i

MAJOR BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION ACROSS

KOSI RIVER

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

ALTAMASH KHAN (18UECV0006)

ABHISHEK NIKHIL (18UECV0082)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Guided by

Mr. T NELSON PONNU DURAI M.E.,

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND CONSTRUCTION

June 2022
 ii

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this report title “MAJOR BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION ACROSS

KOSHI RIVER” is the bonafide work of ALTAMASH KHAN (18UECV0006),
ABHISHEK NIKHIL (18UECV0082) who carried out the work under my supervision.
Certified further that to the best of my knowledge he works reported herein does not form
part of any other report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred
on an earlier occasion on this or any other certificate.

Signature of the Supervisor with date
Mr. T Nelson Ponnu Durai, M.E.,
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D
Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai - 600062.
Signature of the HOD with date
Dr. A. Geetha Selvarani, M.E., Ph.D.
Professor and Head
Department of Civil Engineering
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D
Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai - 600062
 iii

CERTIFICATE OF EVALUATION

PROGRAM : Bachelor of Technology

SPECIALIZATION : Civil Engineering
SEMESTER : VIII

Altamash Khan (18UECV0006)

Name of the student
Abhishek Nikhil (18UECV0082)

Title of Project “Major Bridge Construction Across Kosi River”

Mr. T Nelson Ponnu Durai. M.E.,
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Name of Guide
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D
Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai- 600062

The report of the project work submitted by the above students in partial fulfilment for the
award of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering of Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr.
Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology for the Viva – Voice examination held
on _____________ has been evaluated and confirmed.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Name: Name:
Designation: Designation:
Affiliation: Affiliation:
 iv

ABSTRACT

Bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle without closing the way

beneath. Bridges are mainly categorized based how the forces are distributed through

the structure, purpose and material availability etc. This project mainly focuses on

understanding the concept of analysis and design of prestressed concrete I-Girder

bridges. For the study, an existing bridge near Lalpur Village, district Rampur (U.P.)

which is in structurally poor condition, is identified. Work has been carried out to

propose a new post-tensioned PSC I-Girder Bridge with an increased height for the

above mentioned site. The various parameters like selection of design vehicle and load

combination is decided as per IRC: 6-2000 and the girder is designed with reference to

IRC: 18-2000. Parabolic tendon profile is adopted. The parametric study has been

carried out by altering the effective span of the PSC I-Girder, effective span of 30.4 m.

This present paper describes the analysis and design of longitudinal PSC I-Girder

Bridge. In this case analysis is done using STAAD Pro software.

Keywords: PSC I-Girder, Prestressing, Bridge, IRC 6:2000, AutoCAD, STAAD-

Pro Software, Shear and Moments,

 v

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We express our gratitude and sincere thanks to our respected Founder

Chancellor and President of Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of
Science and Technology Col. Prof. Dr. R. RANGARAJAN B.E (MECH), M.S
(AUTO), D.Sc. and Founder President Dr. SAGUNTHALA RANGARAJAN
(M.B.B.S), and Managing Trustee & Vice President for providing an opportunity to
carry out this project work.

We deem it as a great pride in expressing our heart full gratitude to our beloved
Vice Chancellor Prof. Dr. S SALIVAHANAN, Ph.D., for providing us with an
environment to complete our project work successfully.

It is a great pleasure for us to acknowledge the motivation and contributions of

our Head of the department Dr. A. GEETHA SELVARANI M.E., Ph.D., for his
motivation and useful suggestions, which helped us in completing the project work, in
time for being instrumental in the completion of our project with his encouragement and
unwavering support during the entire course of this project work.

We would also thank our project coordinator Mr. M. SRIDHAR. M.E., and
project guide Mr. T NELSON PONNU DURAI. M.E., Assistance Professor for his
support and guidance which helped me in completing the project, in time for being
instrumental in the completion of my project with his encouragement and unwavering
support during the entire course of this project.

Special thanks to external supervisor Mr. R.K. SINGH Deputy Project Manager
for his encouragement, constant support and guidance.

Finally, we would like to thank all the teaching and non-teaching faculty
members and lab staff of the Department of Civil Engineering for their encouragement.
I also extend our thanks to all those who have helped us directly or indirectly in the
completion of this project.

ALTAMASH KHAN (18UECV0006)

ABHISHEK NIKHIL (18UECV0082)
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATION xii
1 INTRODUCTION 01
1.1 GENERAL 01
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES 01
1.2.1 Classification of Materials 01
1.2.2 Classification by Objectives 03
1.2.3 Classification by Structural Systems (Superstructures) 04
1.2.4 Classification by Span Length 07
1.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION OF BRIDGE 07
1.4 I-GIRDER 08
1.5 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 09
1.6 METHODS OF PRESTRESSING 10
1.6.1 Pre-Tensioning 10
1.6.2 Post-Tensioning 10
1.7 PRE-TENSIONING VS POST-TENSIONING 11
1.8 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY 12
1.9 NEED AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY 12
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 13
2.1 GENERAL 13
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW 13
2.2.1 Analysis of I-Girder 13
2.2.2 Define I.R.C Loading 13
2.2.3 Economical Comparison 14
2.3 LITERATURE SUMMARY 16
3 METHODOLOGY 17
 vii

