UNIT 2: PRECIPITATION

Did you know that clouds can help predict weather? Try to match the following cloud
types on column A to their description on column B, and then to the weather they are
most likely to bring on Column C.

Column A Column C Column C

Cloud type Description Most likely weather
_____ 1. Cirrus ____ A. Heavy dense clouds in AA. These clouds indicate fair
the form of mountains or but cold weather.
_____ 2. Cirrocumulus towers. BB. Widespread light to
____ B. Small puffy clouds with moderate precipitation.
_____ 3. Cumulonimbus minimal vertical CC. Heavy showers with thunder
development and lightning or hail.
_____ 4. Nimbostratus ____ C. Small, rounded white
DD. Fair weather. Never
puffs. Isolated or in long
produce precipitation.
_____ 5. Cirrostratus rows.
____ D. Dark, low uniformly grey EE. May signal precipitation
_____ 6. Cumulus Humilis clouds. within 15 to 25 hours.
____ E. Thin and wispy, they can FF. Approaching front and
appear in a variety of stormy weather.
shapes.
____ F. Sheet-like clouds
covering the entire sky.

Weather systems play an important role in the formation mechanisms of precipitation.

Click on the links below to read about this!

http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/learning-tools/clouds
http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/learning-tools/fronts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=5&v=yJoi_UmZ76E&feature=emb_logo

Precipitation denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere. For
precipitation to form:
1. The atmosphere must have moisture
2. Moist air must undergo lifting and resultant cooling

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 3. A phase change must occur with resulting condensation onto small nuclei in the
air
4. Droplets must grow large enough to overcome drag and evaporation to reach
the ground.

FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

 Drizzle – a light steady rain in fine drops (0.5mm) and intensity <1 mm/hr

 Rain – the condensed water vapour of the atmosphere falling in drops >0.5 mm
from the clouds. Maximum size – 6mm
Type Intensity, mm/hr
1. Light rain Trace to 2.5
2. Moderate rain 2.5 to 7.5
3. Heavy rain 7.5 to 15
4. Intense rain 15 to 30
5. Torrential rain >30

 Glaze – freezing of drizzle or rain when they come in contact with cold objects.

 Sleet – frozen rain drops while falling through air at subfreezing temperature.

 Snow – ice crystals resulting from sublimation (i.e. water vapour condenses to
ice)

 Snowflakes – ice crystals fused together

 Hail – small lumps of ice (>5mm in diameter) formed by alternate freezing and
melting, when they are carried up and down in highly turbulent air currents.

 Dew – moisture condensed from the atmosphere in small drops upon cool
surfaces.

 Frost – a feathery deposit of ice

formed on the ground or on the
surface of exposed objects by
dew or water vapour that has
frozen.

 Fog – a thin cloud of varying size

formed at the surface of the earth
by condensation of atmospheric
vapour (interfering with visibility)

 Mist – a very thin fog

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 CLASSIFICATION OF PRECIPITATION

1. Thermal Convection (convective lifting) - This type

of precipitation is in the form of local whirling
thunder storms and is typical of the tropics. The air
close to the warm earth gets heated and rises due
to its low density, cools adiabatically to form a
cauliflower shaped cloud, which finally bursts into a
thunder storm. When accompanied by destructive
winds, they are called ‘tornados’.

2. Conflict between two air masses (frontal lifting)

- When two air masses due to contrasting
temperatures and densities clash with each
other, condensation and precipitation occur
at the surface of contact.

3. Orographic lifting (orographic lifting) - The mechanical lifting of moist air over
mountain barriers, causes heavy precipitation on the windward side.

4. Cyclones (cyclonic precipitation) - This type of precipitation is due to lifting of

moist air converging into a low-pressure belt, i.e., due to pressure differences
created by the unequal heating of the earth’s surface. Here the winds blow
spirally inward counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in
the southern hemisphere.

There are two main types of cyclones — tropical cyclone

(also called hurricane or typhoon) of comparatively small
diameter of 300-1500 km causing high wind velocity and
heavy precipitation, and the extra-tropical cyclone (anti-
cyclone) of large diameter up to 3000 km causing wide
spread frontal type precipitation.

