usually consists of unit loads,
stacked on top of one another. The height
of the stack is typically limited to 4 m and is
governed either by the crushing resistance
of the load or by the stability of the fork-lift
truck or stack (see Figure 3.1).
Typically, unit loads are stored on timber
pallets, in metal stillages or post pallets. It
is usual, for ease of racking installation and
block stack stability, to keep unit load
1-2 the CTM floor under load stress thus dimensions and weight within close
cracking tolerances. Rolls of newsprint (Figure 3.2),
bales and packaged goods handled by
hydraulic clamps rather than forks are also considered as unit loads.
Nominal loadings
Guidance on loadings in light commercial, recreational and other buildings is given in BS
6399-1 (l2). Actual loadings in these situations are very low and the design guidance in this
report is unlikely to be relevant. Slab thickness is more likely

The Impact of climate change on buildings

There is no doubt about the impact of climate change on buildings. A paper from Cambridge
University pointed out that climate change is expected to have far-reaching impacts on the
building environment, although the exact extent of these impacts is uncertain, and there will
be great differences between and within regions. Many buildings are vulnerable to climate
change and extreme events. Impacts include increased rainfall, thawing of permafrost, more
frequent wildfires, severe storms, and floods. This vulnerability is bound to increase without
investment in resilience. The location of built assets is the key to their vulnerability. The
building sector itself is also facing a direct impact. Extreme precipitation will increase building
delays and increase the cost. Climate change may also change the length of the construction
season. The changing patterns of extreme weather events mean more reconstruction and
restoration. The increase in the incidence and severity of heatwaves has an impact on
architectural design, which may mean the need for different approaches from the current
architectural design to that for new buildings. Higher temperatures will drive climate-related
changes in energy demand.

Another report from Australia pointed out the main impacts of climate changes on buildings:
increased energy consumption due to higher temperatures; health effects of overheating;
stronger tropical cyclones and storms; and the effects of stronger winds, drier soil, more
cracks, and ground movements on foundations and pipelines will increase the risk of damage;
increase in the damage caused by floods; increase in the risk of forest fires.

A review article from Qatar pointed out that climate change will have an impact on building
energy consumption demand and building energy systems (distributed air conditioning
system and power grid, district heating system, district cooling system). Buildings in hot and
humid climates are most sensitive to climate change. The most extreme increase in cooling
demand can be +150% for Sydney (Australia), while the most extreme reduction in the
heating demand can be -264% for Tokyo (Japan) (depending on the location and
characteristics of the buildings observed). In these climates cooling accounts for almost 90%
of building energy demand, and the total building energy demand may increase significantly.
The increase in total demand and the change of heating and cooling demand ratio will have
a significant impact on the operation of the energy system.

Another review from Malaysia pointed out that climate change will have an impact on
buildings energy demand, energy systems, and their internal services: the impact on building
sustainability and indoor environmental quality, the impact on traditional HVAC systems, the
impact on heating and cooling energy consumption, the impact on peak demand and energy
consumption of building electricity, and that on building carbon emissions.
Adaptation of building for climate change
The building sector accounts for a huge share of carbon dioxide emissions, and residents'
expectations of comfort are also rising. This means huge energy-saving opportunities, and it
has become a high-priority area of climate change. Buildings should adopt the methods of
adaptation and mitigation to deal with climate change. Because the disaster effects of
extreme weather are the result of climate warming, we can only take adaptive measures. In
terms of the impact of non-disaster situations, we should adopt adaptation and mitigation
strategies, that is, sustainable development measures.

Methods for dealing with disaster-type extreme weather

The impact of disaster extreme weather on buildings is mainly on the power supply. Most of
the solutions are discussed from the perspective of power system engineering.
From the point of view of power system engineering and extreme weather events, a review
article summarizes the research status of power grid resilience. Also introduced the strategies
of grid resilience enhancement include: enhancing grid physical resilience (Vegetation
management; Selective underground laying; Material upgrading and revitalization; Elevated
substation and water barrier; Substation relocation and line re-routing) and Enhance grid
operation capability (Emergency generators and mobile substations; Micro grid and
distributed energy; Spare parts and maintenance personnel management; Grid monitoring
system based on extreme weather events; Regulations and design standards upgrade).

