MODULE 1

TCP/IPPROTOCOL

SYLLABUS
MODULE I – TCP/IP PROTOCOL
Introduction to computer networks – physical structure, topology, types - TCP/IP
– architecture, Description of layers, addressing – wired LAN – Ethernetprotocol
– IEEE project 802 – Standard Ethernet – characteristics, addressing,
implementation – wireless LAN – architectural comparison, characteristics, access
control – IEEE 802.11 – architecture – LAN connecting devices – hub, switch,
router – virtual LAN – architecture, membership,configuration

COMPUTER NETWORKS
A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other through
a transmission medium such as wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers,
printers, scanners, Fax machines etc.
The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data stored in
other devices over the network. These devices are often referred as nodes.

COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

1. Message
– It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one device to
another device over a computer network.
2. Sender
– Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other
device connected to the network.
3. Receiver
– A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other device on the
network.

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4. Transmission media
– In order to transfer data from one device to another device we need a
transmission media such as wires, cables, radio waves etc.
5. Protocol
– A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both sender and receiver, without
a protocol two devices can be connected to each other but they cannot
communicate.
– In order to establish a reliable communication or data sharing between two
different devices we need set of rules that are called protocol.

Transmission Modes (DATA FLOW)

• The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device

1. Simplex Mode

• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. (the data flow in one

direction)
• A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data
but cannot send the data.
• The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.
• Example: Keyboard and Monitor - keyboard can only accept the data from the
user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.

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2. Half-Duplex Mode

• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.

• The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for

communication in both directions at the same time.
• The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages
are sent in both directions.

3. Full-Duplex Mode

• Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

• Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required
all the time.
• In full duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in another direction.
• Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one
for sending and the other for receiving.
• Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the
same time.

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 TYPE OF CONNECTION
• A network is two or more devices connected through links.
• A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to
another.
• There are two possible types of connections:
1. point-to-point
2. multipoint
Point-to-Point
 A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between twodevices.
 The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
 Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cableto connect
the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also
possible.
 When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's controlsystem.

Multipoint
 A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in whichmorethantwo
specific devices share a singlelink).
 In a multipointenvironment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially ortemporally.
 If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatiallyshared
connection.
 If users must take turns, it is a timesharedconnection.

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 TCP/ IP ARCHITECTURE
 TCP/IP is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined
according to a specific function toperform.
 There are four layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one layer
toanother.
 It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/InternetProtocol.
 The TCP/IP model contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model
The layersare:
1. Process/ApplicationLayer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. InternetLayer
4. Network access layer
(Host to host network layer)

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

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  The Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) is the set of communication
protocols used in the Internet and similar computer networks.
 Comparedto OSI, the host-to-network layer is equivalent to the combination of
the physical and data linklayers.
 The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer,and
 Theapplication layeris roughly doing the job of the session, presentation,
andapplication layers.
 The transport layer in TCP/IP taking care of part of the duties of the session
layer.
1. Physical and Data Link Layers
• Host to host network layer
• At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific
protocol.
• It supports all the standard and proprietaryprotocols.
2. Network Layer
• At the network layer(or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP
supports the InternetworkingProtocol.
• IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
Internetworking Protocol (IP)
– The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by
the TCP/IPprotocols.
– It is an unreliableand connectionless protocol-a best-effortdeliveryservice.
– IP transports data in packets called datagram.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

– The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical
address with a physicaladdress.
– ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet
address is known.

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 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
– The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allowsa host to
discover its Internet address when it knows only its physical address.
– It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or
when a diskless computer isbooted.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
– ICMP is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of
datagram problems back to thesender.
– ICMP sends query and error reportingmessages.
Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)
– The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitatethe
simultaneous transmission of a message to a group ofrecipients.
3. Transport Layer
• UDP: User Datagram Protocol
• TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
• SCTP: Stream Control Message Protocol
4. Application Layer
 The application layer in TCPIIP is equivalent to the combined session,
presentation, and application layers in the OSImodel.
 Many protocols are defined such as HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet,
SSH, SMTP, SNMPetc…
ADDRESSING
 Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP
protocols:
1. physical (link)addresses
2. logical (IP)addresses,
3. port address
4. Specific address

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 Each address is related to a specific layer in the TCP/IP architecture.

