THE PROFESSIONAL NAVIGATOR‵S MANUAL

SPHERICAL TRIANGLE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS :

C o s a ∓ C o s b.C o s c
CosA = (+) For Reciprocal Capitalizations Letters.
S i n b.S i n c r
Sina Sinb Sinc 1 − C o s a.C o s b.C o s c
⇒ = = = ⇒
SinA SinB SinC 1 + C o s A.C o s B.C o s C
Let the OBSERVER and CELESTIAL BODY (Lat¸Long) Respectively be (u,v) and (U,V) ¸Also γ=V−v.⇒
ZENITHAL DISTANCE : P = C o s -1 (S i n U .S i n u + C o s U .C o s u.C o s γ )
S i n U − C o s P.S i n u

N
AZIMUTH : Z = ± C o s -1 (−) When γ < 0
S i n P.C o s u
NOTE: √ γ √ ≤ 180°
C o s u.S i n γ
ZENITHAL PATH TRACK : C o s T =
SinP
When γ ≠ ± 90° ⇒ For Polaris and Culmination Proximities Bodies : ± u = H o − S i n -1 (C o s U · C o s γ ) : (+) For Northern Bodies.

U ⇒ x = B±Cos C
¸
-1 a -1 y.S i n B
SOLVING FOR ( x ) : Let y = a .S i n x + b .C o s x ⇒ Let : B = T a n
b a
COMPUTATION OF (u¸v) FROM TWO (2) CELESTIAL BODIES:

H
WARNING‼ : There are two (2) possible positions . So roughly estimates your azimuths . ⇒
d = C o s -1 (S i n U 2.S i n U 1 + C o s U 2.C o s U 1.C o s (V 2 − V 1))
S i n U 2 − C o s d.S i n U 1
α = C o s -1
S i n d.C o s U 1

β = C o s -1
z=α±β
C

⇒
o s P 2 − C o s d.C ο s P 1
S i n d.S i n P 1
⇒
H
C
-1
u = S i n (S i n U 1.C o s P 1 + C o s U 1.S i n P 1.C o s z)
C o s P 1 − S i n U 1.S i n u
V 1 − v = ± C o s -1
C o s U 1.C o s u
V 1 − v < 0 For Western Sights!.
TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES : EQUATORIAL⇔OBLIQUE.
T
Let The Respective Equatorial an Oblique (Lat¸Long) of a Point be (δ¸α) and (β¸λ).⇒

I
(d, Z ) = Respectively Distance and Azimuth of the Point. Seen from (Lat¸Long)=(0¸0)
(ε¸T)=Respectively Obliquicy and Track .Where − 90° ≤ ε ≤ 90° ⇒
Sinδ Sinβ
C o s α .C o s δ = C o s λ.C o s β = C o s d : CosZ = : C o s (Z + ε ) =
Sind Sind
C o s α .T a n λ − S i n α .C o s ε
T anδ =

M
Sinε
−C o s λ.T a n α + S i n λ.C o s ε
T anβ =
Sinε
C o s T = C o s α .S i n ε

V
Notice That When β = 0 ⇒
T a n δ = T a n ε .S i n α
S i n δ = S i n ε .S i n λ
PLOTTING SHEET CONSTRUCTION :

A
The Flat Polar Coordinates (ρ¸φ) ¸Trace
a Stereographic Plotting Sheet By Means Of :
d d
ρ = 2r·T an :φ=Z : Ks = S e c2
2 2

x = r.α
J
Also¸ The Flat Cartessian Cοordinates (x¸y) ¸Trace
a Mercator Plotting Sheet ByµMeans¶Of :
: y = r.L n T a n
δ
+
2 4
π
: Ks = S e c δ

For The Oblique Mercator Then : use (β¸λ) instead of (δ¸α).