Fig.2 External ceramic panels applied on a façade

1-4IBR METAL SHEET CLADDING 1-3 IBR METAL SHEET CLADDING CTM
INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

Research from Morocco studied clay-sawdust composite as an exterior wall enclosure. The
results show that the sawdust-clay composite can reduce the energy consumption of
conventional and traditional residential buildings by 21% and 5.3% respectively.
Research from Ghana shows that mixing sand concrete blocks with existing bio-based local
materials, especially treated sawdust and palm fibers, minimizes their thermal conductivity.
The results show that the density and thermal conductivity of sand concrete is reduced by
adding bio-based materials into the sand concrete, thus the heat transfer load of the wall is
reduced. The composite material of 70% sand concrete and 30% treated palm fiber (P30)
can save 453.4 kWh of electricity per year (In tropical climates, Total wall surface area 66
m2).

Passive ventilation
Passive ventilation refers to the process of supplying and discharging air to indoor space
without using a mechanical system. It refers to the pressure difference caused by natural
forces, external air flows to the indoor space. There are two kinds of natural ventilation in
buildings: wind-driven ventilation and buoyancy ventilation. Wind-driven ventilation is
generated by the different pressures of the wind around the building or structure, and the
airflow formed around the building through the opening. Buoyancy-driven ventilation is due
to the directional buoyancy caused by the temperature difference between indoor and
outdoor.

A research article from Egypt takes the solar chimney (A solar chimney is a way of improving
the natural ventilation of buildings by using convection of air heated by passive solar energy.
A simple description of a solar chimney is that of a vertical shaft utilizing solar energy to
enhance the natural stack ventilation through a building as the research object, adopts the
passive solar energy technology combined with water heater and phase change
material(Fig3), and combines the short wind tower to cool the low-energy building in the hot
and dry climate. The results show that the minimum air velocity in the chimney is 0.69 kg/s
after sunset. In addition, the combination of solar chimney and PCM with cooling tower
reduces the indoor air temperature by 8-4k in the daytime and at night respectively. The
research results provide reference information for the integration of this new type of low
energy consumption compact passive air cooling and water heating system into high-rise
residential projects in the hot and dry climate of Egypt.
Fig3 Solar Chimney integrated with solar water heater.

A review article reviews the traditional and modern technology of wind tower (Wind tower is
used to create natural ventilation and passive cooling in buildings, emphasizes the
importance of wind tower, and deeply discusses the scheme of passive cooling system
replacing high energy consumption mechanical ventilation system. The study emphasizes
that different cooling technologies can be integrated with the wind tower to improve its
ventilation and thermal performance (see Fig.4).

Fig. 4. Concept design of a passive wind tower integrated with different cooling devices
Another review from Greece pointed out that the building design of night ventilation can
reduce the energy consumption of air conditioning by about 20-25%. The application of night
ventilation technology in residential buildings may reduce the cooling load by nearly 40
kWh/m2/y. The effectiveness of night ventilation technology depends on the climate
conditions, microclimate, building characteristics, and the location at that time. Especially in
arid areas where ventilation during the day is not enough to ensure thermal comfort, night
ventilation is effective.

In order to reduce the energy consumption of air conditioning, passive ventilation is

necessary. And passive ventilation can play a major role in NZEBs.The ventilation method
without mechanical intervention and therefore without energy is called natural ventilation.
To reduce building energy consumption and carbon footprint, sustainable ventilation
technology is proposed. Such as wind tower and night ventilation technology.

Lighting and shading

In summer, the windows are preferably protected from the influence of solar radiation, to
reduce the cooling load caused by solar radiation, while in winter, maximum solar radiation
is allowed. This section collects the main methods of building lighting and shading.

