SEAKEEPING

Summary

The concept of seakeeping is first explained and ship

motions and their effects are introduced. Waves in the sea are
considered next. Regular waves and their properties are described.
Irregular waves are then described and the concept of energy
spectrum introduced. The statistical properties of irregular waves,
some standard wave spectra and the Beaufort scale and the sea
state code are mentioned. Ship motions in regular waves are
discussed, and expressions for the natural periods of heave, pitch
and roll are derived. Forced heave, pitch and roll motions in
waves are considered briefly. Ship motions in irregular waves are
then described. The concepts of encounter frequency and motion
spectrum are introduced and the statistical properties that can then
be derived mentioned. Derived responses such as deck wetness
and slamming are described briefly. Motion stabilizers are then
considered. Seakeeping performance and criteria for its
assessment are then described. Ship design features that affect
seakeeping are discussed briefly.

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 CONTENTS

1. Introduction

1.1 Waves and Seakeeping

1.2 Ship Motions
1.3 Effects of Ship Motions

2. Waves in the Sea

2.1 Origin of Waves

2.2 Regular Waves
2.3 Irregular Waves
2.4 Description of Sea Conditions

3. Ship Motions in Regular Waves

3.1 General Theory of Oscillations

3.2 Ship Motions

4. Ship Motions in Irregular Waves

4.1 Encounter Spectrum

4.2 Response Amplitude Operator
4.3 Motion Spectrum
4.4 Derived Responses

5. Motion Stabilizers

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Roll Stabilizers

6. Seakeeping Performance

6.1 Assessment of Seakeeping Performance

6.2 Performance Criteria
6.3 Limiting Values of Responses
6.4 Speed Polar Plot

7. Seakeeping and Ship Design

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 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Waves and Seakeeping

The sea is never perfectly still and the waves in the sea affect the behaviour of the ship.
The ability of a ship to carry out its mission in spite of the effects of the waves is a measure of
the seakeeping qualities of the ship. The fundamental effect of the waves on the ship is to cause
it to undergo various motions or oscillations.

1.2 Ship Motions

The motions that a ship is forced to execute due to the waves are conveniently divided
into three linear oscillations along, and three angular oscillations about, axes oriented along the
length (x-axis), breadth (y-axis) and depth (z-axis) with the origin usually at the centre of gravity
of the ship.

Oscillation Linear Angular

Axis

x Surge Roll

y Sway Pitch

z Heave Yaw

1.3 Effects of Ship Motions

Excessive ship motions affect the comfort of the crew and passengers of the ship. The
forces and moments that arise due to ship motions affect the operation of various ship systems,
making it impossible for the ship to carry out its mission in bad weather when the waves are
high and the motions severe. Waves in the sea cause an increase in the resistance of the ship,
resulting in a reduction in speed at constant power. High waves and the resulting motions may
cause the bottom of the ship to emerge from the water momentarily and then fall into the water
with a sharp impact. Water may also break on the deck causing damage. Oscillations of large
amplitude cause large forces to act on the structure of the ship. It may be necessary to reduce the
speed of the ship and to change its course to avoid the adverse effects of ship motions.

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 2. WAVES IN THE SEA

2.1 Origin of Waves

The waves in the sea are usually caused by the action of wind on the surface of water due
to friction and local pressure variations. There are also interactions between different waves,
and some waves break. The total wave system in a particular area may be assumed to be the
result of many independent waves distributed over space and time. The waves in the sea are
generally irregular, i.e. they do not appear to have a fixed pattern. If the wave heights are small,
it is possible to consider the waves in the sea to be the resultant of several independent systems
of regular waves. Regular waves are waves of constant shape moving at a fixed speed in a fixed
direction. Irregular waves can be regarded as a linear superposition of several independent
regular waves.

2.2 Regular Waves

The equation of regular waves in water may be obtained from the hydrodynamic
equations of motion for potential flow. The equation for a wave moving in the direction of the
x-axis, with the z-axis positive upwards and the origin in the undisturbed surface of water is :

where :

elevation of constant pressure line originally at the level z

= surface wave amplitude, h being the wave height

“wave number”, being the wave length

depth of water

wave velocity or “celerity”

time.

