Visualization without Vision – How Blind and Visually

Impaired Students and Researchers Engage with

Molecular Structures

Croix J. Laconsay Henry B. Wedler

Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry
University of California-Davis University of California-Davis

Dean J. Tantillo*
Department of Chemistry
University of California-Davis

Abstract: This article examines the tools and techniques currently available that enable blind and
visually impaired (BVI) individuals to visualize three-dimensional objects used in learning chemistry
concepts. How BVI individuals engage with and visualize molecular structure is discussed and recent
tactile (or haptic) and auditory methods for visualization of various chemistry concepts are
summarized. Remaining challenges for chemistry education researchers are described with the aim
of highlighting the potential value of educational research in further enabling BVI students to pursue
careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

Keywords: chemistry, blind/low vision, accessibility, 3D printing, molecular structure

*Corresponding Author, Dean J. Tantillo (djtantillo@ucdavis.edu)

Submitted March 1, 2020
Accepted April14, 2020
Published online July 23, 2020

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INTRODUCTION symbolic representation as opposed to

structural representation. Teke and Sozbilir
Chemistry is, inherently, a visual science.
recently addressed problems of symbolic
Chemists play in both the micro- and
representation that blind students experience
macroscopic worlds of molecules, and
when learning chemistry (Teke & Sozbilir,
communication of connections between
2019). There is substantial literature aimed at
concepts in both realms is facilitated by visual
enabling BVI individuals to participate in other
representations (Grosholz and Hoffmann, 2000;
aspects of chemistry not explicitly related to
Hoffmann, 2007; Hoffmann and Laszlo, 1991).
chemical (molecular) structure and other
Students of this science rely heavily on 2-
science, technology, engineering, and
dimensional (2D) and 3-dimensional (3D)
mathematics (STEM) fields; curious readers
visualizations of molecular structures when
are directed to the following recent references
learning chemical concepts and solving
for examples: (a) exploring chemistry topics in
chemical problems (Mathewson, 1999).
the formal classroom (Smith, 1981; Stender et
Readers of this article are referred to Wu and
al., 2016; Tombaugh, 1981) and laboratory
Shah’s review for a comprehensive account on
settings (Andersen, 1982; Bromfield-Lee &
visuospatial thinking in chemistry learning
Oliver-Hoyo, 2007; Flair & Setzer, 1990; JCE
(Wu & Shah, 2004). Visualization, however,
staff, 2000; Neppel, Oliver-Hoyo, Queen, &
should not be equated with having vision.
Reed, 2005; Supalo, Mallouk, Rankel,
“There is much more to the visualization than
Amorosi, & Graybill, 2008; J. T. Wood & Eddy,
the sense of vision, and impaired vision does
1996), (b) exploring chemistry topics in
not necessarily preclude our faculties to
informal teaching settings (Kumar et al., 2018),
visualize.” (Figueiras and Arcavi, 2015).
(c) solving puzzles (Cady, 2012) and using
interlocking toy building blocks, like Legos, to
The visual aspects of chemistry can deter blind
learn chemistry (Campbell, Miller, Bannon, &
and visually impaired (BVI) students from
Obermaier, 2011; Cloonan, Nichol, &
entering the field. Moreover, literature on
Hutchinson, 2011; Geyer, 2017; Melaku,
enabling BVI students in chemistry is
Schreck, Griffin, & Dabke, 2016; Ruddick &
generally lacking. Several recent efforts to
Parrill, 2012; Witzel, 2002), (d) three-
make chemistry more accessible to BVI
dimensionally printed puzzle pieces for
students have been described in the chemistry
representing elements, ions, compounds, or
education literature: in particular,
chemical equations (Singhal & Balaji, 2019),
methodologies for facilitating engagement of
(e) a musical electrochemical cell (Cady, 2014),
BVI students with molecular structures — the
(f) development of a BVI-accessible
basis of this perspective article.
thermometer (Vitoriano et al., 2016), (g)
science enrichment activities at National
A note on what this article is and is not. This
Federation of the Blind Youth Slams (Supalo et
perspective is not an exhaustive review on
al., 2014) and science camps (Supalo, et al.,
tools that enable BVI students in all of
2014; Wedler et al., 2014), (h) approaches
chemistry, as there are many aspects of the
aimed at secondary school education (Supalo
subject that are beyond the scope of this article.
et al., 2016). For an excellent case study of a
For instance, much of chemistry involves
student with blindness successfully completing