3.1 GENERAL 17
3.2 SEQUENCE OF POST-TENSIONING 17
3.3 PRESTRESSING EQUIPMENT 20
3.3.1 Sheathing Pipes 20
3.3.2 Tendons 20
3.3.3 Hydraulic Jacks 21
3.4 DETAILS OF STUDY AREA 24
3.5 ACQUISITION OF DATA 24
3.5.1 Location 24
3.5.2 Topographical Survey 25
3.5.3 Geotechnical Investigation And Hydrological Data 25
3.6 DESCRIPTION OF LOADING 26
3.6.1 Dead Load 26
3.6.2 Live Load 26
3.7 LIVE LOAD CONTRIBUTIONS 27
3.8 DESCRIPTION OF BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE 28
3.8.1 Wearing Surface 29
3.8.2 Deck Slab 29
3.8.3 Primary Members 29
3.8.4 Secondary Members 30
3.9 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF PSC I-GIRDER 32
3.9.1 Modelling of I-Girder 32
3.9.2 Modelling of Cable Profile 34
3.10 STAAD MODEL AND ANALYSIS OF I-GIRDER 35
3.10.1 Staad Editor File 38
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 40
4.1 GENERAL 40
4.2 RESULTS ON LONGITUDINAL GIRDER 40
5 CONCLUSIONS 44
5.1 FUTURE AND SCOPE 44
REFERENCES 45
 viii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.
1.1 Comparisons between Pre-Tensioning and Post-Tensioning 11
3.1 Design Parameters for Detailed Design 24
3.2 Hydrological and Geotechnical Data 25
3.3 Live Load Contributions 28
3.4 Structural Details of Superstructure 31
4.1 Comparison of Outer and Inner Girder for Dead Load 40
4.2 Comparison of Outer and Inner Girder for Live Load 41
 ix

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.
1.1 Timber Bridge 01
1.2 Steel Bridge 02
1.3 Concrete Bridge 02
1.4 Composite Bridge 02
1.5 Highway Bridge 03
1.6 Railway Bridge 03
1.7 Combined Bridge 03
1.8 Pedestrian Bridge 04
1.9 Aqueduct Bridge 04
1.10 Plate Girder 04
1.11 Box Girder Bridge 05
1.12 T-Beam Bridge 05
1.13 Truss Bridge 05
1.14 Arch Bridge 06
1.15 Cable Stayed Bridge 06
1.16 Suspension Bridge 06
1.17 Major Bridge 07
1.18 I-Girder 08
1.19 Prestressed Concrete Concept 09
1.20 Pre Tensioning Bed 10
1.21 Post-Tensioning 11
3.1 Post-Tensioning Effect 18
3.2 Formwork 18
3.3 Arrangements of Ducts 18
3.4 Pouring of Concrete 19
3.5 Prestressing of Concrete 19
3.6 Grouting 19
3.7 Corrugated Sheathing Ducts 20
3.8 Strands 21
 x

3.9 Pressure Gauges and Jack 21

3.10 Typical Multi-Strand, Centre Hole, Stressing Jack 22
3.11 Placement Of Ducts, Trumpet Bearing Plate And Wedges 22
3.12 Methodology of the project 23
3.13 Location of Major Bridge 24
3.14 Reference benchmark 25
3.15 Wheeled Vehicles 27
3.16 Tracked Vehicles 27
3.17 Deck slab 29
3.18 Intermediate Cross Girders 30
3.19 Bearing On Pedestal 30
3.20 Bridge Components 31
3.21 Inner and Outer Cross Section 32
3.22 I- Girders 3d Modelling 33
3.23 Solid I-Girder 33
3.24 At Mid Span and Supports Location 34
3.25 Modelling In STAAD Pro With Dimensions 36
3.26 Three Dimensional Structure of the I-Girder 36
3.27 Analysis Report 37
3.28 Reaction Of Structure Along X, Y and Z Direction 37
4.1 Bending Moments Diagram at End Points 41
4.2 Bending Moments Diagram at Mid Span 42
4.3 Shear Force Diagram at End Point 43
4.4 Shear Force Diagram at Mid Span 43
 xi

LIST OF SYMBOLS

& And
, Comma
- Dash
“” Double Quotation
. Full Stop
; Semi colon
() Small Bracket
: Colon
 xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

PSC Prestressed Concrete

RCC Reinforced Concrete
MDR Major District Road
IRC Indian Road Congress
PWD Public Work Department
STAAD Structural Analysis and Design
AutoCAD Autodesk’s Computer aided Design
3-D Three Dimensional
HDPE High Density Poly Ethylene
LL Live Loads
DL Dead Loads
HFL High Flood Level
LWL Low Water Level
BM Bending Moment
SF Shear Force
M45 Mix
m Metre
kN Kilo newton
mm Millimetres
 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

A bridge is a structure designed to cross physical barriers, such as water, a water

body, a valley, or a highway. Bridge designs vary depending on the function of the
bridge, the nature of land on which the bridge is built and established, the materials
used to build it, and the funds available for its construction. Building a bridge is of
global importance today. Bridges are the key elements in any road network and use of
pre-stress girder type bridges gaining popularity in bridge engineering fraternity
because of its better stability, serviceability, economy, aesthetic appearance and
structural efficiency. Bridges are nation’s lifelines and backbones in the event of war.

These include barriers that divide people, societies, and nations, and bring them
closer together. They shorten distances, speed transportation and facilitate commerce.
Building bridges is very important in communication and an important element in the
development of civilization. Bridges stand as an illustration of the work of civil
engineers. In order to supply safer and larger speed of traffic, the route is made as
straight as possible. Box girder bridges have gained wide acceptance in superhighway
and bridge systems owing to their structural potency, higher stability, useableness,
economy of construction and pleasing aesthetics.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES

1.2.1 Classification of Materials

Timber Bridges: Wooden bridges are used when the span is relatively short. The fig.1.1
represents timber bridge.

Fig. 1.1 Timber Bridge

 2

Steel Bridge: It may use a wide variety of structural steel components and systems:
girders, frames, trusses, arches and suspension cables. The fig.1.2 represents steel
bridge shown as below.

Fig. 1.2 Steel Bridge

Concrete Bridges: There are two primary types of concrete bridges: reinforced and pre-
stressed. The fig.1.3 represents concrete bridge shown as below.

Fig. 1.3 Concrete Bridge

Composite Bridge: Bridges using both steel and concrete as structural material. The
below fig.1.4 represent composite bridge.

Fig. 1.4 Composite Bridge

 3

1.2.2 Classification by Objectives

Highway Bridges: Bridges on highways. The fig.1.5 represents highway bridge.

Fig. 1.5 Highway bridge

Railway Bridges: Bridges on railroads. The fig.1.6 represents railway bridge.

Fig. 1.6 Railway bridge

Combined bridges: Bridges carrying vehicles and trains. The fig.1.7 represents
combined bridge shown as below.

Fig. 1.7 Combined Bridge

 4

Pedestrian Bridges: Bridges carrying pedestrian traffic. The fig.1.8 represents

pedestrian bridge.

