1.

1 Notes: Definition of Terms

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. DOCUMENTS - any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially visible that may
present or ultimately convey meaning to someone, maybe in the form of a pencil, ink writing, typewriting, or
printing on paper.
KINDS OF DOCUMENTS

1. Public Document - a document created, executed, or issued by a public official in response to the exigencies of
the public service, or in the execution of which a public official intervened.
2. Official Document – a document that is issued by a public official in the exercise of the functions of his office.
3. Private Document – every deed or instrument executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary
public or any person legally authorized, by which the documents some disposition or agreement is provide
evidenced or set forth.
4. Commercial Document – Any instrument defined and regulated by the Code of Commerce or other commercial
law.
5. Electronic Document – exist only in electronic forms such as date stored on a computer network, back-up,
archive, or other storage media.
6. Paper-based – produced traditionally and manually
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT – Document is usually questioned because its origin, its contents, or the circumstances
and story regarding its production, arouse serious suspicions as to its genuineness, or it may be adversely scrutinized
simply because it displeases someone.
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION/FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION - The practice of
application of document examination to the purposes of the law.
 FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINER/QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINER – refers to persons who study
all aspects of a document to determine its authenticity, origin, handwriting, photocopies, inks, and papers.
HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT – any document was completely written and signed by one person.
REFERENCE COLLECTION – Material compiled and organized by the document examiner to assist him in answering
special questions.
RELATED FIELD OF STUDY

1. Historical dating - It involves the verification of age and worth pf document or object.
2. Fraud Investigation - It focuses on the money trail and criminal intent
3. Paper and ink Specialists - These are public or private experts who date, type, source, and/or catalogue various
types of paper, watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax machines, computer cartridges, etc., using chemical methods.
4. Forgery Specialists - These are public or private experts who analyze, altered, obliterated, changed, or doctored
documents and photos using infrared lighting and other equipment.
5. Handwriting Analysis - These are psychology experts who assess personality traits from handwriting samples,
also called as graphologist or graphoanalysts.
6. Forensic stylistics - Refers to the same purpose but by looking at semantics, spelling, word choice, syntax, and
phraseology.
7. Typewriting Analysis - These are experts on the origin, make, and model used in the typewritten documents.
8. Computer Crime Investigation
9. Imprint Examination – including those produced by manual devices, mechanical devices, and electronic printing
devices; also includes those produced by the manufacture of counterfeiters.

Topic 1.1 Notes: Characteristics and Examination

TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS

1. General Characteristics – these characteristics refer to those habits which are part of the basic writing system.
2. National Characteristics – these refer to the extent that the writing system within a country share common features and
induce class characteristics in the writing of its people, different from other countries.
3. Accidental Characteristics – these are an isolated, brief, or temporary digression from normal writing practices
observed in writing standards.
4. Individual Characteristics – these are characteristics that are the result of the writer’s muscular control, coordination,
age, health, nervous, temperament, frequency, personality, and character.

 Permanent
 Common or usual
  Occasional
 Rare
POINTS IN IDENTIFICATION
1. Writing movement
2. Form and design of letters
3. Muscular control and motor control

4. Motor coordination
5. Shading
6. Alignment
7. Pen Pressure
8. Connection
9. Pen Hold
10. Skill
11. Rhythm
12. Disconnections or pen lifts between letters
13. Speed
14. Slant as writing habits
15. The proportion of letters as individual characteristics or habit
16. Quality of strokes/Line quality
17. Variation

Topic 1.2 Paper and Paper Examination

PAPER- These are sheets of interlaced fibers –usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes from cloth rags or
other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to form a solid surface.

MANUFACTURING PAPER

1. Cooking process - the pulpwood will be chipped into small pieces that are then mixed with chemicals and fed into
pressure vessels called digester to soften the lignin, which binds the fibers together
2. Washing, screening, cleaning, and, if necessary, bleaching to the desired brightness.
3. Next, the fibers are combined with pigments, dyes, and sizing. These fibers flow onto a moving screen called a
Fourdrinier, on which the fibers mat, forming a continuous sheet of paper with much of the water drawn through the
screen into collection tanks to be recycled.
4. Then, the web of pulp passes through heavy rollers, which press moisture from the sheet.
5. Drying stage – evaporation of the remaining water in the pulp of fibers
6. The paper then passes through series of calendar stacks that sooth the paper.
7. Pressing process – the paper passes over a dandy roll, which imprints the watermark on the paper.

TYPES OF PAPERS FOR PRINTING OR WRITING

A. Newsprint- Least expensive paper manufactured. Composed of ground wood Principal asset is opacity
B. Bond paper- Originally used to print stocks and bonds Usually made from cottons
C. Lightweight- Uncoated papers Usually made from manifold papers made from wood fibers
D. Specialty- Coated on both sides to transfer date from one page to another Contains special finishes
E. Gummed- For labels and it has curl-proof feature
F. Text paper- most expensive, uncoated papers Used for announcements, invitations, and greeting cards
G. Coated- Used primarily in publications
H. Bristol- Used to make index cards and tag paper Strength is the most important feature
I. Kraft- Coarse, unbleached, heavy paper Paper bags, package wrapping, and corrugated boxes

PROPERTIES OF PAPER
-The paper contains many properties that are important considerations when determining how the paper will be used.

 Weight
 Strength – tensile strength and tear strength
 Durability
 Thickness
 Finish of the paper
 Water absorbability
 Presence of watermark

WATERMARK- This is a translucent distinctive designs of the manufacturer

1.2 Notes: Concepts of Handwriting and Signature

HANDWRITING

 It is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being used a whole, and a combination of certain forms of visible
mental and muscular habits acquired by long-continued painstaking effort.