2

a chemistry laboratory course, see the recent
report in this very Journal (Michael & Wohlers,
2019).
According to the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act of 2004 (IDEA) definition, a
visual impairment is, “an impairment in vision
that, even with correction, adversely affects a
child’s educational performance. The term
includes both partial sight and blindness”
(Individuals with Disabilities Education Act,
2004). Individuals with visual impairments are
not necessarily legally or congenitally blind.
Many individuals with visual impairments still
have some sight, which affects how they
engage with different forms of representation.
The United States BVI population faces a
significant unemployment rate, estimated to be
as high as 72% as of 2015 (National Federation
of the Blind Statistical Facts about Blindness
in the United States,
https://nfb.org/blindness-statistics,
accessed 2 November 2018). Of the employed
population of individuals with any disability,
less than 4.5% work in STEM disciplines
(Table 3. Employed persons by disability status,
occupation, and sex, 2018 annual averages;
sum of "computer and mathematical,"
"architecture and engineering" and "life,
physical, and social science" occupations and,
therefore, likely an overestimate, since
architecture and social science are generally
not considered part of STEM), a percentage
that has recently decreased (Statistics, Survey,
States, & Policy, 2018; Wedler et al., 2014). To
our knowledge, statistics on the fraction of this
group working in chemistry are not available,
but given that the percentage of the total US
population estimated to have a visual
impairment is approximately 2% (National
Federation of the Blind Statistical Facts about
Blindness in the United States,
Visualization without Vision…
https://nfb.org/blindness-statistics,
accessed 2 November 2018), we expect that
BVI individuals are underrepresented in
chemistry.
Students with blindness or low vision
experience and engage the world differently
than their sighted peers, but this does not imply
that BVI individuals cannot succeed in STEM
careers. There are many examples of
successful scientists with limited to no vision.
These include: Mona Minkara at Northeastern
University (chemist), Geerat J. Vermey at UC
Davis (evolutionary biologist and
paleontologist), Amy Bower at Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution (oceanographer),
David Mehringer at the National Radio
Astronomy Observatory (software developer
and astronomer), Wanda Díaz-Merced at the
South African Astronomical Observatory
(astronomer), Judith Summers-Gates of the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (chemist),
David Wohlers of Truman State University
(chemist), and Peter Torpey of the “Eyes On
Success” podcast (previously at Xerox, now
podcast host).
How do blind and visually impaired students
engage with molecular structure?
What is it we mean by molecular or chemical
structure? By molecular or chemical structure,
we mean collections of atoms connected by
bonds to form a molecule. Chemical or
molecular structures have defined spatial and
symmetry properties that can be used to
explain said structures to BVI chemists, e.g.,
distances between nuclei, angles defined by the
positions of three nuclei, molecular point
group symmetry. The geometric properties of a
molecule have many implications for
chemistry research and education, e.g.,
predicting sites of chemical reactivity in a
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molecule, predicting how a small molecule
(such as a drug) binds to a protein, predicting
spectral properties. These types of predictions
rely on practitioners being comfortable with
patterns that are defined by similarities in
molecular structures.
There is compelling evidence that BVI and
non-BVI individuals have equal ability to
process spatial information (Zimler & Keenan,
1983). Moreover, like their sighted peers, BVI
individuals possess similar, and arguably
superior, cognitive and perceptual abilities
regarding analyzing and exploring tactile
pictures (D’Angiulli, Kennedy, & Heller,
1998). For a perspective on how students with
blindness or low vision process and learn
science concepts, readers are referred to the
work of Jones and Broadwell (Jones and
Broadwell, 2008).
A co-author of this review, HBW, completely
blind since birth, received his Ph.D. in organic
chemistry in 2016. Henry, or “Hoby”, explains
that,
I use the same skills to visualize molecular
structures as I have used since day 1 for my
survival as a blind traveler. I cannot see
maps, streets, etc., so I must visualize
everything. When I ponder the route from
the chemistry building to the nearest bus
stop in my mind, for instance, it feels the
same as pondering a complex molecular
structure and determining where atoms are
relative to one another. The distance
between points doesn’t matter when I
visualize a physical space or chemical
structure. If I’m visualizing a space, I think
in meters and kilometers. When I think
about chemical structures, I think precisely
the same way but in angstroms and
nanometers.
4
Jones et al. supports this notion: visually
impaired students were more accurate with
measurements at very large (e.g., distance from
earth to mars) and very small (e.g., bond length
of C–H bond) scales compared to their normal
sighted peers (G. Jones, Taylor, & Broadwell,
2009). Hoby continues by explaining that,
I often have an easier time with reaction
mechanisms than some sighted peers
because I can place structures in my mind
and understand actual distances between
atoms. Two atoms that look extremely far
apart from each other may be very close
together in space and my 3D understanding
of molecular structure helps me here.
Ultimately, thinking about how to get
around a college campus or familiar town
is not very different than thinking about
solving a complicated reaction mechanism.
Thinking about the steps that I need to take
on a route I am traveling is analogous to
solving an organic synthesis problem.
Often when figuring out how to travel a
multi-city, multi-step route, I look at the
route holistically and break it up
“retrosynthetically” much the same way
that I begin to solve synthesis problems.
For another perspective from a blind chemist
on learning chemistry, see the work of Supalo
(Supalo, 2005). We also note an excellent
article by Mona Minkara, a blind
computational chemist, wherein she describes
how she implemented methods that enabled
her to complete graduate work at the
University of Florida (Minkara, Weaver,
Gorske, Bowers, & Merz, 2015). In addition to
more articles like the ones mentioned above,
we hope to see future basic neuroscience
research that elucidates whether the brain
processes information about macroscopic and

