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Re-Presenting Feminisms Past, Present, and Future
Re-Presenting Feminisms Past, Present, and Future
Re-Presenting Feminisms Past, Present, and Future
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Feminisms:Past,Present,and Future
Re-presenting
CATHERINE HARNOIS
Keywords:thirdwave /generations
/identity
Introduction1
"
Despitetherecentpublicationofnumerous thirdwave" feminist anthol-
ogies (e.g.,To Be Real, Third Wave Agenda, Listen Up! Voicesfromthe
Next FeministGeneration,Colonize This! and The Fire this Time) and
a handfulofarticlesthattake a morerepresentative approachto analyz-
inggenerational differences(e.g.,Huddy,Neely, and LaFay2000; Peltola,
Milkie, and Presser2004; Schnittker, Freese,and Powell 2004), there
remainsa pressingneed formoresystematicanalysesoftherelationship
between"second-wave" and "thirdwave" feminisms. Indeed,a gooddeal
of confusionstill remainsconcerningwhat is actuallymeantby second
waveandparticularly thirdwavefeminism. Usinga combinationofsocio-
logicaland feministresearchtools,I problematizethe notionofdistinct
"waves" of Americanfeminism.I identifythreedominantapproaches
to understanding "thirdwave" feminism - cohort-based, age-based,and
-
theory-basedand thenanalyze empiricaldata to discernthe extentof
difference withinand acrossthesewaves.Drawingfroma combinationof
qualitativeand quantitativedata,I arguethatthirdwave feminismmight
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Re-presenting Feminisms 121
Background
By most accounts,the termthirdwave feminism(as understoodtoday)
was coinedby Rebecca Walker,daughterof Alice Walker,cofounderof
theThirdWaveFoundationand editorofthethirdwave anthology, To be
Real.1In practice,"thirdwave feminism/t" is used in at leastthreeways:
to referto an age group,a cohort,and a theoreticalperspective.3 In the
case ofthefirst,thetermis used as a synonym for"youngfeminists." The
ThirdWave Foundation,forexample,describesitselfas an organization
workingto supportwomenaged 15 to 30; and Sexingthe Political,"an
onlinejournalofthirdwave feminists on sexuality"requiresits contribu-
torsto be "20- or 30-something feminists"(withthe exceptionof those
contributing to the"BabyBoomercolumn").In thecase ofthesecond,the
termis generallyused to describea generationalcohortofself-identified
feministswho were broughtup in the 1970s (and some would include
thoserearedin the1980s),andwho,consequently, developedpoliticalcon-
sciousnessduringorsubsequentto theantifeminist backlashofthe 1980s
(Baumgardner and Richards2000; Heywood and Drake 1997;Rasmusson
2003). Ratherthanrelyingon a birth-year-based cohort,Aikau,Erikson,
andPierce(2005)suggestthatfeminist generations mightbe betterunder-
stoodin termsofgraduate-school cohorts."[T]hosewho enteredgraduate
schoolin thelate 1960'sand 1970's,"theysuggest,represent the "second
generation,-"those who entered in the 1980s are said to representthe
"2.5 generation;"and thosewho began in the 1990s represent the "third
generation."4
Those who definethirdwave feminismin termsof a theoreticalper-
spectiveroutinelypointto the crucialinfluenceof postmodernism and
multiracialfeministtheory on the development of third wave feminism
(Heywoodand Drake 1997; Mann and Huffman2005). In addition,third
wave feministsfrequently definethe "thirdwave" by contrasting it to
"second wave" feminism- the feminism associated with those women
who were active in the AmericanWomen's Movementof the 1960s
and 1970s (Labatonand Martin2004, xxv). Rasmusson(2004, 429), for
example,definesthirdwave feminismby distinguishing it fromsecond
wave feminism,arguingthat"a centraltenetofthirdwave feminismis
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122 Catherine Harnois
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Re-presenting Feminisms 123
Quantitativeand QualitativeFeministAnalyses
Recentquantitativesocial scienceresearchthataddresseswaves offemi-
nism has, forthe most part,done so by investigating the relationship
betweenage (or in some cases cohort) and feminist identification (e.g.,
Huddy,Neely,and LaFay2000; Peltola,Milkie,and Presser2004; Schnitt-
ker,Freese,andPowell2003;Whittier1995).Forourpurposes,perhapsthe
mostimportantfindingto emergefromthisresearchis thatthe propor-
tionofAmericanwomenwho identify as feministhas remainedlargely
unchangedoverthepastseveral decades (Huddy,Neely,and LaFay2000).
