Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently depends

on the observation of angles and directions. In surveying, directions are given by

azimuths and bearings.

Angles measured in surveying are classified horizontal or vertical, depending on

the plane in which they are observed. Horizontal angles are the basic observations
needed for determining bearings and azimuths. Vertical angles are used in
trigonometric leveling, stadia, and for reducing slope distances to horizontal.
Angles are most often directly observed in the field with total station instruments,
although in the past transits, theodolites, and compasses have been used. Three
basic requirements to determine an angle:
1. Reference of starting line
2. Direction of turning
3. Angular distance (value of the angle)
A. Compass Units of Measure

A purely arbitrary unit defines the value of an angle. The sexagesimal system used
in the US, and many other countries, is based on degrees, minutes, and seconds,
with the last unit further divided decimally. In Europe, the grad or gon is
commonly used. Radians may be more suitable in computer computations, but
the sexagesimal system continues to be used in most US surveys.

There are a few different ways a compass is divided into units. Depending on the
use of the compass, different units of measure may be more useful.
Compass Units of Measure

1. Points.
Cheap, basic compasses may be marked
with the cardinal points of North, East,
West, and South with the intercardinal
points Nort East, South East, South
West, and North West between them.
These compasses just provide your
general direction when accuracy is not
necessary.
Compass Units of Measure

2. DEGREES
A compass divided into 360 degrees is the most common
unit of measurement. Each degree is divided into 60
minutes, each minute into 60 seconds. A handheld
compass is not able to measure down to a minute, let
alone a second, but those units are used for precise
locations using latitude and longitude. North is at 0
degrees (and 360 degrees), East is 90 degrees, South is
180 degrees, and West is 270 degrees. Some compasses
may be marked in degrees only from 0 to 90.
Compass Units of Measure

3. RADIANS
Another unit of measure, the radian, is used
mainly by militaries in artillery, tank, and mortar
gunnery.

There are 2 PI radians in a circle. PI is a constant of

approximately 3.1416. That is 2 * 3.1416, or 6.283
radians.
Compass Units of Measure

4. MILLS
Divide each radian into 1000 mil-radians and you see
there are 6283 mil-radians in a circle. Mil-radians are
called mils for short. 17.78 mils equal 1 degree.

Compass use of mils typically rounds 6283 to 6400 for

simplification. Some foreign militaries have simplified
the other direction and divided the compass face into
6000 units, exactly like the face of a watch, with 100
units the same angle as a minute on the watch face.
Compass Units of Measure

4. Grad
The grad is a metric unit of measure, not commonly used. There are 400 grads in a
circle. Each grad can be divided into 100 centigrads. Each centigrad can be divided
into 100 milligrads.
Compass Units of Measure example
B. DIRECTION OF A LINE

The direction of a line is defined by the horizontal angle between the line and an
arbitrarily chosen reference line called a meridian. In surveying, this is done with
reference to a meridian which lies in a vertical plane passing through a fixed point of
reference and through the observer’s position.
Four types of meridians are:

1. True meridian. Sometimes known as the astronomic or

geographic meridian. It is generally adapted reference line in
surveying practice. This line passes through the geographic north
and south poles of the earth and the observer’s position.

2. Magnetic meridian. A fixed line of reference which lies parallel

with the magnetic lines of force of the earth. Its direction is defined
by a freely suspended magnetic needle of a compass held at the
observer’s position.
Four types of meridians are:

3. Grid meridian. A fixed line of reference parallel to

the central meridian of a system of plane
rectangular coordinates.

4. Assumed meridian. An arbitrarily chosen fixed

line of reference which is taken for convenience.
This meridian is usually the direction from a survey
station to an adjoining station or some well-defined
and permanent point.
C. DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS

There is always a starting or reference point to define directions. Map users are
primarily concerned with the north point for the determination of directions and
the following are the commonly used reference points.

1. True North. The north point of the true meridian. In maps and sketches, it is
portrayed in the direction of the actual location of the earth’s north geographic pole
and is always shown along a vertical line. It is symbolized by a star, an asterisk, or
the letters.
C. DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS

2. Magnetic North. A north point that is established by means of a magnetized

compass needle when there are no local attractions affecting it.

3. Grid North. A north point which is established by lines on a map which are parallel
to a selected central meridian. It may coincide with lines directed toward true north.
Grid north may be symbolized by a full arrowhead or the letters GN or Y.

4. Assumed North. It is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north
point. It may be symbolized by a small blackened circle or the letters AN.
C. DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS

2. Magnetic North. A north point that is established by means of a magnetized

compass needle when there are no local attractions affecting it.

3. Grid North. A north point which is established by lines on a map which are parallel
to a selected central meridian. It may coincide with lines directed toward true north.
Grid north may be symbolized by a full arrowhead or the letters GN or Y.