microscopic navigation in a manner similar to
that described by Hoby.
Current methods for engaging with
molecular structures
In this section, we summarize some of the non-
vision-based methods that enable BVI students
and researchers to engage with molecular
structure. We describe developments in tactile
(or touch-based) methods, which have
advanced significantly with the incorporation
of 3D printing technology. Then we introduce
recent advances in utilizing audio (or sound-
based) methods for engaging with molecular
structures.
Raising the bar with tactile graphics and
three-dimensional (3D) printed models
The use of tactile graphics—in the form of
braille, raised lines and surfaces—is one
approach for conveying structural information
to BVI individuals. Horton et al. summarize
tactile technology in general available for BVI
individuals in a recent review (Horton et al.,
2017) – we focus our perspective on
approaches that have found use in chemistry.
The Independent Laboratory Access for the
Blind (ILAB), a project by multiple
universities and funded by the National
Science Foundation,
(http://research.chem.psu.edu/mallouk/ila
b/) is a good start, accessed 20 February 2020)
for readers looking for tactile classroom and
laboratory tools that enable BVI students. The
ILAB, for example, provides laboratory tools
and techniques for BVI students to perform
laboratory experiments without sighted
assistance. In addition, and in a similar way
that ILAB provides BVI-accessible tools for
laboratory settings, MOLinsight (Pereira,
Visualization without Vision…
Aires-De-Sousa, Bonifácio, Mata, & Lobo,
2011) provides a one-stop-shop for BVI-
accessible open-source software resources
(http://molinsight.net/, accessed 3 March
2020) like NavMol and BrailChem. We discuss
alternative and more recent methods below.
For teaching tools in the organic chemistry
classroom, Fernández et al. described some of
the hands-on activities available to for teaching
organic Lewis structures, Newman and Fischer
Projections, and resonance (Fernández,
Ocampo, Costantino, & Dop, 2019).
Much of chemistry for sighted students is
communication and representation of chemical
structure by pen and paper. For BVI
individuals, the pen and paper method
approach to representing chemical structure is
more challenging without a sighted assistant.
For more rapid tactile access to visual
information, we developed a workflow in
which a sighted assistant draws an image and
then raises the lines of the figure (Wedler et al.,
2012). First, the sighted assistant views the
figure; the subsequent process works best if the
assistant is familiar with the chemistry
involved in the image. Then, he/she draws the
image on thick, smooth paper, ideally at least
three times as large as the image would
normally appear in print. Then, the assistant
flips the smooth paper over and places it on a
soft pad, such as a notebook or rubber mat. The
assistant then traces the inverse of the drawn
figure with a ballpoint pen, while applying
significant pressure with the pen tip. This
pressure creates a crease in the paper using the
soft pad beneath, embossing the image so that
the BVI student can feel the image (not its
mirror image) when the paper is flipped over.
It is helpful if BVI chemistry students can
recognize common upper-case letters tactilely
so that braille versions of element symbols are
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not necessary, but the paper can be brailled
using a standard Perkins Brailler (e.g., see
https://brailler.perkins.org/, accessed 2
November 2018). This method is inexpensive
and fast with a trained student-assistant pair
(Wedler et al., 2012). Creative adaptive tools
to represent molecular structures—like the use
of magnetic letters and numbers on a magnetic
board or tactile model kit (Boyd-Kimball,
2012), crayons and mesh, “thermopens”, or
standard inkjet on thermal paper raised by a
tactile graphic maker to create raised digital
images (Harshman, Bretz, & Yezierski,
2013)—have been implemented in chemistry
classrooms as well.
Specifically applicable to organic chemistry,
Supalo and Kennedy have summarized
commercially available equipment available to
turn organic structures into accessible
structures (Supalo and Kennedy, 2014).
ChemDraw’s text-to-speech output, picture in
a flash technology, and the Draftsman tactile
drawing board
(https://www.aph.org/product/draftsman-
tactile-drawing-board/, accessed 17 February,
2020) are all tools that can make organic
structures more accessible.
Figure 1. Reproduced with permission from Figure 1 of J. Chem. Educ. 2015, 92, 1398-1401. Copyright 2015
American Chemical Society.
6
Three-dimensional (3D) printing has recently
become a commonplace and affordable
technology. In chemistry classrooms, 3D
printing can change how molecular structure is
taught (e.g., https://youtu.be/sSAz_r5gIc4,
accessed 7 November 2018); (Anderson, 2017;
Brauner, 2018; Pinger, Geiger, & Spence,
2019). In recent years, 3D-printed models
related to chemistry have been reported: for
example, small molecules (Wieren et al., 2017),
extended molecular structure representations
(Figure 1) (Rossi et al., 2015), electron density
isosurface models (Grumman & Carroll, 2019),
solid state crystal structures (Kitson et al., 2014;
Stone-Sundberg, Kaminsky, Snyder, & Moeck,
2015; P. A. Wood et al., 2017) potential energy
surfaces (Blauch & Carroll, 2014; Kaliakin,
Zaari, & Varganov, 2015; Teplukhin &
Babikov, 2015), orbitals (Lolur and Dawes,
2014; Griffith et al., 2016; Smiar and Mendez,
2016; Carroll and Blauch, 2018; De Cataldo et
al., 2018; Robertson and Jorgensen, 2015) , 3D
models for teaching symmetry (Casas & Estop,
2015; Scalfani & Vaid, 2014), block copolymer
nanostructures (Scalfani et al., 2015) and
models for teaching VSEPR theory (Dean et al.,
2016). While many structures can be
represented using off-the-shelf molecular
model kits, these papers highlight structure
 Visualization without Vision…