Thoughsome studies(e.g.,Peltola,Milkie,and Presser2004; Schnittker,
Freese,and Powell 2003) suggestthat,when "controlling forbackground
characteristics," age or generation does affect the likelihood that an
individualwill as
identify feminist, these studies are largely limited by
researchdesignsthatassume the effectofbackgroundcharacteristics on
women'sfeminismis identicalforwomen of different cohortsand for
womenofdifferent class,racial,and ethnic groups(Harnois2005b).
Whilethisline ofresearchmayindeedbe helpfulforthoseinterested
in predictingfeministself-identification, I want to suggesthere that
debates concerningwaves of Americanfeminismwould benefitmore
fromdescriptive statisticalanalysesratherthanpredictivemodels.While
predictivemodels seekto teaseoutor"controlfor"theeffects ofa number
ofdifferentsociodemographic factors If
(e.g., we controlfor race,class,sex,
and maritalstatus,how does age affectfeministidentity?), descriptive
analysesmakefewercause-effect assumptionsand insteadaim to giveus
a pictureofwhata particulargroupslooks like (e.g.,Whatpercentageof
womenbornbetween1945and 1969identify as feminist?Whatpercentage
ofthesewomenidentify as nonwhite?Whatpercentageofwomenborn
between1970 and 1981 identifyas feminist?Whatpercentageof these
womenidentify as nonwhite?).I presentsuch descriptiveanalyseslater
in thisarticle.
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124 Catherine Harnois
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Re-presenting Feminisms 125
Differences
Age/Cohort-Based
One important wayin whichthirdwavefeminists distinguishthemselves
frompreviousgenerationsof feministsis in termsof composition.As
Rasmusson(2004) writes,"If one wordwere to sum up the goals of the
thirdwave it wouldbe diversity.A centraltenetofthirdwave feminism
is to include women who have previouslybeen excludedfromsocial
movementsdue to race, class, and sexual orientationprejudice"(429).
Indeed,thirdwave feministspridethemselveson hearingand responding
to themultiracialfeministcritiquesoffeminismin the early1980s,and
thirdwave feministsfrequently incorporateelementsofthiscritiqueinto
theiranti-identity,
pro-multiplicityarguments.A primeexampleofthis
is Heywoodand Drake'sintroduction to ThirdWaveAgenda,wherethey
describethethirdwave as "youngfeminists who . . . gotgenderfeminism
in college,alongwithpoststructuralism, and are now hardat workon a
feminismthatstrategicallycombineselementsofthesefeminisms, along
withblackfeminism, women-of-color feminism, working-class feminism,
pro-sexfeminism, and so on" (1997,3). Theygo on to argue:
A thirdwavegoalthatcomesdirectly out oflearningfromthesehistories
is thedevelopment
and. . . traditions ofmodesofthinking thatcancometo
terms with the bases
shifting
constantly
multiple, of inrelation
oppression to
themultiple axes
interpenetrating ofidentity,and the of
creation a coalition
politicsbasedontheseunderstandings.(1997,3)
Despite the thirdwave's rhetoricalcommitmentto diversityand its
recordof creatingdiversefeministorganizations(e.g.,The ThirdWave
Foundation),thirdwave feminismhas not escaped chargesof racial,
ethnic,and class bias. Focusingon the works of Naomi Wolf,Katie
Roiphie,and ReneDenfeld,Siegelargues:
Thoughtheyindeeddissentfromsomeoftheir(mainstream, white)feminist
in thecontent
forebears a closereading
oftheirvariousarguments, [ofthese
wavetexts]
third . . . reveals offeminist
towhichthisnextgeneration
theextent
makesomeofthesameproblematic
historiographers assumptionsas didtheir
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126 Catherine Harnois
predecessors.LikeSteinem,theseauthorspositionthemselvesas harbingers
of
a new order,a new order,thatis,formiddle-class, white
heterosexual, women.