Fig. 1.8 Pedestrian Bridge

Aqueduct Bridges: Bridges supporting pipes with channel water flow. Bridges can
alternatively be classified into movable for ships to pass the river or fixed and
permanent or temporary categories. The fig.1.9 represents aqueduct bridge shown as
below.

Fig. 1.9 Aqueduct bridge

1.2.3 Classification by Structural Systems

Plate Girder Bridges: The main girders consist of a plate assemblage of upper and
lower flanges and a web. H or I-cross-sections effectively resist bending and shear. The
fig.1.10 represents plate girder.

Figure 1.10 Plate girder

 5

Box Girder Bridges: The single or multiple main girder consists of a box beam
fabricated from steel plates or formed from concrete, which resists not only bending and
shear but also torsion effectively. The fig. 1.11 represents box girder bridge.

Fig. 1.11 Box girder bridge

T-Beam Bridges: A number of reinforced concrete T-beams are placed side by side to
support the live load. The fig.1.12 represents T-beam bridge.

Fig. 1.12 T-beam bridge

Truss Bridges: Truss bar members are theoretically considered to be connected with
pins at their ends to form triangles. Each member resists an axial force, either in
compression or tension. The fig. 1.13 represent truss bridge shown as below.

Fig. 1.13 Truss bridge

 6

Composite Girder Bridges: The concrete deck slab works in conjunction with the steel
girders to support loads as a united beam. The steel girder takes mainly tension, while
the concrete slab takes the compression component of the bending moment

Arch Bridges: The arch is a structure that resists load mainly in axial compression. In
ancient times stone was the most common material used to construct magnificent arch
bridges. The fig.1.14 represents arch bridge shown as below.

Figure 1.14 Arch bridge

Cable-Stayed Bridges: The girders are supported by highly strengthened cables often
composed of tightly bound steel strands which stem directly from the tower. These are
most suited to bridge long distances. The fig.1.15 represents cable stayed bridge.

Fig. 1.15 Cable-stayed bridge

Suspension Bridges: The girders are suspended by hangers tied to the main cables
which hang from the towers. The load is transmitted mainly by tension in cable. The
fig.1.16 represents suspension bridge.

Fig. 1.16 Suspension bridge

 7

1.2.4 Classification by Span Length

Culverts: Bridges having length less than 8 m.

Minor Bridges: Bridges having length 8-30 m.

Major bridges: Bridges having length greater than 30 m.

Long span bridges: Bridges having length greater than 120 m.

The below fig.1.17 represents major bridge having length of 390 m.

Fig. 1.17 Major Bridge

1.3 FACTORS INFLUENCINGTHE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE BRIDGE

In general selection of bridge type is governed by the following factors

a) Volume and nature of traffic.

b) Live load on the bridge.
c) Length and width of the bridge.
d) Nature of river.
e) Environmental, geological and physical features of the area.
f) Foundation condition.
g) Availability of resources and funds.
h) Time available for construction
i) Facilities available for construction and maintenance
j) Asethete appearance
k) Economical and technical feasibility.
 8

1.4 I-GIRDER

A girder bridge, in general, is a bridge that utilizes girders as the means of

supporting the deck. A bridge consists of three parts: the foundation abutments and
piers, the superstructure girder, truss, or arch, and the deck. A girder bridge is very
likely the most commonly built and utilized bridge in the world. Its basic design, in the
most simplified form, can be compared to a log ranging from one side to the other
across a river or creek. The term "girder" is often used interchangeably with "beam" in
reference to bridge design. The fig. 1.18 represents the plate girder i.e., I-Girder.
However, some authors define beam bridges slightly differently from girder bridges.

When a beam bends the top of the beam is in compression and the bottom is in
tension. These forces are greatest at the very top and the very bottom. So to make the
stiffest beam with the least amount of material you would want the material to be only
at the top and the bottom sides. However, you still need to connect them together or
they would just be two separate plates and would not be stiff at all. So you put a web in
the middle to connect them and make them work together. The resulting shape is the
traditional “I-beam” or a wide flange beam. I-shape is an ideal shape for beams that is
for resisting flexure. It’s an extremely efficient shape for resisting bending; which is
another way of saying it has a lot of strength for a small amount of material and
expense.

Fig. 1.18 I-Girder

 9

1.5 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Pre-stressed concrete is basically concrete in which internal stresses of a suitable

magnitude and distribution are introduced so that the stresses resulting from external
loads are counteracted to desired degree. In reinforced concrete members, the pre-stress
is commonly introduced by tensioning the steel reinforcement.

The earliest example of wooden barrel construction by free force-fitting of metal

bands and shrink-fitting of metal tyres on wooden wheels indicate that the art of
prestressing has been practised from ancient times. The tensile strength of plain
concrete is only a fraction of its compressive strength and the problem of it being
deficient in tensile strength appears to have been the driving factor in the development
of the composite material known as “reinforced concrete”

The development of early cracks in reinforced concrete due to incompatibility in

the strains of steel and concrete was perhaps the starting point in the development of the
a new material like “Prestressed concrete”. The application of permanent compressive
stress to a material like concrete, which is strong in compression but weak in tension,
increases the apparent tensile strength of that material, because the subsequent
application of tensile stress must first nullify the compressive prestress. In 1904,
Freyssinet attempted to introduce permanently acting forces in concrete to resist the
elastic forces developed under loads and this idea was later developed under the name
of “prestressing”. The fig. 1.19 represents PSC concept mentions below,

Fig. 1.19 Prestressed Concrete Concept

 10

1.6 METHODS OF PRESTRESSING

1.6.1 Pre-Tensioning

In pre tensioned members, the tendons are tensioned even before casting the
concrete. One end of the reinforcement is secured to an abutment while the other end of
the reinforcement is pulled by using a jack and this end is then fixed to another
abutment. The concrete is then poured. After the concrete has cured and hardened the
ends of the reinforcement are released from the abutment. The reinforcement which
tends to resume its original length will compress the concrete surrounding it by bond
action. The prestress is thus transmitted to concrete entirely by the action of bond
between reinforcement and surrounding concrete. A typical pre tensioning bed is as
shown in the Fig. 1.20.