COPYBOOK FORM

 It is the instruction taught in school.

IMPORTANCE OF COPYBOOK FORM

1. The nationality of the writer

2. The system learned
3. The date when the writing was acquired4
4. To some of the influences that have surrounded the writer

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

 SENSORY
 BRAIN -CORTEX
 MOTOR
 HAND/PARTS OF THE BODY RESPONSIBLE IN WRITING
 FINGER, WRIST, ELBOW, AND SHOULDER
 LUMBRICALS, ENTENSOR, AND FLEXOR

 DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING

1. Drawing Stage
2. Adolescence Stage/Manner of Execution
3. Stage of Subject Matter
4. Stage of Degeneration

STYLES OF HANDWRITING

1. Printed
2. Cursive
3. Print-writing
SIGNATURE

 A mark or sign made by an individual on an instrument or document to signify knowledge, approval, acceptance, or
obligation.

TYPES OF SIGNATURE

1. Handwritten Signature
2. Electronic Signature
3. Autopen Signature
4. Stamp Signature
5. Guided Signature
6. Model Signature

IMPORTANCE OF SIGNATURE

1. Evidence
2. Ceremony
3. Approval
4. Efficiency and Logistics
2.1 Notes: Principles of Handwriting/Illness that may affect handwriting

PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS

1. No two writers write exactly alike

2. The physical writing condition and position of the person including his writing instrument may affect the handwriting
characteristics but they do not confine all its identifying elements.
3. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious effort and training applied over a period of time.
4. The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived from form and writing movements are essential
elements of identification.
5. Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparative examination with the standard written or
prepared under comparable condition
6. Similarity does not mean identity
7. Complete identity means definite forgery
8. The writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of identical writing habits and identical primary
controlling characteristics and addition, the absence of divergent characteristics.
9. The writing was not written by one person when there is a sufficient number of divergent writing characteristics and the
absence of identical primary controlling characteristics.

ILLNESSES THAT MAY AFFECT HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

1. Agraphia- refers to the inability to write in an orderly fashion, but can still be able to manipulate writing
materials. This maybe due to brain lesions such as tumors, brain infections, injuries or head injuries.
2. Aphasia- refers to the impairment of the power to use and understand words in communicating.
3. Dyslexia- Refers to the disability to read and miss-spell words. (example, from Read to Red.)
4. Paragraphia- The inability to write the correct words, but ability to copy text is retained.
5. Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s Disease- Alzheimer is due to old age a person who is above 60 years of
age, due to senility he reverts to childhood and loses memory and ability to read and write. Parkinson’s is due to
old age as well but uncontrolled tremor is present.
6. ALS(Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis)- or LOU GEHRIG DISEASE, which includes weakening of muscles.
7. Arthritis- affects the CNS which includes muscles, ligaments and joints or writing hand.
8. Cerebral Palsy-  an abnormal alteration of movement or motor function arising from defect, injury or disease of
the nerve tissues in the cranial cavity.
9. Hypnosis- a trance-like condition or an induced state that resembles sleep in which the subject experiences
diminished will power and very responsive to the suggestions of the hypnotizer.
            Does It Affect Handwriting? ..the person is more relaxed. Thus, interest in the task was lost.

VARIATION IN HANDWRITING
            A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the subjective mind but the hand does not always produce a stereo
type of the pattern. The hand ordinarily is not an instrument of precision and therefore we may not expect every habitual manual
operation to be absolutely uniform. The greater this skill in the art of penmanship, the less the variations there will be in the form of
individualize letters as well as in the writing as a whole.

CAUSES OF VARIATIONS

1. Function of some external i.e. influence of the available space.

2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriations, emotion and deception.
3. Position of letter- all the letters are to be found initially, medially, and finally. The fact of the different position,
especially in combination with another and particular letter, may modify any of them in some way or another.

IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION

1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a highly important element of identification.
The qualities of personal variation include both its nature and its extent. It becomes necessary to determine the amount,
extent, and exact quality of the variations.
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will be exactly duplicated in two individuals
that such a coincidence becomes practically impossible and this multitude of possible variations when combined is
what constitutes individuality in handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergence in size, lateral spacing and proportions
actually indicate genuineness. Variation in genuine writing is ordinarily in superficial parts and in size, proportions,
degree of the care given to the act, design, slant, shading, vigor, angularity, roundness’ and direction of the stroke.
SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (SCHOOL MODEL)
The standard of handwriting instruction taught in particular school. Classes of copybook depend on the standard copy
adopted by a writer.
EARLY FORMS OF COPYBOOK FORM
Spencerian Script is a script style that flourished in the United States) from 1850 to 1895.
Platt Rogers Spencer.), whose name the style bears, was impressed with the idea that America needed
a penmanship ) style that could be written quickly, legibly, and elegantly to aid in matters of business correspondence as
well as personal letter-writing. Spencerian Script was developed in 1840, and began soon after to be taught in
the school .) Spencer established specifically for that purpose. He quickly turned out graduates who left his school to start
replicas of it abroad, and Spencerian Script thus began to reach the common schools. Spencer never saw the great success
that his penmanship style enjoyed, having died in 1864, but his sons took upon themselves the mission of bringing their
late father's dream to fruition.
This they did by publishing and distributing Spencer's unpublished book, Spencerian Key to Practical Penmanship, in
1866. Spencerian Script became the standard across the United States and remained so until the 1920s when the spreading
popularity of the typewriter rendered it obsolete. It was gradually replaced with the simpler and less elegant Palmer
Method ) developed by Austin Norman Palmer).