Now To Transfer The Point (δ¸α) To a CHART ⇒
Dot it as ( ∆ , α ) . Where ∆ is The Geodetic Latitude . And holds The Following Relations :
a2 b
T an∆ = 2 ·T anδ , T anθ = ·T an∆ , K M = S e c θ : For WGS84 a = 6378.137 k m And b = 6356.752314 k m
b a
Where ( a ¸ b ) = Respectively Equatorial And Polar Semiaxes . And K s is The Sheet Scale Factor .
s
2 a2 + b2
K M = The Mercator Chart Scale Factor . For SPHERICAL Distance And Bearing Computation Then Let : r =
AUTHOR : SENIOR ENGINEER . Mr. JAVIER A. MITCHELL HUNTER --javmitchhun@yahoo.es 3
PAGE 1
 SEXTANT ALTITUDE ( H s ) CORRECTED TO ( H o ) :
p
1) DIP : D° = 0.029584682 · h m Where h m =Height of Eye in Meters.
2) APPARENT ALTITUDE : H a° = H s° ± I° − D° Where I°=Sextant Index Error.
0.004676 · P
3) REFRACTION : R° = Typically : P = 1013 Milibars ¸ T = 15°C
(T + 273) · T a n HHaa°°++7.31
4.4
4) EQUATORIAL HORIZONTAL PARALLAX : H P
H P m o o n ⇒ See The Nautical Almanac.
a H Ps u n
H P s u n = S i n -1 : H Pplanet = : a = Earths Equatorial Radius . For K See Table Below.
D K
149.458194 · 10 6 (K i l o m e t e r s)
Central Distance Sun⇔Earth : D =
1 + 0.0167722408 · C o s (0.986301369 · t)
Where t = # Of day of The year (Starting
µ From December
¶ 22).
p
-1 R
5) LATITUDINAL HORIZONTAL PARALLAX : p = S i n ·SinH P Where R = a· 1 − ℇ 2 S i n2 θ
a
Where : R = Central Distance Observer⇔Earth ¸ ℇ = Earth Eccentricity.
θ = Anomalistic Latitude .The one used for Mercator Chart Scale Factor ( K M ).
6) THE BODY‵S ALTITUDE : α = H a° − R° ± S° : Respectively (+╱−) For (Lower╱Upper) Limb.
³ ´
-1 ρ
Where Semidiameter : S° = T a n ·T an p And For ρ⇒See Table Below.
R
7) P A = S i n -1 (S i n p · C o s α ) ⇒ H o = P A + α
Where PA is The Parallax in Altitude.
.
.
BODY…………K…………ρ (k m)
VENUS……0.281605351……6050
MARS……0.377926422……3389.2
JUPITER……3.949832778……71400.2
SATURN……8.010033452……58388.2
MOON……………………………..1738
SUN………………………………696000.0
ρ = Stellar Radius
.
.
APPENDIX
1) The Sun Travels on a Fictitious Equator (Ecliptic) for Which : ε = 23°27‵08.26″ − (0.4684″(t − 1900)) ⇒ Enabling δ in Terms of Right Ascension ( α ) .
2) EQUINOXES PRECESSIONS╱year : General = 50.2574″ + (0.000222″(t − 1900)) ¸ α = 46.0850″ + (0.000279″(t − 1900)) ¸ δ = 20.0468″ − (0.000085″(t − 1900))
3) The Flat Polar Coordinates (ρ¸φ) . Trace a LAMBERT CONFORMAL Plotting Sheet By : Let Polar Distances of CONE Intersections = ( d 1 ¸ d 2 ).
Sind
d1 + d2 L n S i n d2 h
1
Where d 2 > d 1 ⇒ Let dm = : h = S i n d1 T a n dm + C o s d1 :τ = d
:T=
2 T an 2 −τ · L n T a n d
2 e 2 · S i n dm
Ln d1
T an
2
τ ·T
⇒ ρ = r·T : φ = τ ·Z : Ks =
Sind
4) For The Feature that Straight Lines Represents Great Circles ⇒Stereographic d ≤ 18°¸ Mercator|β | ≤ 4°¸ LAMBERT CONFORMAL For Other Ranges .
Although For Mercator Plotting Sheet : Great Circle Azimuth (Z) Can be Transformed to Mercator Rhumb (T) By:
δ1 1 δ1 + δ2
Whilst ≥0 And The Observer at ( δ 1 ¸ α 1 ) ⇒ T = Z + T a n -1 S i n T a n (α 2 − α 1)
δ2 2 2
Sinx S i n ( x + A)
5 ) SOLVING FOR ( x¸ y ) : Let = m And = n ⇒ Let The Auxiliaries Terms ( a ¸ b ¸ c ¸ d ) Be :
Sin y S i n ( y + B)
nCosB −mCos A nSinB 2 − a2 − m2 − b2 b2 − a2 − m2
a= :b= :c= :d= ⇒ c = d Cos2 y + Sin2 y
SinA SinA 2ab 2ab
m2 + n2 − 2 2mn
6 ) Let Sinx+Cos y = m And C o s x + S i n y = n ⇒ S i n ( y + x) = And C o s ( y − x) = 2
2 m + n2
PAGE 2 .
 CONFORMAL SPHEROIDAL PROJECTIONS
THE GAUSSIAN SPHERE:
The Spherical Equations Can not Directly be Applied To The Earths Surface¸ Due that this is an Oblate Spheroid.
Although They Are Used For Planetary And illustratives Maps ( 1 m m ≥ 1 K m ) or For Charting at ( 1 m m ≥ 10 N m ) .
For ACCURATE CHARTING by means of the exposed Spherical Equations¸The Spheroid must be TRANSFORMED to a SPHERE.
θ +θ
T an 1 2 a2 − b2
STEP 1: The Mid Geodetic Latitude Of The CHART . ∆ m = T a n -1 p 2 Where ℇ2 =
1−ℇ2 a2
s p
ℇ2 a· 1−ℇ2
STEP 2 : Gauss Conformality Factor. G= 1+ C o s4 ∆m : rG =

N
1−ℇ2 1 − (ℇ · S i n ∆ m) 2
Where r G is The Gaussian Sphere Radius And ℇ is The Eccentricity of the SPHEROID.
µ ¶
δ π
STEP 3: The Isometric Latitude ψ : For ( a ≈ b ) Then ψ ≈ L n T a n + But EXACTLY For a > b ⇒
2 4

U
µ ¶
∆ π
ψ = LnT an + − ℇ · T a n h -1 (ℇ · S i n ∆)
2 4
µ ¶
δG π G · rG · C o s δG
STEP 4 : L n T a n + = G·ψ : αG = G · α : KG =
2 4 a·Cosθ

K G is The Gaussian Sphere Scale Factor. Hence The Chart Scale Factor = K C h = K G · K s
NORMAL SPHEROIDAL PROJECTIONS:
H
Notice Then That The Spheroidal Cοordinates ( ∆ ¸α) have been Transformed to Gaussian Spherical ( δ G ¸ α G ) .

(1 + S i n T ).e − ψ
STEREOGRAPHIC : ρ = (1 + S i n T ) · a · e − ψ

: y = a·ψ ·CosT
:φ=α

: KC h = S e c θ · C o s T
Cosθ
: KC h =

H
⇒ (0,0) = Geographic Pole.
T = Standard Anomalistic Latitude¸ e = The Base of Natural Logarithms = 2.718281828459
MERCATOR : x = a · α · C o s T ⇒ (0,0) = Geographic Equatorial Prime Meridian .