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 Rainfall varies greatly in space and time. Time variation occurs seasonally or within a
single storm, and distribution varies with storm type, intensity, duration and time of year.
This is particularly important when planning water resources projects such as storm
water systems, flood control and irrigation projects to characterize the hydrologic
response for a certain watershed.

Point rainfall measurements are taken by the use of a rain gauge. This instrument
measures rainfall rate in a certain period of time. There are two types of rain gauges:

1. Non-recording type  most common type of rain

gauge used that consists of a cylindrical vessel
with an enlarged base. At its top section, a
funnel is provided whose shank is inserted in the
neck of a receiving bottle placed into it to
receive rainfall. The Symons rain gauge is an
example of this. During heavy rainfall, amount of
rain is frequently exceeded, so the reading
should be measured 3 to 4 times in a day. Water
contained in the receiving bottle is measured by
a graduated measuring glass.

2. Recording type  also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain

gauge. This type of rain gauge has an automatic mechanical arrangement
consisting of a clockwork, a drum with a graph paper fixed around it and a
pencil point, which draws the mass curve of rainfall. From this mass curve, the
depth of rainfall in a given time, the rate or intensity of rainfall at any instant
during a storm, time of onset and cessation of rainfall, can be determined.

a. Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge - most common self-

recording rain gauge. When a certain weight of rainfall is
collected in the tank, which rests on a spring-lever
balance, it makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped
round a clock-driven drum. The rotation of the drum sets
the time scale while the vertical motion of the pen records
the cumulative precipitation.

b. Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge - a circular rain gauge

consisting of a sharp-edged receiver and provided with a
funnel inside. A pair of buckets is pivoted under this funnel
in such a manner that when one bucket receives 0.25mm
of rainfall, it tips discharging its rainfall into the container,
bringing the other bucket under the funnel.

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 c. Floating or Natural Syphon Type Rain Gauge – a funnel
receives the water which is collected in a rectangular
container. A float is provided at the bottom of container,
and this float rises as the water level rises in the container.

Point rainfall measured by rain gauges can be plotted as accumulated total rainfall or
as rainfall intensity vs. time. The first plot is referred to as a cumulative mass curve, which
can be analyzed for a variety of storms to determine the frequency and character of
rainfall at a given site. A hyetograph is a plot of rainfall intensity vs. time.

Illustrative example 1.
For the record of precipitation
from a recording gage for a
storm, for the period between
12:00 MN and 11:15 AM of the
same day, in increments of
0.25hr, develop the mass curve
and the rainfall hyetograph.
Determine the maximum intensity
rainfall in inches per hour.

Since the data given is already

cumulative, the mass curve is
simply the plot of the first column
with respect to the second
column.

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 The mass curve and hyetograph plots as,

In the rainfall hyetograph, rainfall intensity is computed by subtracting gage readings

and dividing them by the time interval. Consider the boxed data in the table,
( . . )
𝑖= = 1.6 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟 This is rainfall intensity at 3:30 AM,
.

( . . )
𝑖= = 1.8 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟 This is rainfall intensity at 3:45 AM,
.
From when measurement started at 12 MN, the accumulated rainfall over the duration of 0.25hr is
the difference between the cumulative readings (numerator) taken at this interval (denominator).

The maximum rainfall intensity of the storm is represented by the tallest bar in the
hyetograph which occurs at 4:00 AM.
(3.1 − 2.32)𝑖𝑛
𝑖 = = 3.12 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
0.25ℎ𝑟

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommends the Rain Gauge Density as
follows:
 In flat areas of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones:
o 1 station for 600 – 900 sq. kms. (Ideal)
o 1 station for 900 – 3000 sq. kms. (Acceptable)

 In mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones:

o 1 station for 100 – 250 sq. kms. (Ideal)
o 1 station for 25 – 1000 sq. kms. (Acceptable)

 In arid and polar zones: 1 station for 1,500 – 10,000 sq.kms. Depending on the
feasibility

Ideally, at least 10% of installed rain gauges shall be self-recording type.