1. Palmer Copybook- commonly used in the United States prior to 1980.

2. D’Nealian Copybook- commonly used in the United States since 1980.
3. British Copybook
4. French Copybook
5. German Copybook 

IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS (SYSTEM OF WRITING)

May point:

1. to the nationality of the writer

2. the system learned
3. the date when the writing was acquired
4. to some of the influences that have surrounded the writer

2.2 Notes: Terminologies Related to Handwriting Analysis

1. Alignment – The relation of the parts of the whole of writing or line of individual letters in words to the baseline.
2. Angular form – sharp, straight strokes that are made by stopping the one and changing direction before continuing.
3. Arcade forms – forms that look like arches; rounded on top and open at the bottom.
4. Bow - the part of the letter or character of signature or handwriting which formed like a bow of an arrow or simply a
curved stroke aligned in a vertical direction.
5. Collation – side by side comparison
6. Comparison – The act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their identifying qualities
7. Dextral
8. Disguised writing – A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits of hiding his identity.
9. Down strokes – the movement of the pen toward the writer
10. Form – the writer’s chosen writing style.
11. Garland forms – A cup-like connected form that is open at the top and rounded on the bottom.
12. Gestalt – “complete”, “whole”
13. Graphoanalysis – the study of handwriting based on the tow fundamental strokes, the curve and the straight strokes.
14. Graphometry – analysis and comparison and measurement
15. Graphology – the art of determining character disposition and amplitude of a person from the study of handwriting.
16. Hand lettering – any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately.
17. Left handed writing
18. Letter Space – the amount of space left between letters.
19. Line Direction – it is the movement of the baseline.
20. Line Quality – the overall character of the ink lines from the beginning to the ending strokes.
21. Line Space – the amount of space left between lines.
22. Manuscript writing – a disconnected form of script or semi-script writing.
23. Margins – the amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.
24. Movement
MOVEMENTS IN HANDWRITING
  Finger Movement – The thumb, the first, the second, and slightly the third finger are in actual motion.
 Hand Movement – Produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with the wrist as the center of
attraction.
 Forearm Movement – the movement of the shoulder, hand, and arm with the support of the table.
 Whole-arm Movement – the action of the entire arm without resting.
1. Natural Writing – any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to control or alter its
identifying habits and its usual quality and execution.
2. Natural Variation – these are normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimens of any individual
handwriting.
3. Pen emphasis – the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surfaces.
4. Pen Hold – the place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the angle at which he holds it.
5. Pen position – the relationship between the pen point and the paper. The orientation of the writing instrument.
6. Pen pressure – the average force with which the pen contacts the paper.
7. Print Script – A creative combination of printing and cursive writing
8. Proportion and Ratio - the relation between the tall and the short letter
9. Quality – the distinct and peculiar characters. Also, quality is used in describing handwriting to refer to any
identifying factor that is related to the writing movement itself.
10. Rhythm – the element of writing movement, which is marked by regular or periodic recurrences. It may be
classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality; the flourishing succession of motion which are recorded in
a written record.
11. Shading – is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure on a flexible pen point or to the use of a
stub pen.
12. Significant Writing Habit – any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently uncommon and well-fixed to
serve as a fundamental point in the identification.
13. Simplification – eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook form.
14. Size - as a writing characteristics is somewhat divergent under varying condition and may have but little
significance when applied to only on example, or to a small quality of writing like a signature unless the
divergence is very pronounced.
15. Skill – relative degrees or ability or skill and a specimen of handwriting usually contain evidence of the writer’s
proficiency; degree, ability, or skill of writing proficiency.
16. Slope/Slant – the angle of inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the baseline.
17. Speed of writing – the personal pace at which the writer’s pen moves across the paper.
18. Thread form – an indefinite connective form that looks flat and wavy
19. Variation – the act or process of changing
20. Word Space – the amount of space between words.
21. Writing Conditions – circumstances in which the writing was prepared and factors influencing the writer’s
ability to write at the time of execution.
22. Writing Habits – any repeated element in one’s handwriting.
23. Writing impulse – the result of the pen touching down on the paper and moving across the page until it is raised
from the paper.
24. Wrong-Handed Writing – any writing executed with the opposite hand that normally used; a.k.a as “with the
awkward hand”.
25. Reprographic examination – refers to the examination of documents which include photocopies, facsimile,
photographs, and the like.
26. Rubric or embellishment – refers to the additional unnecessary strokes to legibly of letterforms or writings but
incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental purposes.
TERMINOLOGIES CONCERNING STROKE CHARACTERISTICS