C
LAMBERT CONFORMAL : Let The Standard Anomalistic Latitudes be : ( T 1, T 2 ).Where T 2 > T 1 ⇒
T +T 1 CosT
T an 1 2 µp ¶ Ln
2 C o s T1 C o s T2
T a n ∆m = p :h=a 1 − ℇ 2 S i n T1 + :τ = ⇒
1−ℇ2 T a n ∆m ψ2 − ψ1

ρ=
h · e−τ ψ
C o s ∆m
: φ = τ ·α : KC h =
T
τ · h · e−τ ψ
a · C o s ∆m · C o s θ
⇒ (0,0) = The Geographic Pole.

I
COMPUTING THE VALUE OF ( T ) THAT OPTIMIZES THE DISTORTION (σ) ON THE WHOLE CHART :
The Distortion is Defined as : ± σ = K C h − 1 ⇒ The Objective is to Minimize σ > 0. By a Special Selection of (T). ⇒
σ ≤ σ M a x . Now Let The Anomalistic Latitude Spread of the Chart be : (θ 1, θ 2) Where θ 2 > θ 1 ⇒
STEREOGRAPHIC
2 · eψ1 + ψ2 · C o s θ1 · C o s θ2 1 + SinT

M
SinT = ψ −1 : σM a x = ψ −1
e 1 · C o s θ1 + eψ2 · C o s θ2 e 1 · C o s θ1
π
WARNING‼ : WHEN θ = ⇒( e ψ · C o s θ ) = 2
2

V
MERCATOR
2
CosT = : σM a x = C o s T · S e c θ2 − 1
S e c θ1 + S e c θ2
LAMBERT CONFORMAL

A
Cosθ
θ1 + θ2 T a n θm L n C o s θ1
θm = : ∆m = T a n -1 p :τ = 2
2 1−ℇ2 ψ2 − ψ1
¡ ¢

J
2 · eτ ψ1 + ψm · C o s θ1 · C o s θm a.ω.C o s ∆ m
ω = τψ :h= ⇒
e 1 · C o s θ1 + eτ ψm · C o s θ m τ
h · S i n θm ω
(T 1, T 2) = θ m ∓ C o s -1 p : σM a x = τ ψ −1
a 1−ℇ 2 e 1 · C o s θ1
∗∗∗COMMENTS∗∗∗
‸ ‸ d
−On page #1¸ MERCATOR can be written As : x = − r · Z : y = − r·LnT an : Ks = C s c d
2
d
−For SPHERICAL Polar Surface Preserving ⇒ ρ = 2 r · S i n :φ=Z Also For Equatorial ⇒ x = − r · Z : y = r.C o s d
2 s
Z θq
ℇ 2Sin2θ ℇ 2
−Meridional Length Of Arc : L = a · 1 − ℇ 2 C o s2 u du ⇒ L ≈ a·θ · 1+ − ( Very Accurate For Difference of Length ) .
0 4θ 2
.
PAGE 3
 SPHEROIDAL SURFACE PRESERVING PROJECTIONS
The Former Projections were Angle Preservings ( CONFORMALS ) ¸ The Followingp Projections Are Area Preservings .
1−ℇ 2 p S i n θ + σ 2 + S i n2 θ
Let : σ 2 = : ω (θ ) = S i n θ σ 2 + S i n2 θ + σ 2
L n ⇒
2 ℇ σ
a 2 · ℇ · α · ω (θ )
EQUATORIAL SURFACE = S (α , θ ) = ⇒
2
³ π´
POLAR SURFACE = S p (α , θ ) = S α , − S (α , θ ) And For an Hemisphere Then :
2 ⎛ ⎞

N
³ π´ Á1 − ℇ 2˜ T a n h -1 ℇ
HEMISPHERICAL SURFACE = S 2 π , = π · a 2 ⎝1 + È ˘ ⎠
2 ℇ
NOTE : The Following Projections : Planar¸Cylindrical And Conical Are Respectively Analogous To : Stereographic ¸ Mercator And Lambert .

U
³π ´ ℇ 2 + ÁÈ1 − ℇ 2˜˘ ℇ T a n h -1 ℇ
Let k = ω = ⇒
2
p ℇ3
PLANAR : ρ = a ℇ (k − ω (θ )) :φ=α
aℇ

H
CYLINDRICAL : x = a α :y= ω (θ )
2
T +T s
T a n 12 2 ℇ (k − ω (θ ))
CONICAL : T a n ∆ m = p ⇒ρ=a : φ = α S i n ∆m
1−ℇ2 S i n ∆m

Ø
ø
APPENDIX
SURFACE OF AN ELLIPSOID OF SEMIAXES
³ ‸ ‸
P (Ω , θ ) = a C o s Ω i + b S i n Ω j + c T a n θ k C o s θ
H a, b, c
‸´
: ( See PAGE 14 )

Øø
∂P ∂P Ø
∂Ω ∂θ
x
Ø
ø
ø
= N (Ω , θ ) =
µ
CosΩ ‸ SinΩ ‸ T anθ ‸
a
i+
b
j+
c
Ã
C ¶
k a b c C o s2 θ
!
¬
Z θZ Ω
Ø
ø b2 − a2

T
S (Ω , θ ) = (Ω θ )¬ ∂ Ω ∂ θ : 2 2 2 Ω
N , ¸ Let R e = a 1 + S i n
3 Ã 3 Ã
⇒
0 0 a2
Z ΩZ θ ! !
a2 − b2 Re2 − c2

I
S (Ω , θ ) = b c 1+ S i n2 Ω 1+ S i n2 θ C o s θ ∂ θ ∂ Ω
0 0 b2 c2
¯ ¯
¯ c2 ¯
σ2 = ¯
¯ ¯
( Notice That : IF c < ∨ > (a∧b) ⇒ R e > ∨ < c ) . DEVELOPMENT : IF Re = c THEN ω (Ω , θ ) = S i n θ ELSE ⇒ Let ¯
2
¯Re − c2¯
p

M
q
Sinθ + σ 2 + S i n2 θ
IF Re > c THEN ω (Ω , θ ) = S i n θ σ 2 + S i n2 θ + σ2Ln
σ
q
Sinθ
3
IF Re < c THEN ω (Ω , θ ) = S i n θ σ 2 − S i n2 θ 2
+ σ Sin -1
σ
Z Ω Ã !
a2 − b2

V
ω (Ω , θ )
⇒ S (Ω , θ ) = b c 1+ S i n2 Ω · ∂Ω
0 b2 σ (Ω )

Now Apply Numerical Integration ( Simpson ¸ Cotes ¸ Chebyshev ¸ Etc .) .