4. Assumed North. It is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north
point. It may be symbolized by a small blackened circle or the letters AN.
D. KINDS OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

The kinds of horizontal angles most commonly observed in surveying are the following:
1. Interior angles. Interior angles are observed on the inside of a closed polygon.
Normally the angle at each apex within the polygon is measured. A check can be made
on their values because the sum of all interior angles in any polygon must be equal
(n-2)180°, where n is the number of angles. Polygons are commonly used for boundary
surveys and many other types of work. Surveyors (geomatic engineers) normally refer to
them as closed traverses.
2. Exterior angles, located outside a closed polygon, are explements of interior angles.
The advantage to be gained by observing them is their use as another check, since the
sum of the interior and exterior angles at any station must total 360°.
D. KINDS OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

3. Angles to the right

a). Angles measured clockwise from the
rear to the forward station. As a survey
progresses, stations are commonly identified by
consecutive alphabetical letters or by increasing
numbers. Also referred as azimuths from back line

b) Angles to the left are turned

counterclockwise from the rear station.
D. KINDS OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

3. Angles to the right

Angles to the right can e either interior or exterior angles of a closed-polygon traverse.
Whether the angle is an interior or exterior angle depends on the direction the
instrument proceeds around the traverse. If the direction around the traverse is
counterclockwise, then the angles to the right will be interior angles. However, if the
instrument proceeds clockwise around the traverse, then exterior angles will be
observed. If this is the case, the sum of the exterior angles for a closed-polygon traverse
will be (n+2)180°.
D. KINDS OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

4. Deflection angles. They are observed from an extension of the back line to the forward
station. They are used principally on the long linear alignments of route surveys.
Deflection angles may be observed to the right (clockwise) or to the left
(counterclockwise) depending on the direction of the route. Clockwise angles are
considered plus, and counterclockwise ones minus. Deflection angles are always smaller
than 180° and appending an R or L to the numerical value identifies the direction of
turning.
E. BEARINGS

Bearings are another system for designating directions of

lines. The bearing of a line is defined as the acute
horizontal angle between a reference meridian and the
line. The angle is observed from either the north or south
toward the east or west to give a reading smaller than
90°. The letter N or S preceding the angle, and E or W
following it shows the proper quadrant. Thus, a properly
expressed bearing includes quadrant letters and angular
value. When lines are in the cardinal directions, the
bearings should be listed as “Due North”, “Due East”,
“Due South”, or “Due West”.
E. BEARINGS
E. BEARINGS

Assuming that a compass is set up successively at points A, B, C, and D and bearings

read on lines AB, BA, BC, CB, CD, DC. Bearing AB, BC, and CD are forward bearings;
those of BA, CB, and DC are back bearings. Back bearings should have the same
numerical values as forward bearings but opposite letters. Thus if bearing AB is N44°E,
bearing BA is S44°W.
E. BEARINGS
Forward & Back Bearings
E. BEARINGS

Example problem
F. AZIMUTHS

Azimuths are horizontal angles

observed clockwise from any reference
meridian. In plane surveying, azimuths
are generally observed from north, but
astronomers and the military have
used south as the reference direction.
F. AZIMUTHS

The azimuth of a line is its direction

as given by the angle between the
meridian and the line measured in a
clockwise direction from either north
or south branch of the meridian.
Azimuths are usually preferred over
bearings by most surveyors because
they are more convenient to work
with such as in computing traverse
data by electronic digital computers.
F. AZIMUTHS

A line’s forward direction can be given by its forward azimuth, and its reverse direction
by its back azimuth. In plane surveying, forward azimuths are converted to back
azimuths, and vice versa, by adding or subtracting 180°.

Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180°, subtract 180° to
obtain the back azimuth.

Rule 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180°, add 180° to
determine the back azimuth.
F. AZIMUTHS
F. AZIMUTHS

Example
F. AZIMUTHS

Example
G. AZIMUTHS AND BEARINGS
COMPARISON

Because bearings and azimuths

are encountered in so many
surveying operations, the
comparative summary of their
properties are given in the table:
G. AZIMUTHS AND BEARINGS
COMPARISON

:
H. MAGNETIC DECLINATION

Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle observed from the geodetic meridian to the
magnetic meridian. Navigators call this angle variation of the compass; the armed forces
use the term deviation. An east declination exists if the magnetic meridian is east of
geodetic north; a west declination occurs if it is west of geodetic north. East declinations
are considered positive and west declinations negative. The relationship between
geodetic north, magnetic north, and magnetic declination is given by the expression:

GEODETIC AZIMUTH = MAGNETIC AZIMUTH + MAGNETIC DECLINATION

H. MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Variations in Magnetic Declination

It has been stated that magnetic declinations at any point vary over time. These
variations are summarized below:

1. Secular variation. Because of its magnitude, this is the most important of the
variations. Unfortunately, no physical law has been found to enable precise long-term
predictions of secular variation, and its past behavior can be described only by means of
detailed tables and charts derived from observations. In retracing old property lines run
by compass or based on magnetic meridian, it is necessary to allow for the difference in
magnetic declination at the time of the original survey and at the present date. The
difference is attributed mostly to secular variation.
Variations in Magnetic Declination
2. Daily variation. Daily variation of the magnetic needle’s declination causes it to swing
through an arc. The needle reaches its extreme easterly position at about 8AM and its
most westerly position at about 1:30PM. Mean declination occurs at around 10:30AM
and 8:00PM. These hours and daily variation change with latitude and season of the
year. Usually the daily variation is ignored since it is well within the range of error
expected in compass readings.
3. Annual variation. This periodic swing is less than 1 min of arc and can be neglected. It
must not be confused with the annual change (the amount of secular-variation change in
one year) shown on some isogonic maps.
4. Irregular variations. Unpredictable magnetic disturbances and storms can cause short-
term irregular variations of a degree or more.
Variations in
Magnetic
Declination
Example
I. LOCAL ATTRACTION

 Local attraction is any deviation of the magnetic needle of a compass from its normal
pointing towards magnetic north. In the field, the compass user may not realize that
magnetic bearings read with compass have been affected by local attraction. In some
localities, particularly in cities, and in large excavation sites of iron ore deposits, its
effect is so pronounced that a magnetic compass could not be reliably employed for
determining directions. Local attraction at a particular point may be constant, or may
vary depending upon surrounding magnetic influences. Also, it is not likely to be the
same at one point as at another even though the points are only a short distance
apart.
I. LOCAL ATTRACTION

Objects made of steel or iron such as reinforcing bars, fences, buried pipelines, and even
moving vehicles may considerably affect the compass needle. Also, taping arrows, the
steel tape, range poles made of steel, a steel helmet, and power transmission lines
dangling overhead may have a distorting effect on compass readings.
J. COMPASS SURVEYS

The method of compass surveying is one of the most basic and widely practiced
methods of determining the relative location of points where a high degree of precision
is not required. Such surveys, which employ a magnetic compass are performed by
traversing.

1. Traverse. A series of lines connecting successive points whose lengths and

directions have been determined from field measurements.
J. COMPASS SURVEYS

2. Traversing. The process of measuring the lengths and directions of the lines of a
traverse for the purpose of locating the position of certain points.

3. Traverse station. Any temporary or permanent point or reference over which

the instrument is set up. Traverse stations are sometimes called angle points
because an angle is usually measured at such points.

4. Traverse lines. Lines connecting traverse stations and whose lengths and
directions are determined.
J.1 TYPES OF COMPASS TRAVERSE

1. OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE (geometrically and mathematically open). This

consists of a series of lines that are connected by do not return to the starting
point or close upon a point of equal or greater order accuracy. Open traverses
should be avoided because they offer no means of checking for observational
errors and mistakes. If they must be used, observations should be repeated
carefully to guard against mistakes.
J.1 TYPES OF COMPASS TRAVERSE
J.1 TYPES OF COMPASS TRAVERSE

2. CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE. A closed compass traverse consists of a series

of lines of known lengths and magnetic bearings which forms a closed loop, or begin
and end at points whose positions have been fixed by other survey of higher precision.
J.1 TYPES OF COMPASS TRAVERSE

Two categories of closed traverse exist: polygon and link.

(a) In the polygon traverse the lines return to the starting points, thus forming a
closed figure that is both geometrically and mathematically closed. Link traverses

(b) Link traverse, finish upon another station that should have a positional
accuracy equal to or greater than that of the starting point. The link type
(geometrically open, mathematically closed) must have a closing reference
direction. Closed traverses provide checks on the observed angles and distances,
which is an extremely important consideration. They are used extensively in
control, construction, property, and topographic surveys.
J.1 TYPES OF COMPASS TRAVERSE
J.2 ADJUSTMENT OF AN OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE
When adjusting an open compass traverse there are two important steps to perform:
the first is to determine which among the traverse lines is free from local attraction, and the
second step is to perform the adjustment of successive lines by starting from either end of
the selected line. The unaffected line is referred to as the “best line” and it is assumed that
there is no local attraction anywhere on this line. Also, forward and back bearings taken at
either end of the line are accepted as correct.
If two or more non-adjoining lines appear to be free from local attraction, only one of
these lines is arbitrarily chosen as the best line and adjustment of succeeding lines originate
from it. When adjoining lines are similarly unaffected, adjustment may be started at any line
free from local attraction. However, if none of the lines in the traverse appears to be
unaffected by local attraction, the line with the least discrepancy between the forward and
back bearings is chosen and its forward bearing is assumed to be correct.
J.2 ADJUSTMENT OF AN OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE example
J.3 ADJUSTMENT OF A CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE

The adjustment of a closed compass traverse is similar to the adjustment of an

open compass traverse except that in a closed traverse the effects of observational
errors are considered. The following are three important steps performed during the
adjustment:

A. Computing and adjusting the interior angles

B. Selecting the best line of the line in the traverse which is unaffected by local
attraction
C. Adjusting the observed bearings of successive lines
J.3 ADJUSTMENT OF A CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE example
- End of Slides

- Thank you