In deep water, as , the equation becomes :

and on the surface of water,

which gives the surface wave profile.

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 The basic properties of these regular waves, which may be derived from the equation of
the wave, are :

where is the “circular frequency”

where is the wave period

The pressure at a level z is given by .

The maximum wave slope is given by .

The wave energy per unit area .

The foregoing is based on linear or first order wave theory. In the Stokes second order
theory, the equation of the wave at time is given by :

This gives a wave profile that corresponds more closely than the linear wave with the profiles of
regular waves generated in a laboratory. The trochoidal wave theory also represents physical
waves more closely than the linear wave theory. There are also higher order wave theories.
However, the linear wave theory is almost always used in the study of seakeeping because it is
simple to use and gives sufficiently accurate results.

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2.3 Irregular Waves

2.3.1 Component Waves

The waves in the sea, i.e. irregular waves, can be regarded as the resultant of a large
number of regular waves of different frequencies, wave amplitudes, phases and directions of
propagation. The phases of the component waves are assumed to have a completely random
distribution and the entire “process” is assumed to be a stationary random process in which the
elevations of the different waves have a “normal” distribution.

2.3.2 Long Crested Seas

It is convenient to first consider all the waves to be moving in the same direction,
resulting in a “long crested sea”. Suppose there are n component waves, the elevation at a fixed
point of the i-th wave being given by :

and its energy per unit area by :

The energy of all the waves is then given by :

If , the energy of the waves for frequencies between and can be written as :

is a measure of the distribution of energy in the sea as a function of the (circular)

frequency , and is known as the wave spectral density. A curve of as a function of
is the wave spectrum. The total energy per unit area due to all the waves in the sea is given by :

area under the curve.

The moments of the wave spectrum are of great significance. The n-th moment of the wave
spectrum (n is an integer) is given by :

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 is the area under the curve.

If one looks at a record of the surface elevation of the irregular waves in the sea at a
point x as a function of time t or at a particular instant t over a length x in the direction of
wave propagation, one can determine the following parameters :

apparent wave amplitude

apparent wave height

apparent zero up-crossing period

apparent period based on adjacent crests

apparent wave length based on adjacent zero up-crossings

apparent wave length based on adjacent crests.

The average values of these apparent parameters are related to the moments of the wave
spectrum, e.g. the average period between zero up-crossings or the average period based on
adjacent crests have values :

and .

The average wave length based on zero up-crossings is :

The average period of the component waves is given by :

The average frequency of the waves is :

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and the corresponding period is :

The frequency at which the waves have the highest energy, i.e. the value of at which
has the greatest value, is the “modal frequency” and the corresponding period is the
“modal period” .

The average wave amplitude and the average wave height are given by :

The average amplitude and height of the one-third highest waves are :

These are also called the “significant wave amplitude” and the “significant wave height”
respectively.

Similarly, the average amplitudes and heights of the one-tenth and one-hundredth highest
waves are :

The highest expected wave height in a sample of N successive waves is as

follows :

100
1000
10000 .

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2.3.3 Standard Wave Spectra

There are some wave spectra that are widely used, e.g. :

Pierson-Mosowitz Spectrum :

spectrum ordinate in cm2 sec

frequency in radians per sec

0.74
acceleration of gravity in cm per sec2
wind speed in cm per sec.

JONSWAP Spectrum :

This is based on data collected by the Joint North Sea Wave Observation Project
and is given by :

is the “fetch”, i.e. the distance over which the wind blows with a constant velocity,
and is the wind velocity 10 m above the surface of water.

Bretschneider Spectrum :

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 The two parameters A and B depend upon the modal frequency and the area under the
wave spectrum.

ITTC Spectrum :

This is a form of the Bretschneider spectrum with :

is the significant wave height and the period corresponding to the average wave

frequency. If only is known, one may use the following values :

2.3.4 Directional Spectra

If one is to consider the sea to have irregular waves moving in various directions
distributed at random about a dominant direction of propagation, it is necessary to use a
“directional spectrum” , where is the angle that a particular wave component makes
with the reference direction. This is most conveniently done at present by writing :

where is the “point spectrum” and is the “spreading function”. The spreading
function is usually taken as :

for

otherwise.