MEMORIAL AND NOTES :

A
¯ ³ ´¯ s
¯ 2 2 2 ¯ Z φ Z φq
¯¯ a b − c ¯¯ a2 − c2 ∂u
1) Let : k=¯ ¯<1 :φ= : F (k, φ ) = p : E (k, φ ) = 1 − k 2 S i n2 u ∂u ⇒
¯¯ b 2 Áa 2 − c 2˜ ¯¯ a2 0 1 − k 2 S i n2 u 0
È ˘
à !
b q 2

J
b
For The Whole Ellipsoid : S = 2 π · c2 1 + p F (k, φ ) + a − c2 E (k, φ )
a2 − c2 c2
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ + n (n − 1) n − 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) n − 3 3 n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) n − 4 4
2) ¯x¯ < ¯a¯WHEN n ≠ z : (a + x) n = a n + n a n − 1 x +
a x + a x + a x +…
2! 3! 4!
m
X m
X 2m
X Xn X m
3) Let : A= an xn : B = bn xn ⇒ C = A · B = c n x n Where : IF n ≤ m ⇒ c n = a k b n − k ELSE c n = ak bn − k
n=0 n=0 n=0 k=0 k =n−m
Z Z
−S i n n − 1 a x C o s a x n − 1
4) S i nn a x ∂ x = ± S i n n − 2 a x ∂ x ( Lower Sign For Analogous Hyperbolic Functions ) .
an n
³ ´ ³ ´
a2 + b2 c2 − 2 a2 b2 a2 − b2 c2 C Sin2Ω
5) APPROXIMATING S ( Ω , θ ) : C 1 = : C2 = > 0 : f (Ω ) = C 1 + 2
2 a 2 b2 2 a 2 b2 2Ω