1) Physical Addresses
 In computer networks, the MAC address (Media Access Control) is an
identifier for devices.
 MAC address is the physical address, which uniquely identifies each device
on a given network.
 MAC address size: MAC addresses are 48 bits long.
 It is included in the frame inthe data linklayer.
 It is the lowest-leveladdress.
2) Logical Addresses
 A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that can
uniquely define a host connected to theInternet.
 No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet canhave the
same IPaddress.
 An IPv4 address is 32 bits.
 It is included in the packet (datagram) in the network link layer.
3) Port Addresses
 Port numbers identify a particular application or service on a system.

 Computersare devices that can run multiple processes at the sametime.

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  Theend objectiveof internetcommunication isaprocess communicating with
anotherprocess.
 In the TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is calledaport
address.
 A port address in TCPIIP is 16 bits inlength.
4) Specific Addresses
 Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that
specific address.
 Examples include the e-mail address and the Universal Resource
Locator (URL).

WIRED LAN
 Local area network (LAN) is a computer network that is designed for a
limited geographic area such as a building or acampus.
 The LAN market has seen several technologies such as Ethernet,Token, Ring,
Token Bus, FDDI, and ATM LAN.
IEEE project 802
In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called
Project 802, to set standards to enable intercommunication among equipment
from a variety of manufacturers.
It is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer and the data link
layer of major LAN protocols.
Data Link Layer
The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sub layers:
I. Logical Link Control (LLC)
II. Media Access Control (MAC).

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 I. Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Data link control handles framing, flow control, and error control.
 In IEEE Project 802, flow control, error control, and part of the framing
duties are collected into one sublayer called thelogical link control.
 Framing is handled in both the LLC sublayer and the MACsublayer.
 The LLC provides one single data link control protocol for all IEEE LANs.
 The purpose of the LLC is to provide flow and error control for the upper-
layer protocols that actually demand theseservices.
II. Media Access Control (MAC)
 MACthat defines the specific access method for eachLAN.
 For example, it defines CSMA/CD as the media access method for Ethernet
LANsand the token passing method for Token Ring and Token BusLANs.
 The MAC sublayer contains a number of distinct modules;
 Eachmoduledefines the access method and the framing format specific to the
corresponding LANprotocol.
Physical Layer
 The physical layer is dependent on the implementation and type of physical
mediaused.
 IEEE defines detailed specifications for each LAN implementation.

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 STANDARD ETHERNET
FRAME FORMAT
• The Ethernet frame contains seven fields: preamble, SFD, DA, SA, length or
type of protocol data unit (PDU), upper-layer data, and theCRC.
• Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received
frames, making it what is known as an unreliablemedium.

1. Preamble:
– The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes (56 bits) ofalternating 0s
and 1s that alerts the receiving system to the coming frame and enables it to
synchronize its inputtiming.
2. Start frame delimiter (SFD):
– The second field (l byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the frame.
– The SFD warns the station or stations that thisis the last chance for
synchronization.
– The last 2 bits is ‘11’and alerts thereceiver that the next fieldis the
destinationaddress.
–
3. Destination Address (DA):
– The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the
destination station or stations to receive the packet.
4. Source Address (SA):
– The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the
sender of the packet.