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 angle between the direction of propagation of a wave component and the
dominant wave direction.

angular range of components on either side of the dominant wave direction.

At present, it is usual to take and , so that :

2.4 Description of Sea Conditions

There are two widely used methods to describe the condition of the sea – the Beaufort
Scale and the Sea State Code.

BEAUFORT SCALE

Scale Description Wind Speed, knots

0 Calm 1
1 Light air 1–3
2 Light breeze 4–6
3 Gentle breeze 7 – 10
4 Moderate breeze 11 – 16
5 Fresh breeze 17 – 21
6 Strong breeze 22 – 27
7 Near gale 28 – 33
8 Gale 34 – 40
9 Strong gale 41 – 47
10 Storm 48 – 55
11 Violent storm 56 – 63
12 Hurricane 64 and over

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 SEA STATE CODE

Sea State Description of the Sea Significant Wave Height, m

0 Calm (glassy) 0
1 Calm (rippled) 0 – 0.10
2 Smooth (wavelets) 0.10 – 0.50
3 Slight 0.50 – 1.25
4 Moderate 1.25 – 2.50
5 Rough 2.50 – 4.00
6 Very rough 4.00 – 6.00
7 High 6.00 – 9.00
8 Very high 9.00 – 14.00
9 Phenomenal Over 14.00

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 3. SHIP MOTIONS IN REGULAR WAVES

3.1 General Theory of Oscillations

3.1.1 Equation of Motion

The equation of motion for a system that is undergoing linear or angular oscillation may
be written as :

The terms in this equation represent the following :

inertia force or moment

damping force or moment

restoring force or moment

exciting force or moment

amplitude of the exciting force or moment

frequency of the exciting force or moment

time

( is the displacement from the mean position, and ).

The following cases arise :

(i) and : Free undamped oscillation

(ii) and : Free damped oscillation

(iii) and : Forced undamped oscillation

(iv) and : Forced damped oscillation.

3.1.2 Free Undamped Oscillation

This is also known as “natural oscillation” since it is not forced by an external force or
moment. The equation for free undamped oscillation is :

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 .

The solution of this differential equation is :

is the amplitude of the oscillation and the phase angle, which depend upon the “initial
conditions”. The “circular frequency” in radians per unit time with which the system oscillates
after being disturbed momentarily from its position of equilibrium is the “natural (circular)
frequency” given by :

The natural frequency in oscillations per unit time and the natural time period of the oscillation
are given by :

3.1.3 Free Damped Oscillation

The equation for free undamped oscillation is :

This has the solution :

where .

There will be oscillation only if , in which case the solution may be written as :

is the “decay constant” and is the damped natural frequency. If

, or , the system has “critical damping” and is on the boundary between

oscillating and not oscillating, i.e. oscillating with zero frequency.

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3.1.4 Forced Damped Oscillation

The equation for forced damped oscillation is :

which has the solution :

The first term represents transient oscillations which die out with the passage of time depending
upon the value of the decay constant . Eventually, only the forced oscillations remain, as
given by the second term which represents the steady state solution.

If a constant force or moment Pa were acting on the system, there would be a static
displacement from the position of equilibrium given by :

The magnification factor of the oscillating system is defined as :

and the tuning factor by :

As already indicated :

(decay constant) (natural frequency)

The non-dimensional damping factor is given by .

It can be shown that the phase angle and the magnification factor are related to the tuning factor
and the non-dimensional damping factor as follows :

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When the tuning factor , i.e. the exciting frequency is equal to the natural frequency, there
is “resonance” and the magnification factor has a high value. If there were no damping, the
amplitude of oscillation would become infinitely large when there was resonance.

3.2 Ship Motions

3.2.1 Motions with and without Restoring Forces or Moments

Surge, sway and yaw motions of a ship do not have restoring forces or moments, since
the ship is in neutral equilibrium with respect to linear movements along the x- and y-axes and
angular movement about the z-axis.. These motions can only be forced oscillations at the
exciting frequency with an amplitude dependent upon the amplitude of the exciting force or
moment.