In the book Architectural Lighting, the basic knowledge of building lighting is introduced
comprehensively and deeply. This book focuses on natural light and artificial lighting, and
abundant charts and examples provide the basis for understanding lighting space.
A study from Europe focuses on the control methods that can not only protect the occupants
from direct sunlight but also maximize the penetration of natural light in the building
according to the preferences of the occupants while reducing the power consumption of
lighting and cooling. All control and/or natural light guidance systems and/or strategies
ensure that sunlight enters the building (e.g. Fig.5 Light deflection using prismatic glazing),
thereby reducing power consumption for lighting and cooling. At the same time, they improve
the thermal comfort and visual comfort of building users.
Fig.5. Light deflection using prismatic glazing.

A study from Brazil compared three main lighting technologies: incandescent halogen lamp,
compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), and LED (light-emitting diode). The results show that the
LED lamp is the best lighting choice.

In addition, a report from the UK pointed out that energy-saving lighting products are
particularly suitable for retrofitting applications due to the minimal damage to building
structures caused by energy-saving lighting products and the latest improvements in LED
technology. Compared with traditional commercial technology such as halogen lamps, the
energy-saving rate of LED is about 80%. The service life of LED can reach 50 000 hours,
while that of a halogen lamp is 2 000 hours. It is equivalent to replacing 25 bulbs, plus the
cost of hiring maintenance engineers.

A review article from Malaysia summarizes the existing shading technology. The shading
system is divided into passive, active, and hybrid systems. In the passive fixed shading
system, the egg-crate (see Fig.6.) device is considered to be the best device to improve solar
and thermal performance.
A review study from Turkey introduces shading technology in terms of fixed shading devices
and mobile shading devices. It is pointed out that the Venetian blinds are one of the most
commonly used sunshade devices studied among other types. And blinds are one of the most
commonly used shading devices.

Future forecast:1) The development of interior shading strategy, material use, and comfort
parameters should be dealt with deeply.2) In the design of the shading device, the data of
some positions affected by microclimate conditions should be collected accurately.3)
Considering the energy consumption of buildings, the combination of sunshade and building
and the use of movable type should be the priority of future design.4) The function of the
building and the habits and preferences of the residents have an important impact on the
energy consumption of the building. Before the construction, the model should be simulated
and optimized according to the required parameters to satisfy future users.5) In the hot, dry,
hot, humid, and extremely hot climate area, adopting an appropriate sunshade type can only
reduce the cooling load of the building.

A research article from Argentina pointed out that shading is considered to be one of the
most effective design strategies to deal with climate change in future buildings.

An article from Korea studies the reasonable external shading in the design of high-rise
residential buildings. Through the energy-saving performance, economic feasibility, and
applicability test, it is verified that the horizontal overhang and vertical panel were verified
to be the best shading types to use in high-rise residential buildings. The research can provide
basic information for reasonable external shading planning in high-rise residential design.
The study also pointed out that in the future, based on the review of materials and various
designs, it is necessary to carry out follow-up research on reasonable installation modules
and selection criteria.
By using LED lighting and reasonable use of a sunshade, the effect of solar radiation can be
effectively reduced and comfort can be provided.

1-5 SUN SHADING THROUGH WINDOWS

The existing CTM building lack in the idea of sun shading thus experiencing more solar
radiation. As mentioned above, a combination of sunshade and building and the use of
movable type should be the priority of future design.4) The function of the building and the
habits and preferences of the residents have an important impact on the energy consumption
of the building. Before the construction, the model should be simulated and optimized
according to the required parameters to satisfy future users.5) In the hot, dry, hot, humid,
and extremely hot climate area, adopting an appropriate sunshade type can only reduce the
cooling load of the building.

Bioenergy
Anaerobic digestion is considered to be one of the most energy-saving and environmental
protection technologies in bioenergy production. This section collects the application of
bioenergy.