(1997b,64)
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Re-presenting Feminisms 127
Table 1.
BivariateRelationshipbetweenSociodemographic
and FeministGenerations:1999 Gallup Poll
Characteristics
"CenturyoftheWoman"(N=316)
Means Odds Ratios1:
(Comparison to
Baby-Boom)
Baby-Bust Baby-Boom Pre-Baby- , Pre-Baby-
baby"Bust Boom
(N=1Q1) (N=93) Boom(N=98)
White 0.583 0.878 0.864 0.195*** 0.884
(0.495) (.329) (0.345) (0.071) (0.367)
Hispanic 0.111 0.041 0.009 2.938+ 0.216
(0.316) (0.199) (.0953) (1.749) (0.243)
Black 0.148 0.061 0.045 2.667* 0.730
(0.357) (0.241) (0.209) (1.336) (0.454)
H.S. Education 0.343 0.184 0.245 2.316* 1.446
(0.477) (0.389) (0.432) (0.765) (0.495)
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128 Catherine Harnois
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Re-presenting Feminisms 129
Table 2.
RelationshipbetweenHistoricalFeminismand FeministGenerations:
1999 Gallup Poll "CenturyoftheWoman"(N=316)
Odds Ratio:
Means Comparisonto
Baby-Boom
Baby-BustBaby-Boom Pre-Baby- Baby- Pre-Baby-
(N-101) (N=93) Boom(N=98) Bust Boom
How important has
thewomen'smove- 1.889 2.020 2.045 0.832 1.164
mentbeenin the
pastcentury? (0.824) (0.995) (0.882) (0.257) (0.258)
Comparedwithmen,how muchprogresshave womenmade in thepast 50
years:
At home 3.822 3.526 3.495 1.621 0.950
(0.998) (1.128) (1.067) (0.257) (0.255)
At work 3.741 3.443 3.364 1.813* 0.849
(0.951) (0.866) (1.047) (0.253) (0.257)
In School 4.065 3.840 3.741 1.576 0.820
(0.889) (.954) (0.980) (0.259) (0.259)
In Government & 3.368 3.112 3.411 1.711 1.840
Politics (0.876) (0.823) (1.037) (0.252) (0.261)
In athletics 3.935 3.621 3.726 1.846* 1.160
(0.930) (1.012) (0.900) (0.260) (0.258)
The extentto which Q^ QJW
lJlQ L/g3 L64g
women are seen as
sex objects (0.813) (0.807) (0.813) (0.262) (0.265)
Note:Standarddeviationsofmeansand standarderrorsofoddsratioappearin parentheses.
*
significant at 1%; *** significant
at 5%; ** significant at 0.1% (two-tailed
tests)
women'sevaluationofthesuccessofthewomen'smovementoverthepast
century. Womenwereaskedto evaluatethefollowing: "How important do
you think thewomen's movement has been in helpingwomen to obtain
greaterequalitywithmen?","Comparedwithmen,how muchprogress
have womenmade overthe past fifty yearsat home,at work,in school,
and
in government politics, and in athletics?",and "Comparedto theway
womenwereviewedfifty yearsago,do youthinktheviewofwomentoday
as sex objectshas increased,stayedthesame,or decreased?"
Whatis perhapsthemostinteresting aspectofthistableis the extent
towhichfeminists ofall generations sharebeliefsconcerningthepastsuc-
cesses and currentstateofthewomen'smovementin theUnitedStates.
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130 Catherine Harnois
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Re-presenting Feminisms 131
Table 3.
RelationshipbetweenthePresentand FutureofFeminismand Feminist
Generations:1999 Gallup Poll "CenturyoftheWoman"(N=316)
Odds Ratio:
Means Comparison
to Baby-Boom
Baby-BustBaby-Boom Pie-Baby- Baby- Pre-Baby-
(N=1Q1) (N=93) Boom (N=98) Bust Boom
Whodoes society
treatbetter,women 2.660 2.765 2.755 0.676 1.014
ormen?