⇒ : S (Ω , θ ) ≅ a b Kη 1 − η 2 + S i n -1 ηO · Ω · g 2 (Ω )
s q
1 + f (Ω ) Sinθ 1
g (Ω ) = :η=
f (Ω ) g (Ω ) 2
PAGE 4
 SPHEROIDAL COURSE LINES
Let The Departure And Destiny Of a Course Be Respectively : P 1 = (δ 1, α 1) And P 2 = (δ 2, α 2) ⇒
MERCATOR ( LOXODROMIC ) RHUMB (TM) AND DISTANCE (DM) :
Let X = α 2 − α 1 : Y = ψ 2 − ψ 1 : D L = L (θ 2) − L (θ 1) = Difference Of Meridional Length. ⇒
Y DL
T M = ±C o s -1 √ ( − ) When X < 0 : D M =
2
X +Y 2 CosT M
Y
The Following Trace The Loxodrome as a function of α : ψ = ψ 1 + (α − α 1)
µ ¶ X
δ π
Remember That For The Earth ⇒ ψ ≈ L n T a n + Thus Simplifying The Computation of ∆¸ For The Loxodrome.
2 4
GREAT ELLIPSE COURSE :
−Let The Spherical Arc And Azimuth From P1 to P2 Be Respectively : ( d, Z s ).
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ Sinε ¯
−Obliquity (ε) And Ecliptic Longitude (λ) : ε = C o s -1¯S i n Z s · C o s δ 1¯ : λ = S i n -1¯ ¯
S i n δ1
q T anε
−Minor Semiaxes And Eccentricity (e) : R ε = a · 1 − ℇ 2 S i n 2 θ ε : e 2 = ℇ 2 S i n 2 θ ε Where θ ε = T a n -1 p
1−ℇ2
−Equatorial Central Angles in The Elliptic Plane : λ 1 = λ · sign (C o s Z s) · sign (δ 1) : λ 2 = λ 1 + d
−Anomalistic Angles Which Are used for the DISTANCE (D) on the Great Ellipse:
− T a n λ1 − T a n λ2 π − 3 ¡− ¢ ¡− ¢
θ 1 = T a n -1 √ : θ 2 = T a n -1 √ Where : − ≤ θ 2 ≤ π ⇒ D = L θ 2 − L θ 1 ≥ 0
1−e 2 1−e 2 2 4
− π
WARNING‼ : For θ 2 Care must be taken When λ 2 > ⇒ A Partial Sketch of the Ellipse is Recommended.
2
The Following Trace The Great Ellipse as a Function of α : T a n δ = T a n ε · S i n (α − α ε )
T a n δ1
Where The EQUINOX α ε = α 1 − S i n -1
T anε
T anδ
REMEMBER! The Charted Latitude Label is ∆ And Not δ . Where ∆ = T a n -1
1−ℇ2
− SPHEROIDAL AZIMUTH ( Z ) : For The Earth Z ≈ Z s .P R O C E D U R E :
a 1 − ℇ 2˜
Á
È ˘ -1 T a n λ 1 a I1 − e 2M a
ρm = 3
: η 1 = T a n 2
: ρ =
z ¡ 3
: ρv = q ⇒
1−e ¢ 1 − ℇ 2 S i n2 ∆1
Á1 − ℇ 2 S i n 2 ∆ 1˜ 2 1 − e2 S i n2 η1 2
È ˘
ρ m, z, v Are Respectively : Meridional¸ Azimuthal And Prime Vertical Radius of Curvature. At δ 1.
ρm · ρv
( Z ) Is Straightforwardly Computed From : ρ z =
ρv C o s2 Z + ρm S i n2 Z
HIGH ACCURACY ELLIPTIC LENGTH COMPUTATION :
For Decimetre Precision on The Earth Surface ⇒ Terms( A¸B¸C ) Are Enough.
−2 π ≤ θ ≤ 2 π
Sin2θ θ
Let The Following Terms ( A¸B¸C¸D¸E¸F ) Be : A = +
4 2
Sin2θ ·Cos θ 3 2 Sin2θ ·Cos θ 5 4
B= + A :C= + B
8 4 12 6
S i n 2 θ · C o s6 θ 7 S i n 2 θ · C o s8 θ 9
D= + C :E= + D
16 8 20 10
S i n 2 θ · C o s 10 θ 11
F= + E ⇒
à 24 12 !
ℇ2 ℇ4 3 6 15 8 105 10 945
L (θ ) = a · θ − A− B− ℇ C− ℇ D− ℇ E− ℇ 12 F · · · ·
2 8 48 384 3840 46080
¡− ¢
NOTE : For The Great Ellipse ⇒Use θ , e Instead of (θ , ℇ ) .
RATE OF CHANGE OF COORDINATES DUE TO RAPIDITY ON A SPHEROIDAL SURFACE :
Let The Rapidity And Track Respectively be (V , T ) Also Subindexes (m, p) Be Meridional And Parallel. ⇒
∂θ p ∂α ∂α p
Vm = V · C o s T = · a · 1 − ℇ 2 C o s2 θ : Vp = V · S i n T = ·a·Cosθ ⇒ = S e c2 θ − ℇ 2 · T a n T
∂t p p ∂ t ∂ θ
∂∆ 1−ℇ2 ∂θ 1−ℇ2 ∂∆ 1−ℇ2
= : = ⇒ =
∂ θ 1 − ℇ 2 C o s2 θ ∂ δ 1 − ℇ 2 C o s2 δ ∂ δ 1 − Á2 − ℇ 2˜ ℇ 2 C o s 2 δ
È ˘
PAGE 5
 TURNING ROUTE CONSTRUCTION
m·V2
THEORETICALLY¸ The Characteristic Turning Radius Of a Vessel is : R = But : V = K v · R P M
F.C o s θ · S i n 2 θ
√
∗ ∗ ∗ WARNING ! The Trigonometric Term is Maximum µ
When θ ¶= T a n -1 2 = 54.74° ⇒ R has a Minimum! .
−2 β y√
SOLVING FOR θ : Let y = C o s θ · S i n 2 θ ⇒ C o s θ = √ C o s ± 120° Where : C o s β = 27 ( Lower Sign For y < 0 ) .
3 3 2
η·P·Cosτ W M eter Kv3 · W
F= : P = Kp · R P M 3 : m = : g = 9.8 ( ) ⇒ R ( M e t e r s) =
Kv · R P M g S e c2 g · η · C o s τ · Kp · C o s θ · S i n2 θ
K p = Propeller Constructive Constant ¸ P = Power on The Shaft ( Watt ) ¸ η =Propeller Efficiency ( ≈0.5…0.8 ) ¸ τ = TRIM of the Vessel.
V=Speed ( Meter╱Sec ) ¸ m = Gross Mass ( Kgr ) ¸ F = Propulsion Thrust ( Newtons ) ¸ θ = Put−Over Angle on The Rudder.
Now Let : TRANSFER ( T ) ¸ ELONGATION ( E ) ¸ SHIFTING Distance And Angle ( D¸ ∆ ) ¸ CHANGE OF COURSE ( α ). ⇒
: α = „ ∆j
α ³ α´ ∆j
T = 2 R · S i n2 : E = R· 1 − Cos : Dj = 2 R · S i n
2 2 2
In Practice ( R¸θ ) Are Computed After Fixing ( E ) . Also Could be After Measuring ( T ) By Fixing The Point ( I ) or ( F ) .
( D, ∆ ) Are used To Construct The Curve Which Would Be The PATH Traversed By The Vessel .
In The Following Figure : The Vessel must Enter On The FINAL COURSE LINE For a RANGE or Whatsoever...
.

PAGE 6
 STABILITY FUNDAMENTALS
WHEN an External Disturbance Shift The Vessel‵s Mast an Angle θ ( Off The Vertical ) ; THEN an EMMERSED And IMMERSED Wedges Appears .

Each Wedge Of Equal Volume v And Of Respective Volumetric Centroid K B 1, B 2O D = √ B2− B1 √ ⇒