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5. Length or type:
– This field is defined as a type field or length field.
– IEEE standard used it as the length field to define the number of bytes in
the data field.
6. Data:
 This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols. Itis a
minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes.
7. CRC:
The last field contains error detection information
Frame Length
Ethernet has imposed restrictions on both the minimum and maximum
lengths of a frame

 The minimum length restriction is required for the correct operation of

CSMA/CD.
 An Ethernet frame needs to have a minimum length of 512 bits or 64 bytes.
Part of this length is the header and thetrailer.
 The standard defines the maximum length of a frame (withoutpreambleand
SFD field) as 1518 bytes.
Addressing
– Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation, or printer)
has its own network interface card (NIC).
– The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte
physical address.
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 – The Ethernet address is 6 bytes (48 bits), written in hexadecimal notation,
with a colon between thebytes.
Example:

UNICAST, MULTICAST, AND BROADCAST ADDRESSES

 A source address is always a unicast address-the frame comes from only
onestation.
 The destination address, however, can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast.
 If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is 0, the
address is unicast; otherwise, it ismulticast.

 A unicast destination address defines only one recipient; the

relationship between the sender and the receiver is one-to-one.
 A multicast destination address defines a group of addresses; the relationship
between the sender and the receivers is one-to-many.
 The broadcast address is a special case of the multicast address; the
recipients are all the stations on theLAN.

 A broadcast destination address is forty-eightIs.

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 Example
Define the type of the following destination addresses:

a) 4A:30:10:21:1O:1A

b) 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE

c) FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

Solution
To find the type of the address, we need to look at the second hexadecimal
digit from the left. If it is even, the address is unicast. If it isodd, the addressis
multicast. If all digits are F's, the address is broadcast. Therefore, we
havethefollowing:
a. This is a unicast address because Ain binary is 1010 (even).
b. This is a multicast address because 7 in binary is 0111(odd).
c. This is a broadcast address because all digits areF's.
 Slot time =round-trip time + time required to send the jam sequence

IMPLEMENTATION
The Standard Ethernet defines several physical layer implementations; four of the
most common, are
 10Base5
 10Base2
 10Base-T
 10Base-F

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  All standard implementations use digital signaling (baseband) at 10Mbps.
 At the sender, data are converted to a digital signal using the Manchester
scheme.
 At the receiver, the received signal is interpreted as Manchester and decoded
intodata.
10Base5: Thick Ethernet
 The first implementation is called 10BaseS, thick Ethernet, or Thicknet.
 . lOBase5 was the first Ethernet specification to use a bus topology with an
external transceiver (transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap to a thick
coaxialcable.

 The transceiver is responsible for transmitting, receiving, and

detecting collisions.
 The transceiver is connected to the stationvia a transceiver cablethatprovides
separate paths for sending andreceiving.
 This means that collision can only happen in the coaxialcable.
 The maximum length of the coaxial cable must not exceed 500m,

10Base2: Thin Ethernet

 The second implementation is called 10Base2, thin Ethernet, or Cheapernet.
 10Base2 also uses a bus topology, but the cable is much thinner and more
flexible.
 The cable can be bent to pass very close to the stations. In this case, the
transceiver is normally part of the network interface card (NIC), which is
installed inside the station.

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  The collision here occurs in the thin coaxialcable.
 more cost effective than 10Base5
 Installation is simpler because the thin coaxialcable is veryflexible.
 the length of each segment cannot exceed 185 m (close to 200 m)
10Base-T: Twisted-Pair Ethernet
 The third implementation is called lOBase-T or twisted-pairEthernet.
 10Base-T uses a physical startopology.
 The stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twistedcable.
 two pairs of twisted cable create two paths (one for sending and one for
receiving) between the station and the hub.
 The maximum length of the twisted cable here is defined as 100m

10Base-F: Fiber Ethernet

 Although there are several types of optical fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet, the most
common is called10Base-F.
 10Base-F uses a star topology to connect stations to ahub.
 The stationsareconnectedtothehubusingtwofiber-opticcables.

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summary

Characteristics lOBase5 lOBase2 lOBase-T IOBase-F

Media Thickcoaxial Thin coaxial 2UTP 2 Fiber
cable cable
Maximumlength 500m 185 m 100m 2000m
Line encoding Manchester Manchester Mancheste Manchester
r

WIRELESS LAN
Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies. The
demand for connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere.
IEEE 802.11
IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called
IEEE802.11, which covers the physical and data link layers.