(0.567) (0.500) (0.492) (0.321) (0.333)
How muchchangeis needed beforewomenand men are equal withregardto:
Legalprotections 1.916 1.588 1.769 2.006** 1.462
(0.870) (0.641) (0.791) (0.267) (0.266)
Education 2.287 2.173 2.073 1.281 0.776
(0.897) (0.800) (0.906) (0.256) (0.258)
Responsibilities
runningthe 2.157 1.724 1.963 2.250** 1.613
household
(1.034) (0.809) (0.910) (0.264) (0.259)
Responsibilitiesfor
^^ Lm Lg()7 x^ L3Q1
child-rearing
(1.000) (0.841) (0.822) (0.266) (0.260)
Society'sattitudes ^ ^ ljn lM3 L36g
aboutwomen
(0.798) (0.703) (0.715) (0.268) (0.264)
Men's attitudes
^ L5?1 1J52 QM9 lM6
aboutwomen
(0.729) (0.689) (0.818) (0.278) (0.266)
Women'sattitudes Q g25
2JQ2 2JQ3 %Q4g Q9Q6
aboutwomen
(0.927) (0.729) (0.764) (0.267) (0.260)
How longuntil
womenaretreated 2.613 2.608 2.325 0.949 0.679
as well as men?
(1.488) (1.383) (1.326) (0.295) (0.286)
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132 Catherine Harnois
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Re-presenting Feminisms 133
helpsus to understand
Americanfeministdifferences.I focusmyanalysis
on thirdwave textsthataddressissuesofperfection, andpower,
plurality,
becauseformanythirdand secondwave feminists, theseissuesseembest
betweensecondand thirdwave perspectives.
to capturethedifferences
Perfection& Plurality
The perceptionon the partof thirdwave feministsof a unifiedsecond
wave feminismthatdemandsthatpeople (especiallythosecallingthem-
selvesfeminists) livea lifecompletelyconsistentwitharbitrarily circum-
scribedfeministidealsis foundin muchofthirdwave feministliterature.
In a particularlyclearexampleofthis,JanisCortese(1997)writes,"I feel
like just by beingbornafteryou [secondwave feminists], I've somehow
signed some contract. . . that saysthatI haveto do everythingyousay,live
to
up yourexpectations, achieve what you wanted to achieve,orelse it'sa
betrayal ofsome sort."Or, as Walker(1995)writes, "Constantly measuring
up to some cohesivefully down-for-the-feminist-cause identitywithout
contradictions and messinessand lustsforpowerand luxuryitemsis not
a funoreasytask" (xxxi).11 Whilesome mightrespondto thesewritersby
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134 Catherine Harnois
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Re-presenting Feminisms 135
Power
Relatedto issues ofperfection and pluralityare issues ofpower.Specifi-
cally,thirdwave feministstendto view themselvesas effective agentsof
changein waysthattheybelieveare different fromthoseofsecondwave
feminists.Whilefeministsofboth"waves" acknowledgethatthepower
to maintainand changesystemsof oppressionis situatedat both the
microand macrolevels,and while feministsassociatedwithbothwaves
to some extentsee cultural,political,and economicrealmsas important
sitesforsocial change,thirdwave textstendto privilegethe micro-level
and theculturalspheresoverothers.Influencedbypoststructuralism and
queertheory, thirdwave feministssee the culturalrealmas a keysite of
politicalchange;forthirdwave feminists, feministtheory/activism often
involvesindividualsdestabilizingcategories,performing parodies,and
reinterpretingidentitiesand signs(e.g.,Baumgardner and Richards2000,
52; herrup1995; Payette2002), in additionto moretraditionalformsof
feministcollectiveaction(e.g.,Baumgardner and Richards2000; Labaton
and Martin2004).