→
− →
− →
− →
−
. Now Let
s
v I (θ ) I (θ )
The Distance From B to B f is Given By : ·D And From B f To M f : : R (θ ) =
V V A (θ )
( R , I , A ) = Respectively ( Radius of Gyration ¸ Inertia Moment ¸ Surface ) Of The WATER−PLANE at The TILT θ .
W
V= : ( V ) EMMERSED Volume of The Vessel ¸ ( W ) = The Displacement ¸ ( γ ) = Density of The Flotation Liquid.
¡ γ ¢
B, B f = Respectively Volumetric Centroid of V at (θ = 0, θ ≠ 0) . Is The Point Where The Flotation Upthrust Actuates.
( G ) = Volumetric Center of Gravity . If The Loads Keep STATIC Respect The Vessel¸Then so Will Be G .
M f = ProMetacentre . It is a Dynamic Point . But Static For about θ ≤ 15°. Then it is Simply Called Metacentre ( M ) .
s
R (0) 2
STILL−WATER PERIOD : T = 2 π
g·GM
RIGHTING LEVER : G Z = B R − B S
Z θ
VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT OF G : h = B f Z − B G = G Z (u ) ∂ u
0
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Thus ¸ We have For Rectangular Water−Plane Parallel Sides VESSELS ( In The Triangular Wedges Range ) :
I L·β3 β · L3
BM = : For Transverse Then I = And For Longitudinal Then I = ( β ¸ L ) = ( BEAM ¸ LENGTH )
V 12 µ12 ¶
d -1 2 d -1 2 ( H − d )
K B = : ( d ) = Draught G M = B M − B G ⇒ FOR 0 ≤ θ ≤ Minimum T a n ;T an THEN :
2 β β
µ ¶ µ ¶
BM 3 + Cos2θ
GZ = GM + T a n2 θ S i n θ : h = G M · (1 − C o s θ ) + B M · −1
2 4Cosθ
∗∗∗∗WARNING‼!! : Coordinated Axis Y Is Dynamic Respect The Ship . ( It is Not Always in Contact With The Vessel ) .
PAGE 7
 BASIC PLANE CENTROIDS AND INERTIA MOMENTS
The Shaded SECTOR Shown ¸ Could be For A PARABOLA ¸ ELLIPSE or A CIRCUMFERENCE Hence :
PARABOLA :
4 − 4 4 32 3
A = hH : X = h : Ix = h H 3 : Iy = h H
3 5 15 Ã p 35 !
p H2 2 h + H 2 + 4 h2
2
Perimeter : L = H + 4 h 2 + Ln
2h H
ELLIPSE : ( θ is The Anomalistic AngleÃof δ ) !
ab − 4 S i n3 θ
A= (2 θ − S i n 2 θ ) : X = a
2 3 2θ − Sin2θ
a b3 Á a3 b
Ix = 6 θ − Á3 + 2 S i n 2 θ ˜ S i n 2 θ ˜ : I y = (4 θ − S i n 4 θ )
8 È È ˘ ˘ 16
π ab Á 2
For The Whole Ellipse : I L = a S i n2 δ + b2 C o s2 δ ˜
4 È ˘
Perimeter : L = See PAGE 5 .
CIRCUMFERENCE : Is an Ellipse With a = b ⇒ θ = δ
INERTIA MOMENTS ( I ) :
C
#1. I = Á A 3 + B 3˜
3È Ã ˘ !
D+C AÁ 3 3˜ A4 − B4
#2. I = A +B −
A+B 3È ˘ 4
HÁ 3
#3. I= A + B 3˜
È
12 Ã ˘
!
H B − D4 A4 − C 4
4
#4. I= +
12 B−D A−C
(C + D + E) I A 4 − B 4M
µ ¶Ã 3 !
A (C + D − A) A + B3
#5. I = E+ −
A+B 3 4 ( A + B)
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION :
When The Equations Are Not Available For Computing ( Centres And Moments ) ¸
Then Polynomial ( P(x) ) Approximations Are Used.( P(x) Mostly of Grade 2 or 3 )
Z b
h
SIMPSON ( Parabolic ) : P ( x)∂ x = (P (a) + 4 P (a + h) + P (b))
a 3
Z b
3h
COTES ( Cubic ) : P ( x)∂ x = (P (a) + 3 P (a + h) + 3 P (a + 2 h) + P (b))
a 8
STABILITY NOTES :
1) FREE SURFACE EFFECT :
Due To Movement of Liquids in Tanks KG Increases . ( See Figure on Page 6 )
The Effect is to DECREASE GM¸ Consequently Reducing GZ.
Let : γ k = Density of the Liquid (Tons╱ m 3 ) And W= Ship Displacement (Tons)
( L k , B k ) = Length And Breadth of the Liquid −Surface in Tank #k. ( m )
Hence Respectively for the Transverse And Longitudinal Increments (∆ G, ∆ G λ ) :

„ Lk · Bk · γk
N
„ Lk · Bk · γk
N
1 3 1 3
∆G = : ∆ Gλ =
12 W 12 W
k=1 k=1

2) STILL− WATER PERIOD :

The Transverse s Can be Transformed To :
s And Longitudinal Still− Water Period
I ·γ 2π Iλ · γ · W
T = 2π : Tλ = ( Sec )
G M · T P C · g · 100 100 M C T · T P C · λ · g
γ = Density Of The Flotation Liquid = 1.025 ( Tons╱ m 3 ) For Sea Water .
m
λ= Water−Plane Length (m) : g = Acceleration of Gravity = 9.81 ( 2 )
s
T ons·m T ons
MCT in ( ) And TPC in ( )
cm cm
∗∗∗WHEN T = The WAVE PERIOD Seen From The Vessel. The VESSEL Could CAPSIZE.
Recommended GM in %BEAM : Respectively ( 8%¸4%¸3% ) For Tankers¸Passenger And Cargo SHIPS.
PAGE 8
 LOAD DISTRIBUTION
To Compute The Effect of Loads Distribution on a Vessel ¸ is Necessary a 3D Coordinated System For Positioning of Those .
This System Could Be : ORIGIN=Midship The Keel ¸ POSITIVE SEMIAXES ( X¸Y¸ Z ) = Respectively Starboard ¸ Bow And Height .
EXPLANATION : Let Center Of Gravity G position be ( X¸Y¸ Z ) And Center of Buoyancy be ( x¸y¸z ) For a given (θ¸ θ λ ) . ⇒
The Heeling Arm = G Z = X − x And The Trimming Arm = G Z λ = Y − y . Now let W be The Displacement of The Ship :
∗ Heeling Momentum =W·GZ ¸ it Tends To Rotate The Vessel Around Semiaxes ( Y ) And it is > 0 Clockwise seen from Astern .
∗Trimming Momentum = W · G Z λ ¸ it Tends to Rotate The Vessel Around Semiaxes ( X ) ¸ And it is > 0 Clockwise seen From Starboard .
⇒INVERSELY : If Momentums Are Previously Knowns ¸ Thus Enabling The ARMS ¸ Then : (θ , θ λ) Can be From The Stability Equations .
à Q
! Ã Q
!
→ N
X →
− X →
− N
X X
⇒ The Center Of Gravity = G = P k Wk ± P j Wj ╱ Wk ± Wj
k =1 j=1 k =1 j=1