1. ARC - a curved formed inside the top curve of loop/as in small letter “h”, “m”, “n”, “p”.
2. ARCH – any arcade form in the body of a letter found in small letters that contain arches.
3. ASCENDER – is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.
4. APEX – the uppermost point of a character.
5. BASELINE – maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be the imaginary alignment of writing. It is ruled or
imaginary line upon which the writing rests.
6. BEADED – preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually occurs in capital letters.
7. BEARD – is the rudimentary initial upstroke of a letter.
8. BLUNT – the beginning and ending-stroke of a letter (without hesitation).
9. BOWL – a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into “o”.
10. BUCKLE/BUCKLENOT – a loop made as a flourished which is added to the letters, as a small letter “k and a” or
in capital letter “A”, “K”, “I”.
11. CACOGRAPHY – a bad writing
12. CALLIGRAPHY – the art of beautiful writing
13. CONNECTING STROKE – a line joining two adjacent characters
14. CROSS STROKE – a stroke that crosses another portion of the character and is attached at either end.
 15. CROSSBAR – a stroke that intersects other portions of the character at both ends.
16. DESCENDER – opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.
17. DIACRITIC – “t” crossing and dots of the letter “I” and “j”. The matters of the Indian script are also known as
diacritic signs. 
18. DRAG STROKE – a stroke resulting from the incomplete lifting of the pen.
19. ENDING/TERMINATE STROKE OF TOE – the end of a letter.
20. EYE/EYELET/EYELOOP – a small loop or curve formed inside the letters.
21. FOOT – the lower part which rests on the baseline.
22. HABITS – any repeated elements or details, which may serve to individuals writing.
23. HESITATION – the irregular thickening of ink which is found when writing slows down or stop while the pen
take a stock of at the position.
24. HIATUS/PEN JUMP – A gap occurring between continuous strokes without lifting the pen. Such an occurrence
usually occurs due to speed. It may be regarded also as a special form of pen lift.
25. HOOK – it is a minute curve or an ankle that often occurs at the end of the terminal strokes/it is also sometimes
occurring at the beginning of an initial stroke.
26. HUMP – the rounded outside of the top of the bend stroke or curve in small letters.
27. INDENTATION – latent or visible impressions in paper or other media.
28. KNOB – the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to the slow withdrawal of the pen from the
paper (usually applicable to fountain pen.
29. LIGATURE/CONNECTION – the stroke which connects two-stroke of letter.
30. LONG LETTER – those letters with both upper and lower loops.
31. OVAL – the portion of the letter which is oval in shape.
32. PATCHING – retouching or going back over a defective portion of a written stroke. Careful is common defect on
forgeries.
33. PEN LIFT – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the paper.
34. RETRACE/RETRACING – any part of a stroke which is superimposed upon the original stroke. Example;
vertical strokes of the letters “d”, “t” while coming down from the top to bottom will have retracing strokes.
35. SHOULDER – the outside portion of the top curve seen in small letters.
36. SPUR – a short initial or terminal stroke.
37. STAFF – any major long downward stroke of a letter that is a long stroke of the letter.
38. STEM OR SHANK – the upright long downward stroke that is the trunk or stalk, normally seen in capital letters.
39. TICK/HITCH – any short stroke, which usually occurs at the top of the letters.
40. TREMOR – a writing weakness portrayed irregular shaky strokes is described as writing tremor.
41. Tremor of Fraud – The characteristics of tremor of fraud are inequality in the movement at any place in any stroke
or line, with strokes too strong and vigorous combined with weak, hesitating strokes, interruptions in movement
in movement, unequal distribution of ink on upward or varying pen pressure.
42. Tremor of age, or of extreme weakness
43. WHIRL – the long upward stroke of the ascender.
44. BULBS – a small circular enclosure.
45. FEATHERING – spreading of ink in the paper.
46. GRADUATED OR EXPLOSIVE SHADING – when the shading in a letter gradually increases or decreases, it is
called shading. If it is irregular, it is called “explosive” shading.

3.1 Notes: Forgery and its Indicators

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. FALSEMAKING - The creation of fraudulent writing on a document or the alteration of an existing document.
2. FALSIFICATION - In Q.D. context, it pertains to the act of adding and substituting, erasing and obliterating an
original entry, be it punctuation marks, signs, symbols, numerals, characters and or letters in a document
3. COUNTERFEITING - The crime of making, circulating, uttering false coins and bank notes
4. FORGERY - The act of falsely making and materially altering, with intent to defraud, any writing which if
genuine, might be legal efficacy or the foundation of legal liability.
TYPES AND METHODS OF FORGERY

1. Simple Forgery
2. Simulated Forgery
3. Traced Forgery
4. Auto Forgery                           
INDICATORS OF FORGERY

1. Tremors
2. No rhythm
3. Carefulness or unusual care
 4. No contrast between thin and thick stroke
5. Slow writing
6. Blunt ending and beginning
7. Absence of spontaneity
8. Restrained writing
9. No variation
 INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED AND TRACED FORGERIES

1. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, indicating points at which the writer has temporary
struck
2. No rhythm
3. Carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
4. No contrast between upward and downward strokes
5. Slow writing – angular writing
6. Blunt beginning and endings
7. Placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of the letters
8. Absence of spontaneity – lack of smoothness of letters
9. Restrained writing
10. No variation
 INDICATIONS OF GENUINE WRITING

1. Carelessness
2. Spontaneity
3. Alternation of thin and thick strokes
4. Speed
5. Simplification
6. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
7. Upwards strokes to a threadlike tracing
8. Rhythm
9. Good line quality
10. Variation

3.2 Notes: Standards and Protocols

*In order to arrive in a reliable conclusion, the examiner needs genuine documents for comparison to the questioned
document. The known materials needed for comparison purposes are known as STANDARDS.

STANDARDS

1. Are condensed and compact-set of authentic specimens which is adequate and proper should contain a cross-
section of the material form its source.
2. Collected and Requested Standards
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF STANDARDS

1. Amount of standards
2. The similarity of subject matter
3. Relatives of the QD and SD
 WHAT ARE THE DO’S AND DON’T S IN COLLECTING EXEMPLARS

1. Don’t rely on too little writing.

- 15-20 signatures
 - 4-5 pages of handwriting
2. Don’t rely exclusively on writing that differs significantly from the questioned one.
3. Do collect similar samples
4. Don’t rely on documents recently written if the comparison documents were written many years ago.
5. Do collect standards dated at approximately the same time as the questioned document.
6. Don’t compare writing written under abnormal conditions with normal writing.
7. Do collect documents that duplicate the writing environment.
8. Do instruct the writer to obtain similar exemplars.