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 When a rain gauge is inoperable due to damage, missing data may be estimated by
the following methods:

1. The Inverse Distance Power Method

This based on weighted average of surrounding values. The weights are
reciprocals of the sum of squares of distances D, measured from the point of
missing data.
∑
𝑊= 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃 = ∑

Where 𝐷= distance measured between a station to the location of the station of missing
data, 𝑃 = gage readings at each station

2. The Arithmetic Mean

Used when normal annual precipitation is within 10% of the gauge for which
data are being reconstructed
𝑃 𝑃 + ⋯+ 𝑃
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃 =
𝑚

Where 𝑃 , 𝑃 … 𝑃 = known gage readings and 𝑚= number of neighbouring stations

considered whose data is used for estimation of missing rainfall.

3. The Normal Ratio Method

Calculations here are based on normal rainfall as a standard of comparison.
Normal rainfall is the average value of rainfall at a particular date, month or year
over a specified 30-yr period. This is also termed average annual precipitation at
a station based on a 30-year record.

When the normal annual precipitation at any of the index station differs from
that of the interpolation station by more than 10%, the missing gage reading is
taken as,
𝑁 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃 = + + ⋯+
𝑚 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁

Where 𝑁 , 𝑁 , 𝑁 , 𝑁 = known normal rainfall in each stations, 𝑃 , 𝑃 … 𝑃 = known gage

readings and 𝑀= number of neighbouring stations considered whose data is used for
estimation of missing rainfall.

4. The Double Mass Curve

The double-mass curve may be used to estimate missing precipitation data. The
theory of the double-mass curve is based on the fact that a graph of the
cumulation of one quantity against the cumulation of another quantity during
the same period will plot as a straight line so long as the data are proportional;
the slope of the line will represent the constant of proportionality between the
quantities.

Checkout pp.30 to 40 of a publication accessible through this link for a simple example:
https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1541b/report.pdf

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 In order to characterize the response of a catchment area to a given precipitation
event, it is better to consider the areal distribution of average rainfall over a watershed
in a specified duration. In other words, we can convert point rainfall to areal rainfall by
the following methods.

The Arithmetic Mean Method

This is the simplest method of determining mean rainfall over a catchment. This is simply
the mean of point rainfalls from gages within the catchment.
𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑩 + 𝑷𝑪 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝒏
𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 =
𝒏

Illustrative Example 2. A watershed has a system of five

rainfall gages, as shown in the figure. Determine the
average rainfall over the watershed using the arithmetic
mean method.
To solve for 𝑃 , we consider gages within the
catchment at stations A, B, C and E.

𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 (0.55 + 0.87 + 2.33 + 1.89)𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

𝑃 = =
𝑛 4 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔

The Thiessen Polygon Method

This method allows for areal weighting of rainfall from each gage and the most widely
used of the three methods. Connecting lines are first drawn between stations followed
by perpendicular bisectors that define the Thiessen polygon around each gage. The
weight of each station’s rainfall is the ratio of the area of each polygon to the total
area of the watershed. Thus,
𝑃 = ∑ 𝒘𝒊 𝑃
𝑨
Where 𝒘𝒊 = 𝒊
𝑨𝑻

Illustrative Example 3. A watershed covering 23.6 mi2 has a

system of four adjacent rainfall gages as shown. Determine the
average rainfall over the watershed using the Thiessen polygon
method.

In order to use the formula for mean precipitation, we need to

define the Thiessen polygons.

To do this, we first plot the catchment area and locate

the rain gauge stations.

We then draw lines connecting each of the stations

together as shown with none intersecting.

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 Next, perpendicular bisectors are drawn between the
connecting lines. It should be noted that these bisectors
are between two stations and are perpendicular to the
lines connecting these.

By extending the bisectors and finding a common

intersection, the polygons are generated.

This shows the areal extent of each rain gage within the
catchment. Assuming that the table below gives the
estimated area,

Gage Area of Thiessen

Sta
Reading, in polygon, mi2
A 2.0 1.5
B 1.2 5.1
C 1.8 7.2
D 1.0 9.8

The mean precipitation over the catchment is computed by,

𝑃 = 𝒘𝒊 𝑃

Tabulating the solution,

Gage 𝑨𝒊
Area of Thiessen 𝒘𝒊 =
Sta Reading, 𝑨𝑻 𝒘𝒊 𝑷𝒊
polygon, mi2
in
1.5
A 2.0 1.5 𝑤 = = 0.0636 𝑤 𝑃 = (0.0636)(2.0𝑖𝑛) = 0.1270 𝑖𝑛
23.6
5.1
B 1.2 5.1 𝑤 = = 0.2161 𝑤 𝑃 = (0.2161)(1.2𝑖𝑛) = 0.2593 𝑖𝑛
23.6
7.2
C 1.8 7.2 𝑤 = = 0.3051 𝑤 𝑃 = (0.3051)(1.8𝑖𝑛) = 0.5492 𝑖𝑛
23.6
9.8
D 1.0 9.8 𝑤 = = 0.4153 𝑤 𝑃 = (0.4153)(1.0𝑖𝑛) = 0.4153 𝑖𝑛
23.6