→
−
(+╱−) Respectively For Loading And Discharging . Hence our Vessel‵s G Could Keep Up−Dated . ⇒
→
−
1) If While Loading The Weight W N And G Be Prefixed . Then This Cargo Must be Set at The Following Position :
à !
→
− → N
X N
X −1 −
→
PN = G Wk − P k Wk ╱ WN
k =1 k =1
→
− →
− Ø
ø Ø
ø
2) If Loading W N Yields G N ¸ While G is Desired ¸ Then P N aught to be Shift ∆ Given By :
→ →
N
→
− G − GN X →
− →
−
∆= Wk ⇒ The new Position For W N is P N + ∆
WN k = 1
→
−
3) If G o is The Actual G For ( m ) Weights . And Weight W N is to be Loaded or Discharged . Then The Final G is given by :
→ ³−
→ → ´ m
X ±1 →
G = P N − G o ( WN ╱ Wk ) + G o
k =1

HEELING AND TRIMMING : The Best For an Efficient Propulsion And Dynamic Stability Performance is That θ = θ λ = 0
Although Allowances in The Trimming ¸ aught To Be Considered For Fuel Consumption During Voyage .
NOTE : The Following Workout is Longitudinally . But The Transverse case is Analogous .
4) The Centre Of Flotation ( CF ) is the Water−Plane ( WTP ) Centroid . And is The PIVOTING Point For Heeling and Trimming .
D f o r e + Da f t
The CF Draught is Constant For a Given Displacement ¸ ( is The TRUE DRAUGHT ) And is Given By : D c f =
2
5) TRIM ( T ) : A Vessel is Trimed Astern οr on the Bow Respectively When T < 0 or T > 0 Where T = D f o r e − D a f t
Dm − Dc f T
6) MIDSHIP DRAUGHT( D m ) : = = T a n θ λ Where θ λ = Longitudinal Stability Angle ¸ And λ The WTP Length .
δc f λ
δ c f = The CF Distance From Midship Along The WTP . It is > 0 Towards The Bow .
γ ·A
7) Tons Per Centimeter of Immersion = T P C = Where A = WTP Surface ( m 2 ) ¸ For Sea Water γ = 1.025 Ton╱ m 3
100
Z D
c f2
8) Change in Displacement = ∆ W = T P C ∂ Dc f : D c f − D c f = The SINKAGE .
Dc f 2 1
1
W ·GMλ
9) Momentum To Change The TRIM one (1) Centimeter = M C T = Tons−metre╱cm Of Change Of TRIM .
100 λ
10) Change in Momentum ( µ k ) ¸ Caused By W k ¸ Longitudinally Shifted a Distance δ k : µ k = ∆ T k · M C T k = δ k · W k
∆ T k = Change of TRIM ( cm ) And δ k in ( m ) .
IF The Shifting of W k ¸ Tends To IMMERSE The Bow . THEN µ k > 0
WHEN Loading or Discharging W k ¸ HENCE Apply The Same Rule ¸ But δ k is Measured From The CF .
11 ) Remembering That If θ λ ≠ 0 ⇒ We Have an Emmersed ( e ) And Immersed ( i ) Wedges ¸ Pivoted at The CF . ⇒
∆ D i −∆ D e ∆ T k
The Changes in Draughts are Related By : = = Where : C F i + C F e = λ
C Fi C Fe λ
STABILITY and Draughts Computations Aboard ¸ are Enabled By using The Hydrostatic Curves of The Vessel .
.
PAGE 9
 POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS
η ¡ η ¡ η ¡ ¢
Y ¢ Y ¢ 1 X ¡ ¢ Aj xj
Let : A ( x) = x − x j : A k ( x) = x − x j : L‵ k ( x k ) = : L‵ k x j = ¡ ¢
j=0 j=0
x − xj
j=0 k
x j − x k A k (x k)
j≠k j≠k

LAGRANGE POLYNOMIAL FORMULA :

The ALGEBRAIC POLYNOMIAL of Grade ( η ) ¸ such that : P η ( x k ) = f (x k ) ∀ k = 0,1,2…η is UNIQUE . ⇒
η
X
A k ( x) A ( x)

N
Lagrange Coefficients : L k ( x) = = ⇒ The INTERPOLATOR is : P η (x) = f ( x k ) L k ( x) . or by Solving The
A k ( x k ) ( x − x k ) A‵( x k )
k=0

η
X η
X η
X f (x k )
Following for C k : C k x km = f ( x m) ∀ m = 0,1,2…η ⇒ P η ( x) = Ck xk ⇒ Cη = : C 0 = f ( x 0) L 0 (0)

U
A k (x k)
k=0 k=0 k=0

NEWTON POLYNOMIAL FORMULA . { When Newton Polynomial is rearranged ⇒It is the same P η ( x) } :
η
" #
X mY−1 x − x
j
Let N 0 ( x) = f ( x 0) ⇒ N η ( x) = N m − 1 ( x) + f ( x m) − N m − 1 ( x m) L m Where L m =