A ship is in stable equilibrium with respect to heel, trim and sinkage, e.g. if the heel
angle of a ship in equilibrium is momentarily changed by a small amount, a righting moment
acts to restore the position of equilibrium. Roll and pitch are thus ship motions with restoring
moments, and heave is a motion with a restoring force. These motions can therefore be free
oscillations with natural frequencies.

3.2.2 Heave

The equation for “free” heave motion is written as :

is the mass (displacement) of the ship, is the “added mass” in heave, is the damping
coefficient and is the restoring force coefficient. The restoring force is the additional
buoyancy due to a parallel sinkage :

is the waterplane area at the equilibrium draught. The natural undamped frequency in heave
and the corresponding time period are :

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 The added mass and the damping coefficient may be determined by theoretical means or
experimentally. The added mass in heave is of the same magnitude as the mass of the ship.

The equation for the forced heaving of a ship in regular waves is :

The amplitude of the exciting force in regular waves of given length and height may be
determined by calculating the pressure at points on the wetted surface of the ship and integrating
the pressure over the ship length.

3.2.3 Pitch

The equation for free undamped pitching motion may be written as :

is the “virtual mass moment of inertia” of the ship about a transverse axis through the centre
of gravity. The restoring moment in pitch is :

is the longitudinal metacentric height. The natural pitch frequency and time period are
given by :

is the virtual mass radius of gyration about the transverse axis through the centre of gravity,
and typically has a value of about one-fourth the length of the ship.

The equation for pitching in waves is :

is the amplitude of the pitch moment due to the waves and may be calculated from the
pressure distribution along the length of the ship for waves of a given length and height.

The solution of this equation is :

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where :

decay constant

amplitude and phase of damped natural pitch

motion (transient phase)

damped natural pitch frequency

amplitude of forced pitch motion (steady state)

phase of forced pitch motion.

It is usually necessary to consider heave and pitch together since both occur
simultaneously in waves.

3.2.4 Roll

The equation for free undamped rolling is :

is the virtual mass moment of inertia about a longitudinal axis through the centre of gravity,
and the restoring moment is :

where is the metacentric height. The natural roll period is given by :

The virtual radius of gyration about the longitudinal axis through the centre of gravity is given
approximately by :

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where B is the breadth of the ship. A large metacentric height is said to result in a low period of
roll (a “stiff” ship) and high accelerations and resulting inertia forces during rolling.

The equation for forced rolling in regular waves is :

The amplitude of the exciting moment is related to the wave slope :

is the displacement volume. is the maximum wave slope in the direction of the breadth of
the ship and is given by :

where is the wave height, the wave length and the angle between the ship centre line
(x-axis) and the direction of propagation of the waves.

The solution of the equation for forced rolling is :

where :

decay constant

amplitude and phase of damped natural rolling

(transient phase)

damped natural frequency

undamped natural frequency

amplitude of forced rolling (steady state)

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 phase of forced rolling.

It should be noted that the equations of rolling given in the foregoing apply only to small
roll amplitudes.

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 4. SHIP MOTIONS IN IRREGULAR WAVES

4.1 Encounter Spectrum

Consider a ship moving at a speed at an angle to waves of length and speed .

The relative velocity of the ship with respect to the waves is then , so that the
“encounter period” is :

Recalling that :

the encounter period can be expressed in terms of the wave frequency as :

The encounter frequency is therefore :

and :

The area under the wave spectrum represents the energy of all the waves in the sea, and
this remains the same whether the ship is standing at a fixed point or is moving. This allows the
wave spectrum as encountered by the ship to be determined from the wave spectrum at a point,
since the area under the “encounter spectrum” is equal to the area under the point spectrum of
the irregular waves in the sea :

so that :

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Thus, the encounter spectrum is obtained from the point spectrum of the sea by :

multiplying the abscissas by

and

multiplying the ordinates by .

Note that is zero for following seas and 180o for head seas.

4.2 Response Amplitude Operator

The response amplitude operator RAO for a particular “response” , of the ship, e.g.
heave or pitch, to encountered waves is defined as :

The response amplitude operators for the six basic ship motions – surge, sway, heave, roll, pitch
and yaw – can be obtained from model experiments in regular waves or by theoretical means.