Bioenergy is made of biomass or biofuel. Biomass energy is any organic matter that absorbs
sunlight and stores it in the form of chemical energy. Examples are wood, energy crops, and
waste from forests, yards, or farms. Since biomass can be directly used as fuel (such as log)
technically, some people can use the terms biomass and biofuel interchangeably. Usually,
the term biomass energy only refers to the biological materials used to make fuel. The term
biofuel is usually reserved as a liquid or gaseous fuel for transportation. The US energy
information agency(EIA) follows this naming convention. The IPCC defines bioenergy as
renewable energy. IEA defines bioenergy as the most important renewable energy. The IEA
also believes that the current deployment speed of bioenergy is far lower than that required
under the low-carbon scenario, and there is an urgent need to speed up the deployment
speed. Researchers dispute the idea that using forest biomass as energy is carbon neutral.
A literature review of net-zero energy buildings pointed out that biogas can be produced
from waste, residue, and energy crops, which is important renewable energy. In addition to
being used in cogeneration systems, biomass can also be used for heating or cooling without
power generation, using biomass boilers, absorption or adsorption chillers, or gas driven heat
pumps.

A research paper from Germany developed and tested a control system that allows optimal
heat and microalgae production in the bioenergy facade to be maintained and used to provide
hot water and heating for residential buildings. The bioenergy facade is an innovative
technology. By integrating bioreactors into the facade of buildings, it combines heat and
biomass production with minimum horizontal space requirements. The technology uses
microalgae to convert solar radiation hitting the bioenergy facade into biomass through
photosynthesis. The unused radiation of algae is converted into heat - similar to the classical
solar thermal system. The heat is removed from the bioenergy facade through heat
exchangers for heating and hot water supply. The results show that biomass energy buildings
can be well integrated into the city, and the city can be transferred from the place with rich
resource consumption to the place with resource production through the simultaneous
generation of heat and biomass.

A research paper from Turkey points out that microalgae have great potential to reduce
carbon dioxide emissions throughout the life cycle of buildings by improving energy efficiency
and actively capturing carbon dioxide. The use of closed microalgae photo bioreactors as
building components has the additional benefit of being an effective thermal insulation
system. In addition, microalgae can provide a dynamic appearance and life dynamic system,
and can also be used as an adaptive sunshade. Below in Fig.9 is a Bioreactors application
facade in Hamburg, Germany.
Fig.9. Bioreactors application facade in Hamburg, Germany

Wall Systems and Cladding

Selection of Roofing and Wall Material

Choices for roofing and wall materials are many times not made by the designer, since the
owner may often dictate what is to be used. Most industrial buildings will have either built-
up roof systems, EPDM systems, sheet metal or standing-seam roofs. The choice of any one
of these roof systems affects many other decisions in the design process. The roof weight
affects the gravity load design of the roof system and also, in the case of seismic calculations,
the lateral load design. The roofing choice affects the type of roof deck, the type of purlin
used, purlin spacing, deflections of the secondary structural roof pitch and drainage
requirements.
For example, if a standing-seam roof system is selected, the direction of secondary framing
is established automatically because of the drainage requirements for this type of roof.
Standing-seam roofs exhibit little or no diaphragm capacity. The structure cannot be
designed using normal roof diaphragm considerations. X-bracing and/or rigid frames are
required. Special considerations are also required for the gravity load design of the roof
members, since the roof covering cannot be used to laterally support roof members. Uplift
requirements are also more critical, because there is little dead load to offset the uplift.

Crane Manufacturers of America. Specification #10, 1 983. Materials Handling Institute, 1

326 Freeport Road, Pittsburgh, Pa. 1 5238
is selected. In general, the types of walls chosen will be either metal field-assembled, or
metal factory-assembled, precast or masonry. In selecting the wall system, the designer
should consider the following items: Interior surface requirements
Appearance
Acoustical control
Dust control
Maintenance considerations
Ease and speed of erection
Future expansion
Fire considerations
Insulating properties
Again, once the wall system is selected, it has a major impact upon the design of the
structure. Eave members, girts, foundations and wall bracings are all dependent on the type
of wall. Recognizing the interaction of roof, wall and framing can eliminate rechecking the
design by recognizing system decisions must be made simultaneously. Once the roof system
and wall system are selected, major decisions relating to the design of the building are fairly
in hand, except for bay size.