4.1 Notes Process in QDE

LOGICAL PROCESS
1. Ascertain the facts
2. Analyze the details
3. Qualify the case
SCIENTIFIC METHODS
1. Analysis
2. Comparison
3. Evaluation
4. Verification
THE CARE OF DISPUTED DOCUMENTS AND DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE:
1. It should be kept unfolded and a separate, proper size envelope or folder
2. No photo-static copy, but a proper photograph or photo-enlargement
3. Should not be handled repeatedly by anyone
4. No touching, folding, refolding or pointing to certain parts of a document
5. Pointing the document with sharp material should not be used
6. NO test should be made to alter the condition of the document
REPORTING INDICATIONS

1. Wrote (made, prepared)

2. Strong Indications Wrote
3. Indications Wrote
4. Limited Indications Wrote
5. Can Be Neither Identified Nor Eliminated
6. Limited Indications Did Not Write
7. Indications Did Not Write
8. Strong Indications Did Not Write
9. Did Not Write

 4.2 Notes Alterations of Documents and Disgiused Writings

*Alterations can take the form of erasures and replacement and/or insertion of
material into a document.

TYPES OF ALTERATIONS
1. Abrasion – any forms of erasures using rubber eraser or scraped with a sharp
object, such as knife or razor blade.
2. Chemical Eradication – Chemicals bleach the color from the ink and in some
cases remove the ink from the paper.
3. Obliterations – the act of covering the material in question with an opaque
substance.
4. Insertion and Substitution– one page or more pages is/are added or removed
from the document
5. Addition – introduction of words/figures not originally part of the document
6. Interlineations or Intercalation – introduction of words/figures between lines.
7. Folds - folds in a document may indicate a substitution particularly if the folds in
substituted pages do not match.
8. Cut and paste
9. Electronic Alterations 
DISGUISED WRITING
Natural writing refers to any specimen of writing executed normally without any
attempt to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality and execution.

 METHODS OF DISGUISED
1. Change in slant
2. Altered letter forms
3. Use of block letters
4. Other hand writing
5. Change of Writing instrument
6. Change of speed

SIGNS OF DISGUISED
1. Inconsistencies within the writing
2. Poor rhythm
3. Erratic movement followed by smooth rhythmic writing
4. Slowness and hesitation 
SOLUTION OF A DISGUISED WRITING PROBLEM
1. Collection and study of adequate standards which contain the fixed, occasional,
rare, and accidental characteristics of the writer. Frequently the most difficult part
of a case is locating good specimens.
2. Study of questioned writing to determine if it is normal handwriting containing
natural variations or if it is disguised.
3. Comparison of questioned with standard writing methodically listing identifying (or
non-identifying) characteristics of the handwriting, composition, arrangement, ink,
writing instrument, paper, etc.

COMPUTERS AND PRINTERS

 Most of the documents can be viewed electronically. Today’s documents are typed
on a computer, mistakes can be corrected unlike in typewriters, and documents can
be reproduced and printed using word processing software possibly on one of several
printers connected to the system.
  Printers are important in identification of the source of a disputed document. There
are certain properties of different printers which will separate a printer to another
printer.
TYPES OF PRINTER
1. Dot Matrix – It has series of small pins that press against the ribbon and stamp the
paper. A microscopic examination will show the round edges from the individual
dots.
2. Ink Jet – It sprays the ink onto the paper configuring the letter designs in a way
similar to the dot –matrix designs. The sprayed ink may run slightly, blurring the
rough edges of the dots.
3. Laser printer – A light source such as a laser exposes a photosensitive drum in a
pattern of tiny dots to form an image. Negatively charged toner clings to the
positively charged, sensitized areas of the drum. The toner is transferred to the
paper that has been given a positive charge. The toner is fused to the paper by
heat and pressure.

8.2 Timeline: Historical Development of Philippine Peso

The Philippine Peso, commonly called piso (Filipino) or peso (English and Spanish) is the
currency of the Philippines. It is subdivided into 100 sentimo (English and Spanish: centavos). The
ISO 4217 name is “Philippine peso” and the code is “PHP.” Although the name as printed on
banknotes and coins changed from “peso” to “piso” in 1967, the name peso continues to be used
locally in many contexts where the English language is used. 
             On May 1, 1852, the first commercial bank of the Philippines, El Banco Espaňol Filipino de
Isabel issued the following denominations initially 10,25,50 and 200 pesos Fuertes (strong pesos).
They were used until 1896. During the First Philippine, President Emilio Aguinaldo ordered the
issuing of 1,2,5,10,25,50,100 pesos banknotes which shall be signed by Messengers: Pedro Paterno,
Telesforo Chuidan and Mariano Limjap to avoid counterfeiting. But they and circulated to some areas
only 1 and 5 pesos banknotes due to short-lived of the government.

 1903-  American Insular Government issued the Silver Certificates in the deniminations
1,2,5,25,50,100 and 500 pesos backed by Silver Coin or U.S Gold at a fixed rate 2:1
 1908- El Banco Espaňol Filipino was allowed to print banknotes in the following denominations
with text in Spanish: Cinco, Diez, Viente, Cincuenta, Cien and Dos Cientos Pesos.
 1912- the bank changed to the Bank of the Philippines Islands (BPI) and issued the same
banknotes in English.
 1918- Silver Certificates were replaced by the treasurey certificates issued with the government-
backing of bonds issued by the US government in the following denaminations: One, Two, Five,
Twenty,Fifty, One Hundred and Five Hundred Pesos.
 1916- Philippine National Bank (PNB) was created to administer the state-holding shares and
print banknotes without quota form the Philippine Assembly. They printed banknotes in 1,2 ,5,
10,50 and 100 pesos. During WWI, the PNB issued emergency notes printed on cardboard paper
 in the following deniminations: 10, 20, 50 centavos and 1 peso. Also overprinted BPI notes in
Five, Ten and Twenty Pesos due to lack of currency.