Fig. 1.20 Pre tensioning bed

1.6.2 Post-Tensioning

A post-tensioned member is one in which the reinforcement is tensioned after

the concrete has fully hardened. The beam is first cast leaving ducts for placing the
tendons. When concrete has hardened and developed its strength. The tendon is passed
through the duct. One end is provided with an anchor and is fixed to the one end of the
member. Now other end of the tendon is pulled by a jack that is butting against the end
of the member. The jack simultaneously pulls the tendon and compresses the concrete.
After the tendon is subjected to the desired stresses the end of the tendon is also
properly anchored to the concrete. A post tensioning of girder is as shown in the
Fig.1.21.
 11

Fig. 1.21 Post-Tensioning

1.7 PRE-TENSIONING Vs POST-TENSIONING

The table 1.1 illustrate the difference between pre-tensioning and post-tensioning in a
concrete are listed below.

Table 1.1 Comparisons between Pre-Tensioning and Post-Tensioning

Pre-Tensioning Post-Tensioning

Method of applying prestress. Method of applying prestress to a

concrete member.

First tensioning and then casting. First casting and then tensioning.

Done in factories or laboratory. Factories as well as on site.

Size of section is limited. Size is not restricted.

Ideal for similar. Preferred for different member.

Loss in prestress not less than 18% Loss in tensioning is not more than
15%.

More reliable and durable. Durability depend upon anchorage

mechanisms.
 12

1.8 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The various objectives to be achieved are,

 To study the basic principles of designing of PSC girder.

 Analysis of load and stresses acting on PSC girder.
 To be familiar with the design standards and code specifications of bridge.
 To prepare a model of Girder and analysis it in STAAD Pro software.

1.9 NEED AND SCOPE OF STUDY

While travelling into the city, there is no direct way to reach the city have to
cover large distance. The State government has decided to introduce the Major district
road (MDR) from Lalpur village to Rampur (U.P). In any aspect while travelling from
Lalpur village to Rampur it is mandatory to cross Kosi river. As a result, the state
administration has a proposed a major bridge across the river.
 13

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2,1 GENERAL

In the previous chapter, a brief overview of classification of bridges and about

prestress concrete and methods was discussed. Finally, we have understood mechanism
of prestress concrete how it works. This chapter conducts a literature survey for the
topic PSC I-Girder analysis has been carried out. Technical papers, previous year thesis
and articles related to topic were studied and their reviews are presented below.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.1 Analysis of I-Girder

Amit (2017), It represents two types of bridge systems, i.e., I-girder and Box-girder
bridge based on loadings and other various parameters. Calculation of material that is
steel and concrete consumption in construction is calculated. The analysis is carried out
by using software STAAD PRO. After examining manually and by software has been
selected out of these two.

Chirag (2016), analyzed the several positions in type of girders where the pre-stressed
tendons can be added. By keeping constant loading and varying the positions of tendons
a comparative study has been done so as to understand the most effective positions of
prestressed tendons.

Kalpana (2017), discussed the analysis and results of steel and reinforced steel bridge
girders based on STAAD PRO analysis and manual analysis

2.2.2 Define I.R.C Loadings

Jegan (2020), discussed about prestressed concrete box girder which is analyzed for
moving loads by wing of Indian road congress and code of practice for concrete
bridges. Found the result the dead load , shear force and bending moment is higher as
 14

compared to other loading one lane of IRC 70R and class A under the live load analysis
is found to be more critical 3 lane of class A. Here they have found deflection obtained
due to various loading conditions.

Kwang et.al (2019), discussed that the assessment of load carrying capacity and safety
of PSC girder bridge decks. It has been observed from the load test and analysis that the
differential deflection between girder greatly reduces the negative bending moment in
the deck slab, tensile stresses of top slab is reduced and compared with experimental
studies for PSC girder.

Phani and Adithya (2016), has conducted analysis of girder bridge and designed the
sections as per IRC 112 specifications, its explained for a span of 30m and carriageway
width 7.5 m adopted and results showed that deflections, stresses are in safe permissible
limits. And it also concluded that depth of girder decreases, the no. of prestressing
strands and prestressing forces decreased, more strength of concrete utilized.

2.2.3 Economical Comparison

Catrodale et.al (2016), described the details that to overcome the problems of
transportation and erection of long and heavy precast girders, provided a precast I-
girder system that was far more competitive with the steel plate girder and box girder,
This detail eliminated end anchorage zone and congestion of reinforcement at ends in
the girder section, post tensioning operation was found to expensive but this was
balanced with fewer substructure units and wider spacing between girders.

Han and Hwan (2015), have performed study to achieve more economical PSC
girders. In this article it has been stated that, PSC I-type girders are generally restricted
for short and medium span bridges and girder depths are increased for long span
bridges. So, in order to reduce the girder depth, for any span given, method of
multistage prestressing for different loading cases is introduced. From the results, it
concluded that, the developed girders have shown the satisfactory behavior for the
strength and ductility and it can be used as economical alternative to other type of PSC
girder.

Sudhir (2018), worked on the cost comparison between two bridges forms, RCC girder
and PSC girder. They have design and an analysis different span was carried out for the
 15

comparison. From that detailed cost estimation was presented and thus based on the
economic criteria the best bridge was finalized. It was concluded that PSC girder is
more economical compared to a RCC girder bridge.

Stanton et.al (2017), discussed on use of high curing temperatures during fabrication
affects the level of prestress because the strand length is fixed during the heating, the
coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and concrete differ, and the concrete
temperature distribution may not be uniform. For the girders discussed here, these
effects combined to reduce the calculated prestressing stress from the original design
values at release by 3 to 7%, to reduce the initial camber by 26 to 40%, and to increase
the bottom tension stress in service by 12 to 27%.

Shubham (2017), investigated that bridge construction today has achieved a worldwide
level of importance. Bridges are the key elements in any road network and use of pre-
stress girder type bridges gaining popularity in bridge engineering fraternity because of
its better stability, serviceability, economy, aesthetic appearance and structural
efficiency. I-beam bridges are one of the most commonly used types of bridge and it is
necessary to constantly study, update analysis techniques and design methodology.
Structurally they are simple to construct.