Thirdwavefeminists' beliefin thepowerofreinterpretation andparody,
combinedwith theirfocus on microlevelculturalchange,helps us to
understandwhatis amongthe most controversial issues in intergenera-
tionalfeminism:the (ab)usesof women'ssexuality.Withregardto this
issue,manythirdwave feminists wantto changethebeliefthatthemas-
ter'stoolscan neverdismantlethemaster'shouseto themaster'stoolscan
sometimeshelpto dismantlethemaster'shouse,providedtheyareusedin
subversiveways.In thirdwave feminismthehammerthatwas once used
to poundthenails intoplace is used to poundthroughwindows;thesaw
is now used to cut throughthewalls,-and the screwdriver is now turned
counterclockwise, freeingall thathad been previouslyscrewedtightly
into place. Or, at least thatis the hope. As Baumgardner and Richards
(2000)write,"The pointis thatthe culturaland social weaponsthathad
been identified (rightlyso) in the secondwave as instruments ofoppres-
-
sion womenas sex objects,fascistfashion,pornographic materials - are
no longerbeingexclusivelywieldedagainst women and are sometimes
wieldedby[andfor]women"(141). Whilethirdwavefeminists continueto
see significant in
genderdifferences power and third
privilege, wave texts
openlydiscusstheadvantages that can be gained from women's exercising
theireroticpower.13
Thirdwave feminismhas justifiedwomen's manipulationof erotic
power in two ways. First,some thirdwave feminismmaintainsthat
women today,while still disadvantagedcomparedwith men, are in a
betterpositionto exercisepowercomparedwithwomenseveraldecades
ago.As Morgan(1999)writes,"Most ofus can'timagineourliveswithout
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136 Catherine Harnois
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Re-presenting Feminisms 137
Feminisms
Re-Presenting
Whileit is truethatmanythirdwave textsapproachthe issue of erotic
powerfroma positionthatis different frommany"secondwave" femi-
nists, the claim that the third wave can be distinguishedfromother
feminismson thebasis ofits theoreticaluniquenessis problematicforat
least threereasons.First,to the extentthatthirdwave feministscall for
a feminismthatemphasizes"messiness"and "multiplicity," thirdwave
feministsare,in effect, a
privileging particular feminist perspectiveover
otherfeministperspectives.Second,and more importantly, thirdwave
feministswereclearlynot the firstto have objectedto a singularnotion
offeminism,norare theythe firstto make multiplicity centralto their
for
critique(see, example, Collins 1990;Lorde 1984;MoragaandAnzaldiia
1981). Multiracialfeminist historiesrevealthatcalls formultiplicitywere
expressed well beforethe late 1970s and early1980s, but onlyin the late
1970s werewhitewomen "forcedkickingand screaming"to noticethe
negativeconsequencesoffeminism's unifiedsubject"woman"
fictionally
(Haraway1991, 157). Only when the women's movementhad achieved
publicrecognition, when Women's Studieshad been institutionalizedin
university, and
government, communitysettings, and when people of
colorhad been recognizedby the dominantwhite societyas important
political actors,were women of color feministswidely recognizedby
established(i.e., upper-middle-class white) feministsas having legiti-
mate,althoughdifferent, feminist perspectives.The rhetoricthatbases
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138 Catherine Harnois
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Re-presenting Feminisms 139
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140 Catherine Harnois
Notes
1. An earlierversionof this articlewas presentedat the annual meetingof
the AmericanSociological Association in August 2005 in Philadelphia,
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Re-presenting Feminisms 141
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142 Catherine Harnois
14. Forsimilarsentiments,
see also Findlen(1995)andBaumgardner
andRichards
(2000).
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Re-presenting Feminisms 143
produced,thereare a varietyofstrate-
16. Whileall anthologiesare strategically
gies that editorsuse to produceanthologies.If we comparethese editorial
strategiesto that of Obioma Nnaemeka'sin Sisterhood,Feminisms,and
Power:FromAfricato the Diaspora, the differences become clearimmedi-
ately.WhileWalkerandBerilaseekto producea coherentbodyofThirdWave
feminist Nnaemekauses herintroduction
writing, to emphasizethediversity
offeminist perspectiveswithinAfricaandtheAfrican diaspora.Shehighlights
wherecontributors agreeanddisagreeandsheexplicitly resiststhetemptation
to defineAfricanfeminism in oppositionto Western/whitefeminism. Hersis
an anthologythatseemsto emergefromthebottom-up, whereWalker'sand
Berila'sappearto emergemorefromthetop-down.
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Re-presenting Feminisms 145
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