4.3 Motion Spectrum

The motion spectrum for a particular motion is obtained by multiplying the encounter
spectrum by the response amplitude operator, e.g. the pitch spectrum is obtained as :

From the motion spectrum, one can obtain information about that particular motion in
the given sea spectrum in the same way that the wave spectrum gives information about the
waves. For example, denoting the area under the motion spectrum curve by (zero-th
moment) :

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 Average amplitude of pitch motion

Significant pitch amplitude

Average amplitude of highest one-tenth waves

The greatest pitch amplitude expected on the average in successive observations :

N Amplitude

100
1000
10000 .

4.4 Derived Responses

From the six basic modes of ship motion in regular waves, it is possible to derive
response amplitude operators for responses such as :

- vertical and lateral motions, velocities and accelerations at specific points in the ship
- relative motion between a point on the ship and the wave surface
- shipping of seas on deck and slamming
- added resistance and power in waves
- wave bending moments.

This would require both amplitudes and phases to be known. Once the spectrum of the
particular response is obtained, its various statistical properties can be calculated.

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 5. MOTION STABILIZERS

5.1 Introduction

Among the various motions that a ship undergoes in a seaway, only roll motion is
realistically capable of being reduced by devices that provide forces or moments opposing that
motion.

5.2 Roll Stabilizers

There are basically three types of roll stabilizers used in ships : passive stabilizers,
controlled passive stabilizers and active stabilizers.

Passive stabilizers are devices that require no power or control system. Bilge keels are
passive roll stabilizers that have no moving parts. Anti-rolling tanks are stabilizers in which the
movement of water between tanks on either side of the ship provides a moment that opposes the
roll motion. The water moves from side to side only in response to the rolling of the ship.
Passive anti-rolling tanks may be free surface tanks, U-tube tanks or external tanks with
openings to the sea. A moving weight system may also be used as a passive roll stabilizer.

In controlled passive stabilizers, there is an arrangement to control the moment opposing

the roll motion. In anti-rolling tanks of this type, there may be a valve in the pipe or duct
connecting the tanks so that the rate at which water flows between the tanks can be controlled to
produce a time period and phase difference that will give the maximum stabilization. Instead of
controlling the flow of water, the tanks can be made air-tight and a pipe with a servo controlled
valve fitted to connect the air space on top of the tanks.

Active stabilizers not only have a control system to control the moment opposing the roll
motion but also require substantial power to operate. In active tank stabilizers, water is moved
between the tanks on either side by a pump whose discharge is controlled by a control system.
In fin stabilizers, there are fins projecting out of the hull near amidships which produce lift
forces that oppose the roll motion. The angles of attack of the fins or their tail flaps are
controlled to minimize the roll motion. In calm weather, the fins can be retracted into the hull to
eliminate their resistance. Gyroscopic stabilizers have also been used.

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 6. SEAKEEPING PERFORMANCE

6.1 Assessment of Seakeeping Performance

It is necessary to assess the seakeeping performance of a ship and to predict performance

in given environmental conditions for the optimum performance of the ship. Seakeeping
performance can be related to three factors :

(i) Mission : The required performance depends upon the mission of the ship. A
naval ship may have several missions, e.g. transit, helicopter operation, and
replenishment at sea.

(ii) Environmental conditions : Performance depends upon the environmental

conditions, i.e. wind and waves. Environmental conditions are usually defined by
“Sea State”, characterized by the significant wave height and the modal wave
period.

(iii) Ship responses : These include amplitudes, velocities and accelerations of the
different motions and responses such as deck wetness, slamming and propeller
emergence.

6.2 Performance Criteria

Two numerical measures of seakeeping performance have been developed. Seakeeping

Performance Index 1 (SPI-1) is based on mission effectiveness and is equal to the fraction of the
total time that the ship can perform a specified mission for given ship speeds and headings in a
specified ocean area and season. Seakeeping Performance Index 2 (SPI-2) is based on transit
time, and is the ratio of the ideal time needed to move between two points in calm weather to the
actual time required in seas appropriate to a specified season or seasons. SPI-2 is also the actual
average speed in specified conditions to the calm water speed.