IEEE 802.11 (WIRELESS LAN) ARCHITECTURE

The standard defines two kinds of services:
 Basic service set (BSS)and
 Extended service set (ESS).

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Basic Service Set
 IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a
wirelessLAN.
 A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations
andanoptional central base station, known as the access point (AP).
 The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to
other BSSs. It is called an ad hoc architecture.
 In this architecture, stations can form a network without the need of an AP;
they can locate one another and agree to be part of aBSS.
 A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an infrastructure network.

Extended Service Set

 An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSswith APs.
 In this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is
usually a wiredLAN.
 The distribution system connects the APs in theBSSs.
 IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can be any IEEE LAN
such as anEthernet.

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  When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can
communicate without the use of anAP.
 However, communication between two stations in two different BSSs usually
occurs via twoAPs.

LAN CONNECTING DEVICE

Connecting devices can be divided into five different categories based on the
layer in which they operate in anetwork.

The five categories contain devices which can be definedas

 Below the physical layer - passivehub.

 at the physical layer - repeater or an activehub

 data link layers -bridge or a two-layerswitch
 network layers- router or a three-layerswitch
 all five layers - agateway

1) Passive Hubs
 A passive hub is just aconnector.
 It connects the wires coming from differentbranches.
 In a star-topology Ethernet LAN, a passive hub is just a point where the
signals coming from different stationscollide.
 The hub is the collision point.
 Its location in the Internet model is below the physical layer.

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 2) Active Hubs
 An active hub is actually a multipart repeater.
 Hub is a networking device which is used to transmit the signal to each port
(except one port) to respond from which the signal was received.
 Hub is operated on Physical layer.
 Hub is a broadcast type transmission
 Half duplex transmission mode
 Packet filtering is not provided.

3) Repeaters
 A repeater is a device that operates only in the physicallayer.
 A repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes too weakorcorrupted,
regenerates the original bit pattern.

 The repeater then sends the refreshedsignal.

 A repeater can extend the physical length of a LAN.
 A repeater does not actually connect two LANs; it connects two segments
of the sameLAN.
 The segments connected are still part of one singleLAN.

4) Bridges
 A bridge operates in both the physical and the data linklayer.

 It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same

protocol.
 As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the physical (MAC)
addresses (source and destination) contained inthe frame.
 A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in aframe.

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 5) Switches ( two layered switch)
 A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking
before transmission
 Forward good packets selectively to the correct port only.
 Switch connects other devices through twisted pair cables.
 It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward data
packets on the network.
 Full duplex transmission mode
 Support Unicast & multicast transmission
6) Routers
 A router is a Network -layer device
 routes packets based on their logical addresses (IP address)
 A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a
routing table that is used for making decisions about theroute.
 The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated using routing
protocols.
 It serves two primary functions: managing traffic between these
networks by forwarding data packets to their intended IP addresses.

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 7) Three-Layer Switches
 A layer 3 switch combines the functionality of a switch and a router.

 It acts as a switch to connect devices that are on the same subnet or

virtual LAN at lightning speeds and
 has IP routing intelligence

8) Gateway

• The gateway converts information, data or other communications from one

protocol or format to another.
• Also called ‘protocol converter’
• A gateway is normally a computer that operates in all five layers of the Internet
or seven layers of OSImodel.
• It can be used as a connecting device between two internetworks that use
different models.

VIRTUAL LANs
 A LAN can be divided into several logical LANs called VLANs.
 Wecan define a virtual local area network (VLAN) as a local area network
configured by software, not by physical wiring.
 In a switched LAN, changes in the work group mean physical changes in
the networkconfiguration.

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  The same switched LAN divided intoVLANs.
 The whole idea of VLAN technology is to divide a LAN into logical, instead of
physical, segments.
 Each VLAN is a work group in the organization.
 If a person moves from one group to another, there is no need to change the
physical configuration.
 The group membership in VLANs is defined by software, not hardware.