1-6 ROOFING TYPE AND MATERIAL CTM BUILDING

The roofing method seems quite good in terms of weight to the building since the roof
truss needs to exert less weight as possible to the walls. As mentioned the roof structure or
truss also determines the drainage. The selected roof material is very light in weight and
very easy to work with. Also the lighter truss can be secured tightly on the walls of the
building and can withstand heavy or strong winds. The roofing material used is the ibr roof
sheet, which is secured and nailed or screwed tightly on the steel purlins and resistant to
strong winds.
Selection of Framing System

1-7Portal Framing on wall and roof truss

Initially, the building used columns only as a support to the whole structure, the building
needed a framing structure to support the walls making them resistant to earth movements
and harsh winds and resist lateral loads.
As one aspect of the structural system, it is necessary to select a method for resisting lateral
loads—specifically, the stability mechanism used to resist wind, seismic and crane lateral
loads. Three basic options are reasonable: (l) Using a roof diaphragm system with wall
bracing (not recommended for most crane buildings); (2) Using an X-braced roof system
with wall bracing; and (3) Designing the structure as a rigid-frame structure. It can be seen
again the choice depends very much on the choice of the roof system. Built-up roofs and/or
EPDM roofs will have a roof deck with diaphragm capability, whereas the standing-seam roof
does not. And the diaphragm braced system must be ruled out for buildings with such roofs.
In general, diaphragm-braced roof with wall bracing will yield a minimum cost structure.
However, one needs to consider the owner's requirements for future expansion, because the
necessary braces may be in the way. The engineer also needs to consider where building
expansion joints are to be located, since the diaphragm or X-bracing may be interrupted by
an expansion joint or joints.
A rigid-frame scheme may be the best choice when buildings have span-to-width ratios
greater than three or four to one. When the span-to-width ratio of a building is of this
magnitude, roof diaphragms will not have the required strength to carry lateral loads. X-
bracing in the roof will also become relatively large when these ratios exist.
The engineer can now decide upon the type and orientation of both exterior and interior
columns.
For buildings without cranes, the choice of column type and orientation depends primarily
on building height, the wall system and the lateral load carrying system. In general, wide-
flange columns provide the most economical choice for exterior columns in a building. This
is particularly true in metal wall systems where the girts can be used to brace the weak axis
of these columns. Also, since wide-flange columns are ideal for bending about one axis, their
use is optimum for structures in which rigid-frame action is required in one direction. The
long, narrow building for which rigid-frame action is selected can be braced in the long
direction by either X-bracing or by weak-axis bending of the columns. Xbracing will provide
the most economical solution. The best choice for interior columns is also dependent on the
lateral load system and on the building's clear height. For clear heights over 24 ft., tube
columns will generally yield the most economical selection because of their high radius of
gyration about both axes.
 For buildings with cranes, the question of type of crane column is one of constant debate
with engineers 'and fabricators. Several types exist: (l) straight-shafted columns with
brackets; (2) a separate crane shaft; (3) a separate crane shaft laced or connected by
diaphragms to the building column to create a composite section; (4) a stepped-crane
column. The choice of the most appropriate column type is discussed at length in Ref. l.

1. Design of Connections and Components

This process will be expedited if the designer first thinks through the type of connections
required. Connection requirements will dictate the type of analysis and also the type of
members that can be used conveniently. For example, if an X-braced roof system (horizontal
roof truss) is selected as the optimum lateral load carrying system, and if joist construction
is to be used in the roof, the designer must think through all the connection details to properly
specify the joist. Forces in the horizontal roof truss may be of such magnitude that joists
cannot be used for strut or chord members. Perimeter members must be selected so
connection forces can be dealt with without undue expense. For example, special members
and connections may be required at locations where roof diaphragm forces 'are transferred
into the wall bracing.