23.6 𝑤 = ≈ 1.0 𝑃 = 𝒘𝒊 𝑷𝒊 = 1.3508 𝑖𝑛

This answer is fairly more accurate than the arithmetic mean computed as of 1.5 inches.

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 The Isohyetal Method
This method involves drawing contours of equal precipitation called isohyets and is the
most accurate. However, in order to draw isohyets accurately, an extensive gage
network is required. The rainfall calculation is based on finding the average rainfall
between each pair of contours, multiplying by the area between them, taking the sum
of the products, and then dividing by the total area. The formula is very similar to the
previous method except that instead of using point rainfall, the average between
isohyets is used.
𝑃 +𝑃
𝑃 =
2
𝑃 = 𝒘𝒊 𝑃

𝑨𝒊
where 𝒘𝒊 =
𝑨𝑻

Illustrative Example 4. Compute the average areal rainfall by the Isohyetal Method for
the catchment shown.

Zone Areas enclosed

by isohyets,
mi2
I 5.1
II 9.8
III 3.1
IV 5.6

To determine the mean precipitation,

Areas enclosed 𝑨𝒊
Zone by isohyets, 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒘𝒊 = 𝒘𝒊 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑨𝑻
mi2
2.0 + 1.8 5.1
I 5.1 = = 1.9𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = = 0.2161 = 0.2161(1.9") = 0.4106"
2 23.6
1.8 + 1.2 9.8
II 9.8 = = 1.5𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = = 0.4153 = 0.4153(1.5") = 0.6230"
2 23.6
1.2 + 1.0 3.1
III 3.1 = = 1.1𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = = 0.1314 = 0.1314(1.1") = 0.1445"
2 23.6
5.6
IV 5.6 1.0𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = = 0.2383 = 0.2383(1.0") = 0.2383"
23.6
23.6 𝑃 = 1.4164 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

Again, in comparison with the arithmetic mean of 1.375”, the Isohyetal Method gives a
fairly more accurate answer of 1.4164 inches average rainfall over the catchment.

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 Try to work on the following problems for this unit in groups of two.

1. The table below lists rainfall data recorded at a

USGS gage for the storm of September 1, 1999. The
basin area is 2050 acres. Using these data, develop
a mass diagram (in vs. t) and a rainfall hyetograph
(in./hr vs. t) in 15-min intervals and determine the
time period with the highest intensity rainfall.

2. The shape of a drainage basin can be approximated by a polygon whose

vertices are located at the following coordinates:

(5, 5), (-5, 5), (-5, -5), (0, -10), and (5, -5)

The rainfall amounts of a storm were recorded by a number of rain gages

situated within and nearby the basin as follows:

All coordinates are expressed in kilometers. Determine the average rainfall on

the basin by (a) the arithmetic-mean method, (b) the Thiessen method, and (c)
the isohyetal method.

Hints: For the Thiessen method, begin by drawing a polygon around gage 9, then
draw polygons around gages 2, 3, 5, and 7.

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 For the Isohyetal method, draw the isohyets with maximum rainfall on a ridge
running southwest to northeast through (-3, -3). Set an isohyetal interval between
10 to 20mm.

If you have a laptop or computer, you may work on the Thiessen and Isohyetal
methods using AutoCAD, QGIS or ArcGIS to make area determination easier.

After completing your problem set, exchange solutions with another group. Focus on
the solution for problem No. 2. How were the Thiessen polygons drawn? Do you have
similar polygons? In the Isohyetal Method, what interval was used? Were the enclosed
areas between isohyets computed accurately? Are the values for mean precipitation
nearly the same between the three methods? Discuss your answers.

Make the needed adjustment if there are any and then turn in your work individually.

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