The Commonwealth of the Philippine issued Treasury Certificates with the seal of the new
government but still circulated the BPI and PNB banknotes.

During WWII, competing authorities issued banknotes for the Philippines, under the auspices
of the Japanese Military Administration and by virtue of authority granted by the President of
Philippines of the Commonwealth for emergency currency to be issued by provincial currency boards.
The emergency notes were deemed legal tender and were pledged to redeemable upon the end the
Japanese Occupation.

 1949- a central monetary authority. Central Bank of the Philippines was established.
 1951- The first official banknote series printed in English Series.
 1969- Filipino Series
 September 23, 1972- Proclamation of No. 1081 by Ferdinand Marcos
 1973- the Central Bank was demonetize the existing banknotes.
 September 7, 1978- Security Printing Plant in Quezon City was in inaugurated to produce
banknotes.
 1978- the birth centenary of former President Sergio OsmeŇa the words IKA-100 TAONG
KAARAWAN 1878-1978
 1981- Pope John Paul II visited the Philippines February 17 to 21. Overprinted was the 2-piso
banknote on watermark area.

 June 30, 1981- the bust profile of President Ferdinand E. Marcos on the ten piso banknote was
overprinted
 1981- the Central Bank Ad Hoc Committee was authorize to approve designs pf circulating
banknotes and coins, also commemorative banknotes and coins.
 1983- the Committee was banknotes to replace the Ang Bagong Lipunan Series by issuing seven
bank notes consisting of 5-,10-,50-,100-, and 1000- piso banknotes.
 June 12, 1985- the Central Bank issued New Design Series starting with a new 5-piso
banknote with the face of Emilio Aguinaldo. Following months, a new 10-piso banknote with
the face of Apolinario Mabini.
 1986- a new 20-piso appeared.
 1987- Constitution was promulgated, the Central Bank issued a new 50-,100- and for the
second time a new 500-piso banknote with the face of Benigno Aquino Jr.
 1991- the Central Bank issued for the first time a new 1000-piso banknote containing the
portraits of Jose Abad Santos, Josefa Llanes Escoda and Vicente Lim.
 1993- passage of the New Central Bank, was slightly changed because of new seal of Bangko
Sentral ng Pilipinas
 1985- 100,000-piso Centennial banknote, measuring 8.5”x14”, accredited by Guinness Book of
World Records as the world’s largest legal tender note. It was issued in very limited quantity
during celebration of the Centennial of Philippine Independence.
 2001- Bangko Sentral issued upgraded 1000-, 500 and 100-piso banknotes with new hi-tech
security features to combat counterfeiting.
 2002- Bangko Central issued a new 200-piso banknote with security features found on the
upgraded 1000-,500- and 100 piso banknotes and has face of former President Diosdado
Macapagal. His daughter, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, is at the back of 200- piso banknote which
showed her being sworn in the office at the EDSA Shrine. She is the first president whose
image has been included in a banknote while in office since emergency currency was issued
by various provincial currency.

9.2 Alterations and Other Examinations-2

ALTERATIONS
Alterations can take the form of erasures and replacement and/or insertion of material into a
document.
TYPES OF ALTERATIONS

1. Abrasion – any forms of erasures using rubber eraser or scraped with a sharp object, such as a
knife or razor blade.
2. Chemical Eradication – Chemicals bleach the color from the ink and in some cases remove the
ink from the paper.
3. Obliterations – the act of covering the material in question with an opaque substance.
4. Insertion and Substitution– one page or more pages is/are added or removed from the
document
5. Addition – the introduction of words/figures not originally part of the document
6. Interlineations or Intercalation – the introduction of words/figures between lines.
7. Folds - folds in a document may indicate a substitution particularly if the folds in substituted pages
do not match.
8. Cut and paste
9. Electronic Alterations

Other examinations conducted:

1. Microscopic Examination - Stereoscopic examination with low and high power objectives is used
to detect retouching, patching, and unnatural pen lift in the signature analysis. 
2. Transmitted Light Examination – Documents are subjected to this type of examination to
determine the presence of erasures.

Typewriter and Typewriting Analysis

HISTORY OF TYPEWRITER
What are the defects in typewriter which form part of individual characteristics?

1. Horizontal Mal-alignment – the character defectively strikes to the right or left of its normal allotted
striking position.
2. Off its feet – heavier in one side or corner than over the remainder to its outline.
3. Rebound – character prints a double impress on with the lighter one slightly off act to the right or
left.
4. Typeface Defects
5. Twisted Letters – characters become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct
slight
6. Vertical Mal-alignment – character printing above or below its proper portion
7. Clogged Typeface

EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIALS

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Anachronism – It refers to something wrong in time and in place. This means that the forger has
trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been
written.
Paper – these are sheets of interlaced fibers – usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes
from cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or
mat, to form a solid surface.
Watermark – certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a watermarks impressed in them
during the course of their manufacture.
Writing Materials in Questioned Documents – one of the subjects of inquiry in questioned
documents examination is the writing material used. The common (probable) question on paper is its
age, whether the actual age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of preparation of the
questioned document.
WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS – One of the subjects of inquiry in
questioned paper is its age, whether the actual age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of
preparation of the questioned document.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT – The evolution of writing materials culminated in the development of
paper. The oldest written records still surviving are the Sumerian clay tablets dating back from
the 4th millennium B.C.
Papyrus – This came into use about 3,500 B.C. – people of Egypt. Palestine, Syria, and Southern
Europe used the pith (soft spongy tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grass like herb) CYPERUS
PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.
Parchment – writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats – was
probably developed in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into
wide use only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of PERGMUM in ANATOLIA.
Vellum – writing materials from fine skins of young calves or kids and the term (name) was often
used for all kind of parchment manuscripts, it became the most important writing material for
bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts.

DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING

1. It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a Chinese court official, CAI
LUN (TSAI LUN), in about A.D. 105. he is the first to succeed in making paper from vegetable
fibers, tree barks (mulberry tree), rags, old fish nettings.
2. The art of paper making was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese acquired it in the 7th
century A.D.
3. In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by marauding Chinese and some Chinese
taken as prisoners were skilled in papermaking and were forced by the city Governor to build and
operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became the papermaking center of the Arab world.
4. Knowledge of papermaking traveled westward, spreading throughout the Middle East, the
Moorish invasion of Spain led to the invention (A.D. 1150) or erection of the first European paper
mill, at JATIVA, province of VALENCIA.
5. Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and by 16th century, paper was manufactured
throughout most Europe.
6. The first paper mill in England was established in 1495.
7. The first such mill in America in 1690.
8. The first practical machine was made in 1798 by the French inventor Nicholas Louis
Robert. The machine reduced the cost of paper it supplants the hand-molding process in paper
manufacture.
9. Robert’s machine was improved by the British stationers and brothers Henry Fourdrinier and
Sealy Fourdrinier, who in 1830 produced the first of the machines that bear their name.
10. The solution of the problem of making paper from cheap raw material was achieved by the
introduction of the ground wood process of pulp making about 1840 and the first of the chemical
pulp processes approximately ten years later.

WATERMARKS
Definition
                 It is a term for a figure or design incorporated into paper during its manufacture and
appearing lighter than the rest of the sheet when viewed in transmitted light. The earliest way of
identifying the date of manufacture of the paper is by the WATERMARK – a brand put on the paper
by the manufacturers.

                 Watermarks first appeared on papers produced in Italy around 1270, less than 100 years
after the art of papermaking was introduced to Europe by Muslims from the Middle East. Early in the
19th century, papermakers began to solder the watermarks wires to the grid frame, thus insuring
uniformity of impression and aiding in the detection of counterfeiting and forgery. The first British
postage stamps of 1840 bore a watermark, but stamps of the United States were not so marked until
1895. when paper began to be machine-made, the watermark wiring was simply transferred to the
grid cover of the dandy roll, a turning cylinder that passed over the paper.
Concept of document’s age detection thru watermarks.
          Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the document by means of watermark, the
earliest known dating from 1282. Unfortunately, however, not all papers contain watermarks.
          It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers called “DANDY ROLL” that make the
paper, and these designs are changed from time to time. Usually watermarks are requested by their
owners / manufacturers with patent office. If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of
tracing the age of the paper. However, the questioned documents examiner’s finding is limited only to
the APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of the paper manufacture.
            In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is necessary to ascertain the owner of
the watermark in question or its manufacturer. In FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the
laboratory. Once the manufacturer is determined, then consideration is given to changes in design
and defects of individual design. In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly
incorporated inconspicuous changes in their watermark in order to date their products. Obviously,
document is fraud if it contains a watermark which was not in existence at the time the document
purports to have been executed.
In case the watermark did not change, the following is applied
            Consider any defect in the individual design may furnish a clue as to the age of the paper.
The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged. This damage is also known as
caused by WEAR AND TEAR which becomes progressively more and more as times goes by. The
damages on the dandy will leave some peculiar markings on the watermark of the paper
manufactured or all papers that will pass through the damaged dandy roll. The investigator, carefully
determining the distinct markings on the watermark of the paper manufactured or all papers that will
pass through the damaged dandy roll.
DISCOLORATION
            One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance of the changes in its
physical characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a passage
of time due to numerous environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc. in case of
papers out of wood pulp, they start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years.
CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION
            Discoloration is highly influenced by storage of the papers or documents and conditions like
the following:

 due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.

 brown spots due to mold that are very obvious characteristics - both in appearance and
distribution.
 exposure to dust and dirt
 occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
 may also due to heat, partial burning, etc.

 DETAILED EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIAL

Collect standard document from the issuing institution , company or individual and compare. Consider
the physical characteristics of both questioned and standard documents such as the size, the
thickness, the surface (glossiness, opacity, etc.) and the general texture of the paper.
Check with the issuing institution, company or individual about the dissimilarity of writing material
used in the questioned document. Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as folding
endurance test, folding test, bursting test, etc.  