Natraj (2016), worked on the study that they tries to compare the cost of the
superstructure of bridges for 20m and 25m span. Four types of the superstructures are
used for the study purposes, namely; reinforced concrete T-beam, reinforced concrete I-
beam, prestressed concrete I-beam and steel composite I-beam. For the analysis and
design purposes, the loading standards of the Indian Road Congress (IRC) have been
adopted. The study is done by calculating the cost associated with various stages of
construction. To reach at best economical option including the lifecycle cost.

Sami (2018), presented a systematic procedure for selecting the most economic girder
type and spacing for a given span. They conclude that is more economical to space the
girders at their maximum spacing.

Wakchaure et.al (2019), discussed that objective is to minimize the total cost in the
design process of the bridge system considering the cost of materials like steel,
concrete, tendons etc. For a particular problem the design variables considered for the
 16

cost minimization of the bridge system, are depth of girder, various cross sectional
dimensions of the girder, number of tendons.

2.3. LITERATURE SUMMARY

The scope of the review is to get an overview of various studies done so far
related to the topic of PSC I-Girder bridges. The main purpose to get an idea of work
already carried out and to form the basis for formulating objectives and methodology in
this design.

The design of bridge has become very important, Bridges are in favour of
improving the road network Bridges not only help to keep traffic flowing smoothly, but
also maintain the safety of the roads. As a result bridge design become extremely
important.

For span up-to 30m (100ft) pre-stressed concrete girder require extra labours for
fabrication, placing and anchoring cables than reinforced concrete girder. But for span
above 30m pre stressed girder provide the most economical choice. At span above 60m
reinforced concrete girder becomes uneconomical. Pre-stressed concrete girder whether
continuous or simple requires much less steel than reinforced beam girder.

As per research, from IS code book gives information IRC 6:2010 for loading,
IRC 18:2000 for minimum dimension requirement, IRC 21:2000 for concrete stress is
applied,

From this study it is concluded that analysis have to be done on the prestressed
concrete I-Girder bridges for different section and model will have to illustrate its
behaviour attributes and noticed failure and difficulties that occur during construction.
 17

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 GENERAL

The literature review on various aspects of prestressed concrete I-Girder has

reported in chapter 2. This chapter presents the study basically, it will give the idea how
the construction of superstructure, post tensioning of girder and about reinforcement
have done. In this chapter, the detailed methodology adopted for the modelling and
analysis of PSC I-Girder will be discussed.

3.2 SEQUENCE OF POST-TENSIONING

Here, the stages of post-tensioning of a girder will discuss,

 Formwork will introduce.

 Reinforcement of girder will define such as stirrups, binder, vertical main bar,
haunch bar, mesh, helical springs.
 By the help of coordinates we will arrange the sheathing pipes or ducts into the
reinforcement of girder.
 Shuttering will provide after checking it.
 Pouring of concrete and curing will done.
 After curing it we have to placed tendons into ducts carefully.
 Placement of the anchorage block and jack, then we have to provide tension to
both of end point of a girder.
 Then, after post tensioning done cut out extra tendon and grouting will done.

The fig.3.1 illustrate post-tensioning effect that means after introducing tensile forces in
girder, the girder placed on formwork you will see the girder try to lift from the bottom
cracks will produced from the bottom.
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Fig. 3.1 Post-Tensioning Effect

The below figures will give you the idea of stages of post-tensioning which have
already discussed above. The fig. 3.2 and fig. 3.3 represents formwork and arrangement
of ducts.

Fig. 3.2 Formwork

Fig. 3.3 Arrangements of Ducts

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The fig. 3.4 and 3.5 represent poring of concrete and prestressing of concrete I-Girder
shown as below.

Fig. 3.4 Pouring of Concrete

Fig. 3.5 Prestressing of Concrete

The fig. 3.6 represents the grouting over ducts shown as below.

Fig. 3.6 Grouting

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3.3 PRESTRESSING EQUIPMENT

3.3.1 Sheathing Pipe

A HDPE Pipe which is insert in reinforcement of girder and cable profiling will
done so that we can assemble the pipe horizontal and vertical with proper distance as
per our drawing. Sheathing pipe also known as ducts which are widely used as
insulating the pre-stressing strands or tendons. If we have to join two pieces or sheath, it
can be joined by the help of coupler. HDPE Pipes for a varied range of sizes for use in
prestressed concrete structures and for underground services. The below figure 3.7
represent the corrugated sheathing ducts.

Fig. 3.7 Corrugated Sheathing Ducts

3.3.2 Tendons

It is the forms of prestressing steel, a group of strands or wires are wound to

form a prestressing tendon. It is having one of the best property that if tendon get
corroded it never looses the strength. Act as a prestressing material where we have to
introduce tension by the help of hydraulic jack. It is located within or adjacent to the
concrete and is done to improve the performance of the concrete in service. While post-
tensioned concrete can use either bonded or unbounded tendons, pre-tensioned concrete
uses tendons directly bonded to the concrete. Only oxygen flame or mechanical cutting
devices shall be used to cut the strand after installation in the member or after stressing.
The fig. 3.8 represents the strands mention below,
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Fig. 3.8 Strands

3.3.3 Hydraulic Jack

Hydraulic jacks used to stress tendons shall be capable of providing and

sustaining the necessary forces and shall be equipped with either a pressure gauge or a
load cell for determining the jacking stress. The jacking system shall provide an
independent means by which the tendon elongation can be measured. The pressure
gauge shall have an accurately reading dial of at least 150mm in diameter or a digital
display, and each jack and its gauge shall be calibrated as a unit with the cylinder
extension in the approximate position that it will be at final jacking force, and shall be
accompanied by a certified calibration chart or curve

The load cell shall be calibrated and shall be provided with an indicator by means of
which the prestressing force in the tendon may be determined.