 This means if a station moves from VLAN 1 to VLAN 2, it receives broadcast

messages sent to VLAN 2, but no longer receives broadcast messages sent to
VLAN1.
 VLAN technology even allows the grouping of stations connected to different
switches in aVLAN.
 ThereisabackbonelocalareanetworkwithtwoswitchesandthreeVLANs.
 Stations from switches A and B belong to eachVLAN.

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 VLAN - MEMBERSHIP
• There different characteristics suchas port numbers, MACaddresses, IP
addresses, IP multicast addresses, or a combination of two or more of these.
1. Port Numbers
 Some VLAN vendors use switchport numbers asamembership characteristic.
 For example, the administrator can define that stations connecting to ports 1,
2, 3, and 7 belong to VLAN 1; stations connecting to ports 4, 10, and 12
belong to VLAN 2; and soon.
2. MAC Addresses
 Some VLAN vendors use the 48-bit MACaddress asa membership
characteristic.
 For example, the administrator can stipulate that stations having MAC
addresses E21342A12334 and F2A123BCD341belong to VLAN1.
3. IP Addresses
 Some VLAN vendors use the 32-bit IP address as a membership
characteristic.
 For example, the administrator can stipulate that stations having IP addresses
181.34.23.67, 181.34.23.72, 181.34.23.98, and 181.34.23.112 belong to
VLAN1.
4. Multicast IP Addresses
 Some VLAN vendors use the multicast IP address as a membership
characteristic. Multicasting at the IP layer is now translated to multicasting at
the datalinklayer.
5. Combination
 Recently, the s o f t w a r e available from some vendors allows all these
characteristics to becombined.
 The administrator can choose one or more characteristics when installing the
software.
 In addition, the software can be reconfigured to change thesettings.

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 VLAN - CONFIGURATION
 Stations are configured in one of threeways:
1) Manual
2) semiautomatic,and
3) Automatic.
1) Manual Configuration
 In a manual configuration, the network administrator uses the VLAN software
to manually assign the stations into different VLANs atsetup.
 Later migration from one VLAN to another is also donemanually.
 This is not a physical configuration; it is a logicalconfiguration.
 The term manually here means that the administrator types the port numbers,
the IP addresses, or other characteristics, using the VLAN software.
2) Automatic Configuration
 In an automatic configuration, the stations are automatically connected or
disconnected from a VLAN using criteria defined by theadministrator.
 For example, the administrator can define the project number as the criterion
for being a member of a group.
 When a user changes the project, he or she automatically migrates to a new
VLAN.
3) Semiautomatic Configuration
 A semiautomatic configuration is somewhere between a manual configuration
and an automaticconfiguration.
 Usually, the initializing is done manually, with migrations done
automatically.

STANDARD ETHERNET

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 TOPOLOGY
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

* * * * REFER NOTEBOOK * * * *

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

1. List any four networkingtopologies.

2. Define computernetwork.
3. State the termprotocol.
4. Define topology ofnetwork.
5. Distinguish between point to point andconnections.
6. Briefly explain any two networkingtopologies.
7. Differentiatebetween multicast and broadcastaddresses
8. Describe IEEE Project802.
9. Define Virtual LAN and Stateitsadvantages.
10. Explain StandardEthernet and FastEthernet.
11. Explain TCP/IP protocol suite with a neatdiagram.
12. Explain the architecture of VirtualLAN.
13. Write down the frame format of Standard Ethernet. Briefly explain each
field.
14. Briefly explain about any two LAN connectingdevices.
15. List and explain the common Standard Ethernetimplementations.
16. Explain the addressing used in various layers of the TCP/IP protocol
suite.
17. Explain the architecture of IEEE 802.11 WirelessLAN.
18. Describe any two different types of membership in VirtualLAN.
19. Describe briefly onthe architectureof wireless LAN.
20. Compare the architecture of wired and wireless LAN.

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