representations and applications that are compounds to 3D structures—called AsteriX-

enabled by 3D printing. BVI. By incorporating textures and braille
annotations onto tactile models, different types
An example of 3D printing increasing of atoms and bonds could be distinguished
accessibility to a traditionally inaccessible (to using touch (Lounnas et al., 2014); see
blind students) area of chemistry is its
application to applied computational chemistry.
Applied computational chemistry is the use of
quantum chemistry calculations to investigate
problems in other sub-disciplines of chemistry,
e.g., organic chemistry (i.e. applied
computational organic chemistry). This
approach was used by HBW to allow him to
carry out research independently (Wedler et al.,
2012). SMILES (Simplified Molecular Input
Line Entry Specification) strings (Weininger et
al., 1989) and Open Babel software (Guha et
al., 2006) were used to generate 3D
coordinates of complex molecules, since
standard molecule-building graphical user
interfaces (GUIs) are not accessible to blind
individuals. SMILES strings consist of text
that encodes connectivity and stereochemical
information for organic molecules, and as such
can be written by hand. The Open Babel
software translates such connectivity and
stereochemical information into reasonable
atomic coordinates that can then be subjected
to quantum chemical calculations. The data
from these can be analyzed using simple Bash Figure 2. Example of a haptic (tactile) model
calculated by AsteriX- BVI
and Perl scripts that extract relevant data from
long output files. Readers are referred to
Wedler et al., 2012 for further details. Figure 2.
Subsequent studies (Wedler et al., 2015;
Wedler, Newman, and Tantillo, 2016) Tools All Out on the Table, The Periodic Table
showcase two research projects that were of the Elements (PTE)
carried out utilizing this methodology.
Other researchers have also tackled aspects of
To increase the information content of 3D- chemistry that are related to molecular
printed molecules, Lounnas et al. developed a structure, such as the periodic table of the
modified version of AsteriX—web-based elements (PTE). The PTE is a central—
software that converts 2D representations of visual—tool for understanding and predicting

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the behavior of chemical elements. As one
navigates from element to element, patterns
emerge, patterns that chemists use in teaching
general chemistry to undergraduates and to
inform their research (Scerri, 2007). Melaku et
al. developed modules involving interlocking
toy building blocks like Legos to teach BVI
individuals PTE trends—such as atomic radii,
ionization energies, electronegativities—and
molecular orbitals in homonuclear diatomic
molecules (Figure 3) (Melaku et al., 2016).
Figure 3. Building block modules representing
relative atomic and cationic radii of a few elements
of Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A. Reproduced with
permission from Figure 1 of J. Chem. Educ. 2016,
93, 1049-1055. Copyright 2015 American
Chemical Society.
Another tactile and audio-enhanced PTE
(Fantin et al., 2016) was developed by Touch
Graphics Inc., which utilizes bar code labels on
each element square that can be recognized by
a Smart Pen. This PTE folds out from four
brailled pages containing all elements laid out
in standard fashion. Each tactile square lists the
8
element symbol and atomic number in braille.
Since braille takes up much more space than
print, it would be impossible to include all
standard information from a PTE in braille, but
users can tap each element of the PTE using a
Smart Pen and access relevant information
such as atomic mass, melting point, boiling
point, electron configuration, etc. in audio
format. Roy Alexander also has a tactile PTE
called the Element Book
(http://www.aaeinfo.us/braille/, accessed 17
February, 2020). Further developed PTE’s
include a 3D-printed PTE with braille lettering
(LeSuer, 2019). Classroom activities that
engage students with the PTE such as The
People Periodic Table activity are also
potential tools for enabling BVI students in
discussions about PTE trends (Hoffman &
Hennessy, 2018). Mobile tools have been
introduced as a way for BVI students to learn
about the PTE audibly with their smart phones,
such as a QR-coded audio PTE called QR-
APTE (Bonifácio, 2012), the Royal Society of
Chemistry’s “Elements articles”
(https://www.chemistryworld.com/218.sub
ject, accessed 2 November 2018), and the
Elementor Periodic Table App
(https://www.perkinselearning.org/accessi
ble-science/activities/elementor-periodic-
table-app, accessed 19 February 2020)—
auditory tools in chemistry will be discussed
more below. For a discussion on current
challenges faced by the chemistry community
in fostering learning of the PTE for BVI
individuals, including discussions of other
accessible PTEs, see the work by Fantin et al.
(Fantin et al., 2016).
Sonified chemistry
In addition to haptic/tactile methods,
auditory/aural methods provide another
opportunity for conveying information to BVI

