COURSE 4

Determinants
Let (K, +, ·) be a field, n ∈ N∗ and
 
a11 a12 ... a1n
 
 a21 a22 ... a2n 
A=
 .. .. ..  ∈ Mn (K).

 . . ... . 
an1 an2 ... ann

Definition 1. The determinant of (the squre matrix) A is

�
det A = ε(σ)a1σ(1) a2σ(2) · · · anσ(n) (∈ K).
σ∈Sn

The map Mn (K) → K, A �→ det A is also called determinant.

Remark 2. None of the products from the above definition contains 2 elements from the same
row or the same column.
� �
� a11 a12 ... a1n �
� �
� �
� a21 a22 ... a2n �
We also denote the determinant of A by �� . .. .. �.
�
� .. . ... . �
� �
� an1 an2 ... ann �
� �
� a �
� 11 a12 �
Examples 3. a) � � = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
� a21 a22 �
� �
� a11 a12 a13 �
� �
� �
b) � a21 a22 a23 � =
� �
� a31 a32 a33 �

Lemma 4. The determinant of A and the determinant of the transpose matrix t A are equal.

Proof.

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Remark 5. Any property which refers to the rows of the determinant of a certain matrix A can
also be written for the columns of A and any property valid for the columns of det A is also valid
for its rows.

Proposition 6. If n ∈ N∗ and i ∈ {1, . . . , n} then

� � � �
� a11 a12 ... a1n � � a11 a12 ... a1n �
� � � � �� �
� .. .. .. � � � � .. .. .. �
� � � a11 a12 ... a1n � � �
� . . ... . � � � � . . ... . �
� � � .. .. .. � � �
� ai−1,1 ai−1,2 ... ai−1,n � � . . ... . � � ai−1,1 ai−1,2 ... ai−1,n �
� � � � � �
� � � � + � a�i1 �
� ai1 + a�i1 ai2 + a�i2 ... ain + a�in � = � ai1 ai2 ... ain � � a�i2 ... a�in �.
� � � � � �
� ai+1,1 ai+1,2 ... ai+1,n � � .. .. .. � � ai+1,1 ai+1,2 ... ai+1,n �
� � � . . ... . � � �
� .. .. .. � � � � .. .. .. �
� � � � � �
� . . ... . � an1 an2 ... ann . . ... . �
� � � �
� an1 an2 ... ann � � an1 an2 ... ann �

This property can be generalized and restated for columns (homework).

Proof.

For the next part of the section, we consider a field (K, +, ·), n ∈ N, n ≥ 2 and A = (aij ) ∈ Mn (K).

Proposition 7. If the matrix B results from A by multiplying each element of a row (column) of
A by α ∈ K then det B = α det A.

Proof.

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Proposition 8. If all the elements of a row (column) of A are 0, then det A = 0.

Proof.

Proposition 9. If B results from A by switching two rows (columns) of A then det B = − det A.

Proof.

Proposition 10. If A has two equal rows (columns) then det A = 0.

Proof.

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 Let us denote by r1 , r2 , · · · , rn the rows and by c1 , c2 , · · · , cn the columns of A. We say that
the rows (columns) i and j (i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, i �= j) are proportional if there exists α ∈ K
such that all the elements of a row (column) are the elements of the other one multiplied by α.
We write, correspondingly, li = αlj or lj = αli or ci = αcj or cj = αci .

Corollary 11. If A has two proportional rows (columns) then det A = 0.

Definition 12. We say that the i’th row of the matrix A is a linear combination of (all) the
other rows (i ∈ {1, . . . , n}) if there exists α1 , . . . , αi−1 , αi+1 , . . . , αn ∈ K such that

aij = α1 a1j + · · · + αi−1 ai−1,j + αi+1 ai+1,j + · · · + αn anj , ∀j ∈ {1, . . . , n}.

We write
li = α1 l1 + · · · + αi−1 li−1 + αi+1 li+1 + · · · + αn ln .

An analogous definition can be given for columns (homework).

The property from the previous corollary can be generalized as follows:

Corollary 13. If a row (column) of A is a linearcombination of the other rows (columns) then
det A = 0.

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Corollary 14. If the matrix B results from A by adding the i’th row (column) multiplied by
α ∈ K to the j’th one (i �= j) then det B = det A.