Fig. 3.9 Pressure Gauges and Jack

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Overview of the stressing jack, this jack will insert on the tendons and properly
fixed on it, where the tensile stresses introduces in the multiple strands or tendons, that
will be measure when jack is coming outward that means elongation will be occur after
that reading measure from the scale, at different load will be calculate the elongation up
to the permissible limit we have to apply the load on the tendon. The below figure 3.10
represents the typical multi-strand, centre hole, stressing jack.

Fig. 3.10 Typical Multi-Strand, Centre Hole, Stressing Jack

The arranging of basic components before post-tensioning, when a sheathing

duct joined with trumpet (is a galvanized sheet metal) with proper alignment and placed
the tendons then cover with shuttering this is the stage before casting of concrete, other
stage is that after casting the concrete and curing of concrete now we have to fixed
bearing plate having holes adjusted on tendons, then provided the wedges i.e. steel
wedges which help us to hold the tendons it help us to resists from friction when
stressing is done, to make a grip on it. The fig.3.11 represents placement of ducts,
trumpet, bearing plate and wedges.

Fig. 3.11 Placement of ducts, trumpet bearing plate and wedges

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From the below flow chart i.e. fig. 3.12 illustrate the methodology of the project where
you will understand the overview of the project what will initial step and final step to
complete the project

Analyzing the need for the project

Acquisition of data

Topographical Survey

Geotechnical and
Hydrological data

Loading Parameters
Describe basic girder geometry

Determine Live load Determine Dead load

AutoCAD Modelling
IRC Class A
Loading for 2
Lane
Cross-sections of I-girder
Single I-
Girder Span
Cable Profile at End and
Mid Supports

STAAD Pro Analysis

Fig. 3.12 Methodology of the project

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3.4 DETAILS OF STUDY AREA

The table 3.1 shown as below represent the data of the site, where the major
bridge construction across Kosi River is going on. The detailed parameters have been
discuss such as dimensions and types, material, etc. which will used for modelling and
analysis of PSC I-Girder.

Table 3.1 Design Parameters for Detailed Design

Location Lalpur Village

Project proposed on MDR
Name of the river Kosi River
Width of river 290.30 m
Total length of bridge 312.7 m
Material Pre-stressed concrete
Type of bridge superstructure I-Beam Girder Bridge

3.5 ACQUISITION OF DATA

3.5.1 Location

The major bridge construction is going on under Provincial Division Public

Work Department; district Rampur (U.P.), bridge is connecting Lalpur Village to
Rampur across Kosi River. Project funds has been offered by the state government i.e.,
Uttar Pradesh Government. In the below figure 3.13 the yellow line represents Major
Bridge location i.e. Latitude and Longitude: (28o53’11”N 78o59’59”E)

Fig. 3.13 Location of Major Bridge

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3.5.2 Topographical Survey

Topographical survey was carried out for detailed engineering survey of the
proposed bridge site.

Established benchmark (BM) to start the survey works. The suitable and convenient
place for starting benchmark was marked on the permanent concrete pillar which is
suitable near by the bridge site on right bank of the river. The fig.3.14 represents
reference benchmark.

Fig. 3.14 Reference benchmark

3.5.2 Geotechnical Investigation and Hydrological Data

The table 3.2 indicate hydrological and geotechnical data after several kind of
test which we need and some calculations have been done to find out the behaviour of
particular site in terms of soil and water and this data have been obtained from the site.

Table 3.2 Hydrological and Geotechnical Data

High flood level 197.88 m

Low flood level 191.42 m
Vertical clearance above high 1.5 m
flood level
Seismic zone IV
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3.6 DESCRIPTION OF LOADING

Here, we have to discuss the IRC loading which is acting on bridge

superstructure in terms of live load (LL), dead load (DL) and what type of vehicle
loading we are considering to design longitudinal PSC I-girders which help us to
analyse. So we will discuss one by one about the details of IRC loading.

3.6.1 Dead Loads

A bridge girder has to support its own weight dead weight as well as the dead
weight of the tributary area of the deck slab it supports. Also the girders have to support
the dead weight of some essential items that might not be obvious to the junior
engineer.

Dead loads are static forces that are relatively constant for an extended time; they can
be tension or compression.

Dead load = volume of member * unit weight of materials

By calculating the volume of each member and multiplying by the unit weight of the
materials from which it is composed, an accurate dead load can be determined for each
component. For the purpose of dead load calculation self weight of the PSC I-Girder
will considered. Cross sectional properties of the I-Girders determines the dead load.

3.6.2 Live Loads

Live loads are usually variable or moving loads. These are temporary loads;
they are applied to the structure on and off over the life of the structure. The most
common types of lives loads are occupancy load, workers during construction and
maintenance snow, wind and seismic.

According to IRC: 6-2000, road bridges and culverts are classified on the basis of
loadings that they are designed to carry.

1. I.R.C. Class AA Loading

2. I.R.C. Class A Loading
3. I.R.C. Class B Loading

Generally, we are focussing on I.R.C. Class A Loading: This loading is to be normally

adopted on all roads on which permanent bridges or culverts are to be constructed.
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Two types of vehicles specified:

a. Wheeled vehicle
b. Tracked vehicle

One thing we have to remember that under class A loading we are considering wheeled
vehicle are moving on bridge i.e., I-Girder Bridge.

The heavy duty trucks with two trailers transmit loads from 8 axles varying form a
minimum of 27 kN to a maximum of 114 kN. Here, the class A loading is a 554 kN
from of wheeled vehicle of 8 axles. The impact factor is inversely proportional to the
length of the span and is different for steel and concrete bridges.

From below fig.3.15 and 3.16 you can get an idea about what is tracked vehicle and
wheeled vehicle

Fig. 3.15 Wheeled Vehicles

Fig. 3.16 Tracked Vehicles

3.7 LIVE LOADS CONTRIBUTIONS

The carriageway live load combination shall be considered for the design as
shown below in Table 3.3 Live load Contributions.
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Table 3.3 Live Load Contributions

Sr.No. Carriageway width Number of lanes Live Load Contribution

for design purpose.

1 Less than 5.3m 1 One lane of Class A considered to

occupy 2.3m .The remaining width
of carriageway shall be loaded
with 500KGg/m2 .

2 5.3m to 9.6m 2 One lane of Class 70R or two lane

of Class A.