individuals. When coupled together, haptic and
auditory methods have been shown to amplify
one’s ability to visualize representations
(Grabowski & Barner, 1998). Early studies
aimed at making chemistry more accessible
through auditory feedback focused on the
teaching laboratory environment, e.g.,
conductivity and titration experiments
(Hiemenz and Pfeiffer, 1972; Ratliff, 1997).
We focus here on audio tools for listening to
chemical spectra and for reading the chemical
literature.
Traditionally, chemical spectra, used routinely
to identify and quantify molecular composition,
are also generally presented in visual formats.
The inherent complexities of most spectra
make “reading” the spectra through touch
impractical. Of course, visual spectra are, in
fact, just created from numbers, numbers that
could be presented in nonvisual formats. For
example, Pereira and co-workers have
developed a methodology for converting
infrared (IR) spectroscopy data into nonspeech
audio sound called “sonified infrared spectra
(SIRS)” (Pereira et al., 2013). All that is
needed to use SIRS is experimental IR data and
open-source software (JDXview v0.2 and CSV
to MIDI converter). Through SIRS, raw IR
data (e.g., obtained from spectra from the
National Institute of Standards and Technology
database) in the form of transmittance is
converted to a range of musical instrument
frequencies, which correspond to specific
absorption peaks. The researcher, who first
requires specialized audio training to be able to
recognize characteristic functional groups, can
then listen to the sound file and analyze the
SIRS spectrum. A more recent high-school
project based on sonification of IR
absorbances to make key chemical vibrations
(key wavenumbers on an IR spectrum) into
Visualization without Vision…
musical notes further advances the concept that
chemical spectra can be pushed beyond
visual representation (Garrido et al., 2020).
Other examples of sonified chemistry include
Bandyopadhyay and Rathod’s application
called “Titration ColorCam (TCC)” — a
smartphone aid for assisting color-blind and
BVI students in titration experiments
(Bandyopadhyay and Rathod, 2017). This
application exploits a smartphone’s built-in
camera function to quantify changes in color
during a titration experiment and convert that
into audio (beep sounds) and haptic (vibrations)
output, thereby allowing a student to determine
the end-point of a titration experiment.
Text-to-speech software enables simple text to
be read aloud to BVI individuals but conveying
information in figures in chemistry textbooks
and research papers in a non-visual format
remains a major challenge. In many (most)
cases, figure captions do not provide enough
information for BVI individuals to absorb the
information conveyed graphically. Some
progress in this area has been made. For
example, Kamijo and co-workers have
developed the Chemical Literature Extraction
and Aloud-Reading System (CLEARS)
(Kamijo et al., 2016), which reads aloud both
printed text and the names of chemical
structures (conforming to IUPAC rules
(IUPAC, 2014)) using a screen reader.
However, additional work is required to
increase the frequency with which images are
converted to correct IUPAC names.
Examples of other methods that utilize (or have
the potential to utilize) audio include NavMol