Definition 15. Let A = (aij ) ∈ Mn (K), n ≥ 2 and i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}. Let Aij ∈ Mn−1 (K) be
the matrix resulted from A by eliminating the i’th row and the j’th column (i.e. the row and the
column of aij ). The determinant
dij = det Aij
is called the minor of aij and
αij = (−1)i+j dij
is called the cofactor of aij .

Then:

Theorem 16. (the cofactor expansion of det A along the i’th row)

det(A) = ai1 αi1 + ai2 αi2 + · · · + ain αin , ∀i ∈ {1, . . . , n}.

Proof. Let us denote

Si = ai1 αi1 + ai2 αi2 + · · · + ain αin . (∗)
(A) For i = 1, we have S1 = a11 α11 +a12 α12 +· · ·+a1n α1n . Let us consider the term a11 α11 = a11 d11 .
We notice that d11 is the sum of all the products of the form

a2k2 a3k3 · · · ankn cu {k2 , . . . , kn } = {2, . . . , n},

� �
Inv τ 2 3 ... n
and each term has the sign (−1) where τ = . Each term of S1 which
k2 k3 . . . k n
contains a11 comes from a11 α11 . Therefore, these terms are the products

(−1)Inv τ a11 a2k2 a3k3 · · · ankn .

On the other side, the terms of det A which contain a11 are (all) the products

a11 a2k2 a3k3 · · · ankn cu {k2 , . . . , kn } = {2, . . . , n},

� �
Inv σ 1 2 3 ... n
and the sign of each such term is (−1) with σ = .
1 k2 k3 . . . k n
Since 1 < k2 , . . . , 1 < kn , we have Inv σ = Inv τ thus the terms which contain a11 are the
same in S1 and det A (and when we say the same we refer, of course, to the fact that they have
the same signs in the both sums).

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(B) Let us consider the general case. Let i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, and let us take the term

aij αij = (−1)i+j aij dij

from (∗). This term provides us with all the (products which are) terms of Si which contain aij .
On the other side, let us rewrite det A in the following way: by successively permuting adjacent
rows, we bringaij on the first row, then, by permuting adjacent columns, we bring it in the position
(1, 1). Let us denote by D the resulted determinant. Since we applied i row switches and j column
switches this way, we have
det A = (−1)i+j D.

Based on this equality, all the terms of det A containing aij result from D as in (A). As we already
saw the element which lays in the (1, 1) position of D is aij ; from the way D occured, one deduces
that its minor dij , and its cofactor is (−1)1+1 dij = dij . Therefore, the terms which contain aij are
the same as in
(−1)i+j aij dij = aij αij ,

hence they are exactly the terms of Si which contain aij .

We also notice that Si has n terms and each such term is a sum of (n − 1)! products of elements
of A (each one considered with the corresponding sign), thus Si has (n − 1)!n = n! terms which
are exactly the terms of det A. This remark completes proof.

We also have:

Teorema 16’. (the cofactor expansion of det(A) along the j’th column)

det A = a1j α1j + a2j α2j + · · · + anj αnj , ∀j ∈ {1, . . . , n}.

Corollary 17. If i, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}, i �= k, then

ai1 αk1 + ai2 αk2 + · · · + ain αkn = 0.

Also, if j, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}, j �= k then

a1j α1k + a2j α2k + · · · + anj αnk = 0.

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Corollary 18. If d = det A �= 0 then A is a unit of the ring Mn (K) and

A−1 = d−1 · A∗ ,

where A∗ is the matrix  

α11 α21 ... αn1
 
 α12 α22 ... αn2 
A = (αij ) = 
∗ t
 .. .. .. 

 . . . 
α1n α2n ... αnn
(called the adjugate of A).

Remark 19. We will see later that the converse of the previous statement is also valid, i.e. if A
is invertible then det A �= 0.

Corollary 20. (Cramer) Let us consider the following system with n equations with n unknowns


 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

 a x + a x + ··· + a x = b
21 1 22 2 2n n 2
(S) , aij , bi ∈ K (i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}).
 .................................



an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + ann xn = bn

Denote by d the determinant d = det A of A = (aij ) ∈ Mn (K) and by dj the determinant of the
matrix resulted from A by replacing the j’th column by
 
b1
 
 b2 
 . .
 . 
 . 
bn

If d �= 0 then (S) has a unique solution. This solution is given by the equalities

xi = di · d−1 , i = 1, . . . , n.

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