3 9.6m to 13.1m 3 One lane of class 70R with one

lane of Class A or three lanes of
Class A

4 13.1m to 16.6m 4 One lane of Class 70R for every

two lanes with one lane of Class A
5 16.6m to 20.1m 5 for the remaining lanes, if any, or
one lane of Class A of each lane.
6 20.1m to 23.6m 6

3.8 DESCRIPTION OF BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE

The basic function of bridge superstructure is to permit the uninterrupted

smooth passage of traffic over it and transmit the forces and loads to the substructure
safely through the bearings. Although it is difficult to stipulate the aesthetic
requirements, it should, however, be ensured that the type of superstructure adopted is
simple pleasing to eye, and blends with the environment.

The superstructure of any bridge must be designed such that it satisfies geometric and
load carrying requirements.

Comprises all the components of a bridge above the supports, basic components include
wearing surface, Deck, primary member, secondary member, etc.
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3.8.1 Wearing Surface

It is that portion of deck cross section that resists traffic wear. In some instances,
this is a separate layer made of bituminous material, whereas in some other cases, it is
an integral part of concrete deck.

3.8.2 Deck

Deck is the physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction to be

bridged. It can be reinforced concrete slab. In an orthotropic deck bridge, the deck is a
stiffened steel plate. The main function of the deck is to distribute loads transversely
along the bridge across section. The deck either rest or is integrated with a frame or
other structural system designed to distribute loads longitudinally along the length of
bridge. The fig.3.17 represents the deck of a bridge.

Fig. 3.17 Deck Slab

3.8.3 Primary Members

It distributes loads longitudinally and are usually designed principally to resist

flexure and shear. Beam-type primary members called as stringers or girders. A small
fillet or haunch can be placed between the deck slab and the top flange of the girder to
adjust the geometry between the stringer and the finished deck.
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3.8.4 Secondary Members

These are bracing between primary members designed to resists cross-sectional

deformation of the superstructure frame and help distribute part of the vertical load
between stringers. They are also used for the stability of the structure during
construction. The fig. 3.18 represents the intermediate cross girders.

Secondary members, composed of horizontal crossed frames at the top or bottom flange
of a stringer, are used to resist lateral deformation. In curved girders bridges, the
diaphragms are considered primary members because they are load carrying members
that help resist torsion caused by vertical loads.

Fig. 3.18 Intermediate Cross Girders

Bearing also come in category of secondary member, which are provided at the
junction of the girders and the top of pier and abutments, which transmits loads to
substructure in such a way that bearing stresses developed are within the safe
permissible limits. The bearing provide for small movements of the superstructure. The
fig.3.19 indicate bearing on pedestal.

Fig. 3.19 Bearing on Pedestal

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Bridge components that includes substructure and superstructure, the figure 3.20 will
gives you clear view of all components of PSC I-Girder Bridges.

Fig. 3.20 Bridge Components

The details of superstructure regarding dimensions of I-Girders and Deck are mentioned
in Table 3.4 below.

Table 3.4 Structural Details of Superstructure

Span length (b/b) 29.30 m

Carriageway width 7.5 m

Lane of bridge Two lane

Cross- section I-beam girder

Thickness of web 300 mm

Top flange width 1000 mm

Bottom flange width 700 mm

Longitudinal girders 3

Width of deck 8.5 m

Depth of deck 0.220

Length of deck 30.4 @c/c expansion joint

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3.9 DESIGN OF PSC I-GIRDER

3.9.1 Modelling of I-Girder

We have to sketch a layout cross section of I-Girder in AutoCAD after

collecting the structural details from the site which already discussed in table 1.3. How
the girders look like from the end point and mid-point with the details of cross sections
are given below fig.3.21.

Fig. 3.21 Inner and Outer Cross Section

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From 3d AutoCAD the modelling has done for a whole span length 29.30 m (in terms
of bearing to bearing) of I-Girder without solid and with solid from the fig.3.22 and
fig.3.23 as shown as below.

Fig. 3.22 I- Girders 3d modelling

Fig. 3.23 Solid I-Girder

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3.9.2 Modelling Of Cable Profile

Cable profile has been done from AutoCAD which will help you to understand
where we have placed sheathing ducts in the reinforcement of prestressed concrete I-
Girder. As per our construction site, there is 4 numbers of sheathing ducts having 90
mm diameter different marking have been done for all ducts 1, 2, 3 and 4.

At supports location i.e., end point of girder you can see from bottom with some
elevation to top ducts go with ascending order.

At mid location i.e., mid-point of girder you can see the ducts lying down the ducts no.
1, 3, 2 with elevated 50 mm from centre and ducts no. 4 placed above ducts no. 3 from
the centre and elevation from centre of ducts is 330 mm.

From fig. 3.24, have assume the origin in centre where cable lying between mid span
and elevation of cable from origin is varying with particular interval of distances to end
face.

Fig. 3.24 At Mid Span and Supports Location

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3.10 STAAD MODEL AND ANALYSIS OF I-GIRDER BRIDGE

Analysis is the determination of structural redundant such as shear force,

bending moment, and deflection of the given structure. The analysis is done various
methods such as Moment distribution method, Slope deflection method, Stiffness
matrix method. For complicated structures, the above mentioned methods may not be
suitable, manual analysis of the bridge is more complicated. Hence, we have to go for
convenient we are using STAAD Pro.

For the modelling of the bridge superstructure STAAD Pro V8i software is used. The
bridge models are analysed, modelling involves the construction of PSC I-Girder
Bridge model with single span. The bridge models are simple supported at the two ends.

Procedure,

1. Staad Pro in space is operated with unit meter and Kilo Newton. the properties
of section are assigned to the bridge. Fixed Supports are taken.
2. Dimension taken followed by assigning of plate thickness.3D rendering can be
viewed.
3. Loads are taken by the loads and definitions. By Post processing mode, Nodal
displacement, Max. Absolute Stress value for the bridge can be viewed and Run
analysis is operated.
4. Then go through the bridge model creating a deck defining proper carriageway
width in define road way after that IRC loading are applied and then run as load
generator after that for concrete is used that code is applied on all the element
and finally run and analysis command is used to compare the result.