2.0 (Fartaria et al., 2013), a software program
that utilizes voice synthesizers and time clock
polar coordinates to assist BVI individuals
interpret and edit molecular structures, and
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polyfill solutions (Sorge, 2016) that take
inaccessible bitmap images of molecules and
convert them to scalable vector graphics,
which are navigable via audio. Costa and
Fernandes developed a simple device that can
assist BVI individuals associate specific
frequencies of sound with pH values (Costa &
Fernandes, 2019). Despite these advances,
many other challenges remain in creating
technologies that rival tactile methods (Renier
et al., 2010).
Impact of Teaching BVI Students
There is no research of which we are aware that
addresses the impact of teaching BVI students
on instructors of chemistry courses. However,
one of us, DJT, has taught a class taken by
HBW. From DJT’s perspective, teaching a
lecture-style course (here physical organic
chemistry) to a BVI student had the following
effects.
(1) Having to describe organic structures
(and other graphical objects and concepts)
with precise language resulted in reduced
mistakes (verbal and blackboard) and a
somewhat slower pace than usual, i.e.,
when comments such as, “that group over
there,” were acceptable. It seems fair to
assume that these modifications to lecture
style were helpful to non-BVI students as
well (Hasper et al., 2015; Naples, 2017;
Spagna Jr., 1991).
(2) Although DJT generally rails against
teaching IUPAC nomenclature in lecture
(he does not feel that he can provide added
value beyond a textbook for this
algorithmic skill) and assigning
complicated nomenclature problems, the
value of IUPAC nomenclature, as a result
10
of its unambiguity, to someone lacking
vision was made clear.
(3) The occasional conflict between
aesthetically pleasing and useful as goals
when choosing representations of
molecular structures was made clear. For
example, while images of polycyclic
structures in which bonds appear to cross
may be useful in depicting 3-dimensional
structures and highlighting their aesthetic
appeal, this form of representation can
obscure connectivity.
(4) Including elaborate structures in
problems was discouraged. For example, it
can be argued that including all the
“spinach” (that is, in the vernacular of
organic chemists, parts of the molecule not
immediately relevant to the question at
hand) on a structure present in actual
laboratory experiments (e.g., a total
synthesis) when asking an arrow-pushing
question reflects “real life,” but that should
be weighed against the ease with which one
wants students to focus on the key skills a
problem is meant to assess (one of which
may be the ability to deal with “spinach”)
(Flynn, 2014; Kraft, Strickland, &
Bhattacharyya, 2010). That math should
always be considered when writing
problems, but it is especially important to
consider the biases against BVI students
inherent in specific forms of representation.
Remaining Challenges and Final Thoughts
Significant challenges remain for chemical
educators and education researchers (not
mutually exclusive groups!) who wish to make
chemistry (and other STEM fields) more
accessible to the blind and visually impaired.
Our wish list includes the following:

(1) A BVI-accessible tool for every tool used
by a sighted chemist, ideally a single tool
useful by both groups. We are aware this
formidable task may take significant time and
effort, but we suggest first narrowing the focus
to representing molecular structure, which
pervades all aspects of chemistry.
(2) Improved access to scientific data, such
as that generated by BVI research chemists
and that contained in figures, graphs, tables,
etc. in research papers.
(3) Finally, wider access to laboratory and
classroom environments for BVI students
(Nepomuceno et al., 2016). This issue
involves both practical, political, social and
attitudinal barriers (Maguvhe, 2015;
Riendl & Haworth, 1995; Simui, Kasonde-
Ngandu, Cheyeka, Simwinga, & Ndhlovu,
2018), some of which could be eliminated
through increased basic neurological
research on how vision works (Mandavilli,
2006; Merabet & Pascual-Leone, 2010;
Ricciardi et al., 2009; Ricciardi & Pietrini,
2011; Schinazi, Thrash, & Chebat, 2016).
Additional work is especially needed to
elucidate the neurological mechanisms
through which auditory and tactile inputs
assist visualization for BVI individuals
(Renier et al., 2010).
We conclude with one final thought in the form
of a philosophical question that was posed in
1688 to John Locke by William Molyneux,
known in philosophy as Molyneux’s Question
(Degenaar & Lokhorst, 2017; Locke, 1689;
Morgan, 1977). Would a congenitally blind
individual, upon gaining sight, be able to
visually identify a sphere object accurately
versus a cube object that he or she previously
observed only by touch? Richard Held et al.
Visualization without Vision…
answered in the negative (a ‘no’): they found
in their study that newly sighted subjects did
not immediately connect tactile knowledge to
the visual observation of the object—the
authors find, however, “this ability can
apparently be acquired after short real-world
experiences” (Held et al., 2011). Whatever was
not immediately clear upon sight was quick to
learn. According to HBW, who is congenitally
blind, he would prefer to remain totally blind
for life. The art of using eyesight to observe the
world is one that is learned, just as touch and
other senses can be trained to provide data on
the world. Hoby believes that he would not be
able to immediately identify the difference
between a cube and sphere, for instance. He
would have to re-learn the world around him
through eyesight which, to him, is unnecessary
and would take away from his current, rich
understanding of the world.
With the advent of modern neuroscience, much
is yet to be discovered about vision on a basic
level. Fortunately for aspiring BVI chemists,
when it comes to ‘seeing’ molecules, it is a
level playing field—no one can see molecules
anyway. We look forward to the day when
basic research on vision and STEM education
research address such questions and better
enable, and welcome, blind and visually
impaired scientists to enter the field. Perhaps
what Richard Held et al. said about newly
sighted objects for blind individuals also
applies to newly acquired skills in STEM
education, that these skills can be quickly
acquired with real-world experiences. It is our
job, as science education researchers, to
provide those opportunities.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
There are no conflicts to declare.
11
Vol. 24, No. 1 - 2021; Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Support from the National Science Foundation
(CHE-1856416) is gratefully acknowledged.
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