WRITING INSTRUMENTS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Fountain Pen – a fountain pen is a modern nib which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially
designed chamber. After complete filling the pen is capable of writing a number of pages without
refilling.
Ink – a fluid viscous marking material used for writing or printing.
Pen – a tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink; or a writing instrument used to
apply inks to the paper is a pen. It came from the Latin word “PENNA”, meaning feather.
Pen Nibs – the tow divisions or points which from the writing portion of a pen are its nibs.
Writing Instruments (Implements) – writing implements, manual devices used to make
alphanumeric marks on or in a surface. Peculiar to inscription is the removal of part of a surface to
record such marks. The writing tool is usually controlled by movement of the fingers, hand wrist, and
arm of the writer. 
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Reed Pens / Swamp Reed
It came from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt, Armenia and along the shores of the
Persian Gulf, were prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several months.
It was the first writing tool that had the writing end slightly frayed like a brush. About 2,000 years B.C,
this reed pen was first used in NEAR EAST on papyrus and later on parchment.
Quill Pen
As the size of writing became smaller, both writing tools and surfaces changed. Vellum or parchment
books replaced the papyrus roll, and the QUILL replaced the Reed Pen.
              Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feather of any bird, those of goose,
swan, crow, and (later) turkey, were preferred. The earliest reference (6th century AD) to quill pens
was made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, and this tool was the principal
writing implement for nearly 1300 years.To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first hardened by the
heating or letting it dry out gradually. The hardened quill is then cut to a broad edge with a special
pen knife.
The writer had to re-cut the quill pen frequently to maintain its edge. By the 18th century, the width of
the edge had diminished and the length of the slit had increased creating a flexible point that
produced thick and thin strokes by pressure on the point rather by the angle at which the broad edge
was held.
              Use of the quill rapidly declined during that century, especially after the introduction of the
free public education for children; more emphasis was then placed on the teaching of writing than on
teaching the skill of quill cutting.
Steel Point Pens (Brazen Pens)
                   Also by the 18th century, paper had replaced vellum as the chief writing surface, and
more writing was being done for commerce than for church or crown. During this period, attempts
were made to invent a lasting writing tool that did not require re-cutting. Horn, tortoise shell, and
gemstones were tired , but steel was eventually used for permanent pen points.
                   Although pens of bronze may have been known to Romans, the earliest mention of
“BRAZEN PENS” was in 1465. the 16th century Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR mentions
brass pens for very large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of metal pens did not become
widespread until the early part of the 19th century.
                   The first patented steel pen point was made by the English engineer BRYAN DONKIN in
1803.The leading 19th century English pen manufacturers were WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT,
WILLIAM MITCHELL, AND JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.
Fountain Pens
                   In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent, patented the first practical
FOUNTAIN PEN containing its own ink reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that fed ink to the
pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly while writing.By the 1920’s, the fountain pen
was the chief writing instrument in the west and remained so until the introduction of the ball point pen
after WORLD WAR II.
Ball Point Pen
                   JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool. A ball point pen has its
point a small rotating metal ball that continually inks itself as it turns.
                   The ball is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole that feeds ink to the
socket from a long tube (reservoir) inside the pen. As early as the 19th century, attempts had been
made to manufacture pen with a rolling ball tip, but not until 1938 did Hungarian inventor brothers
LADISLAO and GEORG BIRO invent a viscous, oil-based ink that could be used with such a pen.
Hence, they are attributed for the invention of the first practical ballpoint pen.
                   Early ball point pens did not write well; they tended to skip, and the slow drying oil-based
ink smudged easily. However, the ball-point pen had several advantages over the fountain pen:
the ink was waterproof and almost un-erasable;
the ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces could be hold in almost any position for
writing; and the pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making carbon copies.
                   Ink formulas were improved for smoother flow and faster drying, and soon the ball-point
replaced the fountain pen as the universal writing tool.
Fiber Tip Pens
                   In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into the U.S. market and have since challenged
the ball point as the principal writing implement.
                   The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO HORIE of Japan in 1962. it was
ideally suited to the strokes of Japanese writing, which is traditionally done with a pointed ink brush.
Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber tip pen can
produce a wide range of colors unavailable in ball point and fountain pen inks. The tip is made of fine
nylon or other synthetic fibers drawn to a point and fastened to the barrel of the pen. Dye is fed to the
point by elaborate capillary mechanism.
Felt-Tip Markers
            Are made of dense or artificial fibers impregnated with a dye. These markers can be cut to a
variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A modification of the ball point pen using a
liquid dye fed to a metal / plastic ball was introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.
 

Paper and Paper Examination

PAPER

 These are sheets of interlaced fibers –usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes from
cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or
mat, to form a solid surface.

MANUFACTURING PAPER

 Cooking process - the pulpwood will be chipped into small pieces that are then mixed with
chemicals and fed into pressure vessels called digester to soften the lignin, which binds the fibers
together.
 Washing, screening, cleaning, and, if necessary, bleaching to the desired brightness.
 Next, the fibers are combined with pigments, dyes, and sizing. These fibers flow onto a moving
screen called a Fourdrinier, on which the fibers mat, forming a continuous sheet of paper with
much of the water drawn through the screen into collection tanks to be recycled.
 Then, the web of pulp passes through heavy rollers, which press moisture from the sheet.
 Drying stage – evaporation of the remaining water in the pulp of fibers
 The paper then passes through series of calendar stacks that sooth the paper.
 Pressing process – the paper passes over a dandy roll, which imprints the watermark on the
paper.

 
PROPERTIES OF PAPER
The paper contains many properties that are important considerations when determining how the
paper will be used.

 Weight
 Strength – tensile strength and tear strength
 Durability
 Thickness
 Finish of the paper
 Water absorbability
 Presence of watermark

WATERMARK
This is a translucent distinctive designs of the manufacturer

Alterations and Other Examinations-2

ALTERATIONS
Alterations can take the form of erasures and replacement and/or insertion of material into a
document.
TYPES OF ALTERATIONS

1. Abrasion – any forms of erasures using rubber eraser or scraped with a sharp object, such as a
knife or razor blade.
2. Chemical Eradication – Chemicals bleach the color from the ink and in some cases remove the
ink from the paper.
3. Obliterations – the act of covering the material in question with an opaque substance.
4. Insertion and Substitution– one page or more pages is/are added or removed from the
document
5. Addition – the introduction of words/figures not originally part of the document
6. Interlineations or Intercalation – the introduction of words/figures between lines.
7. Folds - folds in a document may indicate a substitution particularly if the folds in substituted pages
do not match.
8. Cut and paste
9. Electronic Alterations

Other examinations conducted:

1. Microscopic Examination - Stereoscopic examination with low and high power objectives is used
to detect retouching, patching, and unnatural pen lift in the signature analysis. 
2. Transmitted Light Examination – Documents are subjected to this type of examination to
determine the presence of erasures.