STAAD Pro model has been created and illustrated in the following diagram i.e., figure
3.25.
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Fig. 3.25 Modelling in STAAD Pro with dimensions

The rendering view of the bridge structure is described in figure 3.26, which shows the
longitudinal outer main I-girders and inner main I-girders, Intermediate cross girders,
and End cross girders.

Fig. 3.26 Three Dimensional Structure of the I-Girder

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Providing supports to the I-girder, then the applying loads on single span the analysis
report have been carried out, the figure 3.27 mentions below,

Fig. 3.27 Analysis Report

The figure 3.28 below represents the reaction on the supports in X, Y and Z directions.

Fig. 3.28 Reaction of structure along X, Y and Z direction

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3.10.1 STAAD EDITOR FILE

The editor file prepared in STAAD Pro software after graphical modelling and
inputs is shown below,

STAAD SPACE
START JOB INFORMATION
ENGINEER DATE 19-May-22
END JOB INFORMATION
INPUT WIDTH 79
UNIT METER KN
JOINT COORDINATES
1 0 5 0; 2 30 5 0; 3 30 5 8.75; 4 0 5 8.75; 5 0 5 4.375; 6 30 5 4.375;
7 15 5 0; 8 15 5 4.375; 9 15 5 8.75; 10 0 0 4.375; 11 30 0 4.375;
MEMBER INCIDENCES
1 1 7; 2 2 6; 3 3 9; 4 1 5; 5 5 4; 6 6 3; 7 5 8; 8 7 2; 9 8 6; 10 9 4;
11 7 8; 12 8 9; 13 5 10; 14 6 11;
ELEMENT INCIDENCES SHELL
15 1 2 3 4;
ELEMENT PROPERTY
15 THICKNESS 0.2
DEFINE MATERIAL START
ISOTROPIC CONCRETE
E 2.17185e+007
POISSON 0.17
DENSITY 23.5616
ALPHA 1e-005
DAMP 0.05
TYPE CONCRETE
STRENGTH FCU 27579
END DEFINE MATERIAL
MEMBER PROPERTY
1 TO 12 PRIS YD 1.2 ZD 0.3
13 14 PRIS YD 1
 39

CONSTANTS
MATERIAL CONCRETE ALL
SUPPORTS
10 11 FIXED
DEFINE MOVING LOAD
TYPE 1 LOAD 350 350
DIST 1.2 WID 1.2
LOAD 1 LOADTYPE Dead TITLE LOAD CASE 1
SELFWEIGHT Y -1 LIST ALL
LOAD GENERATION 150 ADD LOAD 1
TYPE 1 0 5 4.25 XINC 0.15 YRANGE 0
PERFORM ANALYSIS PRINT ALL
FINISH
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CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 GENERAL

In this chapter, by using calculations as per Indian Standards (IS) and Indian
Road Congress (IRC) rules, the output data for the IRC Class A Loadings are
considered from STAAD Pro which include nodal displacement summary, reaction
summary, live load effects and many more effect are consider by STAAD Pro, the
design and analysis of bending moment and shear force of PSC I-Girder has thoroughly
done, by using STAAD Pro, it is easy to find out data which is beneficial.

4.2 RESULT OF LONGITUDINAL I-GIRDER

Post tensioned I-Girder Bridge was analysed and designed for dead load and
moving live load. Here, we have studied the effective span of girder of 30 m. A
comparative study have been done considering bending moments (BM), shear forces
(SF) & deflection has been carried out to better understand. The girder forces are
summarised in table 4.1 and table 4.2 below.

Table 4.1 Comparison of Outer and Inner Girder For Dead Load

PARAMETERS OUTER INNER UNIT

GIRDER GIRDER

Deflection 28.45 28.43 mm

Bending Moment 5268.73 5023.82 kN.m

Shear Force 168 126 kN

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Table 4.2 Comparison of Outer and Inner Girder For Live Load

PARAMETERS OUTER INNER UNIT

GIRDER GIRDER

Deflection 18.89 12.62 mm

Bending Moment 3488.4 2085.2 kN.m

Shear Force 120 62.3 kN

From the above table 4.1 and 4.2 it is observed, maximum bending moment occurs for
dead load. Hence dead load case is the most critical for maximum bending moment in
longitudinal girder. In case of dead load the S.F in external girder is moderately higher
than the internal girder but in case of moving load the S.F in external girder is twice as
that of internal girder.

The below mentioned figure 4.1 and 4.2 illustrate when moving load is defined on a
span on the starting of span and after reached to the centre how the bending moment
diagram will be varying.

Fig. 4.1 Bending Moments Diagram At End Points

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Fig. 4.2 Bending Moments Diagram At Mid Span

The figure 4.3 and 4.4 represents the shear force diagram when moving load is applied
to span how its behave

Fig. 4.3 Shear Force Diagram At End Point

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Fig. 4.4 Shear Force Diagram At Mid Span

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The main aim of the study was to learn and understand the concept of analysis
and design of prestressed concrete I-Girder bridge. For this study, an existing bridge
near Lalpur Village, district Rampur (U.P.) was identified. The bridge was designed for
the traffic over the Kosi River.

In the present study, longitudinal prestressed concrete I-Girder single span has been
drawn in AutoCAD software and designed using STAAD Pro software by using cross
sections, here I considered effective span 29.30 m and designed for two lane of Class A
Loading or one lane of class 70R which gives the average result. The dead load and live
load are calculated using IRC: 6-2000, concrete grade M45 and TMT bars (Grade
Fe500D) conforming to IS: 1786-1985 are used.

The conclusion of the projects shows: From the analysis, specified reinforcement and
spacing for the bridge are going to be figure out from STAAD Pro. The software are
very helpful for constructing the economically bridge structure.

5.1 FUTURE SCOPE

The future scope of the project is to understand the mechanism of pre-stressing

on concrete girder i.e., I-Girder bridge of the proposed location with a proper modelling
and analysing done whatever the data required collecting from the site. This study help
us to compared for other higher span with existing span. It can also be compared in
terms of economical and from other international codes or design manuals.
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