6.3 Limiting Values of Responses

The parameters that affect mission effectiveness may be grouped into three categories :

(i) Personnel : comfort, motion sickness, fatigue, task proficiency and safety

(ii) Operations : helicopter operations, shifting of cargo

(iii) Ship : damage to hull or deck equipment, loss of efficiency in ship systems.

Some important parameters and their typical values are :

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 Roll amplitude 3o rms
Pitch amplitude 1.5o rms
Vertical displacement 1.25 m rms
Vertical acceleration 0.2 g rms
Lateral acceleration 0.1 g rms
Motion sickness 10 % in 4 hours
Slam acceleration 0.2 g
Slam frequency 20 per hour
Deck wetness frequency 30 per hour.

6.4 Speed Polar Plot

The speed polar plot is a method of presenting for a given sea state the boundaries of
speed and heading between acceptable and unacceptable ship responses. The diagram consists
of lines radiating from a centre indicating the direction of the ship with respect to the dominant
wave direction and concentric circles indicating different ship speeds. On this diagram, the
limits of speed and heading for the different ship responses (roll amplitudes, slam frequency etc)
are marked, and the unacceptable combinations of speed and heading shaded. The unshaded
region shows the operable speed and heading combinations, and is called the “seakeeping
operating envelope”. A larger unshaded area indicates better seakeeping performance.

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 7. SEAKEEPING AND SHIP DESIGN

In considering ship motions, it is usual to treat the longitudinal motions (surge, pitch and
heave) separately from the transverse motions (roll, sway and yaw). The effects of roll motion
are minimized by not having an unnecessarily high metacentric height and by fitting roll
stabilizers. If necessary, the ship’s heading may be changed to avoid heavy rolling in beam seas.
The design features that affect pitch and heave motions are as follows :

- Ship size : The probability of a ship encountering waves of length equal to or greater
than the ship length decreases for longer ships. Longer waves also have a relatively
smaller wave height. Larger ships thus usually have a better seakeeping
performance.

- Speed : A reduction in speed usually reduces pitch and heave motions in rough seas.

- Length-breadth ratio : This has a minor effect on seakeeping

- Length-draught ratio : High length-draught ratios sometimes lead to marked

resonance in waves and to increased slamming. High length-draught ratios have also
been found to result in lower pitch and heave amplitudes in long waves but higher
amplitudes in shorter waves.

- Block coefficient : Ships with high block coefficients have a greater speed loss in
waves but smaller motion amplitudes. However, the effect is small.

- Prismatic coefficient : A high prismatic coefficient may lead to reduced motions but
greater deck wetness. A high prismatic coefficient also leads to a lower speed loss at
high speeds but a higher speed loss at low speeds.

- Waterplane coefficient : A high waterplane coefficient leads to higher wave bending

moments.

- Radius of gyration : A smaller radius of gyration about the transverse axis through
the centre of gravity reduces ship motions in waves longer than the ship.

- Forward sections : U-shaped sections forward result in a smaller speed loss in waves
but V-shaped sections result in smaller motion amplitudes. Above water flare in the
sections forward reduces deck wetness.

- Freeboard : A high freeboard reduces deck wetness.

Many design features appear to have opposite effects in long waves and in short waves. Since
the sea contains waves of varying lengths, hull form appears to have only a minor influence on
ship motions in a seaway.

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 ADDITIONAL READING

The preceding notes should be supplemented by the following :

1. Principles of Naval Architecture, Vol. III, Chapter 8.

2. Basic Ship Theory, Vol. II, Chapter 12.

Principles of Naval Architecture (three volumes), Edward V. Lewis, Editor, published by

Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 601 Pavonia Avenue, Jersey City, NJ, USA.
Second Revision, 1988, ISBN No. 0-939773-01-5.

Basic Ship Theory (two volumes), K.J. Rawson and E.C. Tupper, published by Longman,
London and New York, Second Edition, 1976, ISBN No. 0-582-44523-X and 0-582-44524-8.

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