Materials and Methods

Constructive Solutions Analyzed
In this study, four building facades’ constructive solutions are analyzed: Ceramic tiling system
(CTS); natural stone cladding (NSC); external thermal insulation composite system (ETICS);
and architectural concrete façades (ACF). These claddings were selected since they are
expensive solutions with long service lives and, so, their long-term behavior deserves to be
maintained. In Figure 1, an illustrative example for each constructive solution is given.

Figure 1. Illustrative example of the four constructive solutions: (a) Ceramic tiling system
(CTS); (b) natural stone cladding (NSC); (c) external thermal insulation composite system
(ETICS); (d) architectural concrete façades (ACF).

Maintenance Model
To perform this analysis, a stochastic maintenance model based on the Petri nets formalism
is used to compute all parameters required to analyze the four constructive solutions. The
maintenance model was previously developed by the authors. This model, in addition to
being considered a life cycle model, is also a condition-based model. The maintenance model
includes the degradation, inspection, and maintenance processes, and it is assumed that the
decisions to intervene are only carried out after the element’s condition has been assessed
through inspections.
 The classification system implemented in the degradation process of the maintenance model
is based on the work of Gaspar and de Brito. This classification system is composed of five
degradation conditions, ranging from A (no visual degradation) to E (generalized
degradation). In this classification system, the overall degradation condition of the different
constructive solutions is computed through the severity of degradation index, SW,
corresponding to the ratio between the area affected by the anomalies observed in the
constructive solutions, weighted according to their severity, and a reference area equivalent
to the total area with the highest possible degradation level

Conclusion
In conclusion, the CTM building is lacking quite a lot in structure reinforcement, from
foundation to roofing, especially the structural framing, however, with the study we did, I
was able to change the building to a stronger and sustainable to harsh climate changes
shown below.

REFERENCES
General Works
Fisher, James M. and D. R. Buettner Light and Heavy Industrial Buildings American Institute
of Steel Construction, Inc., Chicago, Ill., 1979.
Association of Iron and Steel Engineers Guide for the Design and Construction of Mill
Buildings MSE Technical Report No. 13, Pittsburgh, Pa., Aug. l, 1979.
Metal Building Manufacturers Association Crane Manual for Metal Building Systems 1982.
Fisher, James M. Structural Details in Industrial Buildings A/SC Engineering Journal, 3rd Qtr.,
1981, Chicago, Ill.
Ruddy, John Economics of Low-Rise Steel-Framed Structures A/SC Engineering Journal, 3rd
Qtr., 1983, Chicago, Ill.
2. Bibliography
Cheng, C., 2021. Adaptation Of Buildings To Climate Change, China: Bjorn Karlsson.
Ferreira, B. J. d. B., 2021. Impact of Environmental Exposure Conditons On The
Maintenance Of Facades Cladding, s.l.: MDIP.
Fisher, D. J. M., 1984. Industrial Buildings-Guidelines and Criteria, Florida: Inc. and
President of ECOM.
Fisher, J. M., 2004. Industrial Buildings Roofs To Anchor Rods, USA: American
Institute of Steel Construction, Inc..
Machado, L. P. d. C., 2009. Preliminary Foundation Design Of an indusrial building in
Kaunas, Lithuania, Porto: Masters in Civil Engineering- Specialty in Geometry.
Paola Lissandro, S. D. T., 2017. Facade Retrofitting: from energy efficieny to climate
change mitigation, s.l.: Elsevier Ltd.
society, T. c., 2003. Concrete Industrial ground floor. 3rd ed. Berkshire : The concrete
society.
Standard, L. M., n.d. Site Preparation And Construction, s.l.: s.n.