H
⇒
m=1 j=0
x m − x j

" # η
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ Y x − xj
N η + 1 ( x) = N η ( x) + f x η + 1 − N η x η + 1 Lη + 1 Where L η + 1 =
x − xj

H
j=0 η+1

SIMPSON POLYNOMIAL FORMULA ¡ ¢ ¡. { ¢Accounting for one ( 1 ) First Derivative } :

f ‵ x j − P‵ η x j ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
S η + 1 ( x) = P η ( x) + A ( x) ¡ ¢ ⇒ S‵ η + 1 x j = f ‵ x j And S η + 1 ( x k ) = f ( x k ) ∀ k = 0,1,2…η

C
Aj xj
ηX
+1 ηX
+1 ¡ ¢ ηX
+1
SOLVING for C k From C k x km = f (x m) ∀ m = 0,1,2,…η And C k k x kj − 1 = f ‵ x j ⇒ S η + 1 ( x) = Ck xk
k=0 k=1 k=0

GAUSS POLYNOMIAL FORMULA . { Accounting for ( η+1 ) First Derivatives } :

η
X f ‵(x k ) − P‵ η (x k ) T
I
G (1 + 2 η) ( x) = P η ( x) + A (x) L k ( x) ⇒ G (1 + 2 η) ( x k ) = f ( x k ) And G‵ (1 + 2 η) ( x k ) = f ‵(x k ) ∀ k = 0,1,2…η
A k (x k)
k=0

+2 η
1X +2 η
1X +2 η
1X
SOLVING for C k From C k x km = f ( x m) And C k k x km− 1 = f ‵(x m) ∀ m = 0,1,2…η ⇒ G (1 + 2 η) ( x) = Ck xk
k=0 k=1 k=0

Lagrange or Newton : ζ η ( x) = f (x) − P η ( x) =

M
NUMERICAL INTERPOLATION ERROR :
A ( x)
( η + 1) !
· f (η + 1) (c) Where α < c < β ⇒ A max is a boundary .

V
B ( x)
Simpson : ζ η ( x) = f ( x) − S η + 1 ( x) = · f (η + 2) (c) Where α < c < β ⇒ B max is a boundary .
( η + 2) !
α+β
NOTE : Letting x j = m = Decreases the Simpsonian Error . Hence the notation would be simply B ( x) = (x − m) · A ( x)
2

A
C ( x)
Gauss : ζ η ( x) = f ( x) − G (1 + 2 η) ( x) = · f (2 + 2 η) (c) Where : C ( x) = A 2 (x) ; α < c < β ⇒ C max is a boundary .
(2 + 2 η ) !
General : A Polynomial F g ( x) accounting up to the N k t h Derivatives at ( x k ) is of grade g = η + N 0 + N 1 + N 2 + …N η . ⇒ The Setup for C k is

J
η
f (g + 1) (c) Y
Analogous as for Gauss . { ( g+1 ) Conditions } . And The Error : ζ η ( x) = · A ( x) (x − x k) N k Where α < c < β
( g + 1) !
k=0

N
X f (k ) ( x 0)
Hence when η = 0 ⇒ F g ( x) = Taylor Polynomial : τ N ( x) = ( x − x 0) k . From Simpson : P η ( x) = S η + 1 ( x) − A (x) C η + 1 ⇒
k!
k=0
µ ¶ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
β − α η+1 ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
P η ( x) = S η + 1 ( x) − C η + 1 A (t ( x)) ⇒ S
¯¯ η + 1 ( x) − P η ¯¯ = ∆
( x) ⇒ ¯¯ f ( x) − P η ¯¯ ≤ ∆ + ζ simpson
( x) Where :
δ −γ
S η + 1 ( x) ≜Could be any interpolator of grade ( η+1 ) for f( x ) . ⇒ Letting A( t ) = MONIC Chebyshev Minimizes ∆ And MONIC Legendre Minimizes ∆ r m s .
THE NODES
When The NODES ( t k )¸ obey the roots of an orthogonal polynomial X η + 1 (t) ¸such as : Chebyshev ¸ Legendre ¸ Hermite ¸ Laguerre ¸ Etc . ⇒

PAGE 10
 η
X
P η (t ) = a j X j (t ) And ζ (t ) May be Analized . ( Chebyshev Nodes Minimizes ζ max ¸While Legendre Nodes Minimizes ζ r m s ) .
j=0

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Bσ F
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CHEBYSHEV Polynomial : X σ (t) = C o s Jσ · C o s tN =

T
K σ O t (σ − 2 k ) Jt 2 − 1N = 2 σ − 1
−1 µ
σY ¶
-1
X
2 k (1 + 2 k ) π
t − Cos
2k 2σ
k=0 k=0
"
For Chebyshev Associated Polynomial X c (t) ( See Page 13E ) : X ‵ c (t) =
Z t ÍÎ
I ¸
(c + 2) t X c (t) − (c + 1) X c + 1 (t)
1 − t2
And The Gaussian ω k =
π · ÁÈ1 − t k2˜˘
c+1
#

1Î X (t) − X σ + 1 (0) X σ − 1 (t) − X σ − 1 (0) Xσ + σ Xσ − 2 + σ − 1

X σ (u)∂ u = ÎÎÎ σ + 1 : 2 X m (t) X n (t) = X m + n (t) + X m − n (t) : t σ =

M
−
0 2 ÎÎÎÏ σ +1 σ −1 2σ − 1
(t) + X σ − 1 (t) σ S i n ÁÈσ C o s -1 t˜˘ σ t X σ (t) − σ X σ + 1 (t)
t X σ (t) = σ + 1
X
: X ‵ σ (t ) = = : X m n (t ) = X m ( X n (t )) = X n ( X m (t ))
2 S i n C o s -1 t 1 − t2

V
Z 1
4σ2 − 2
Norma : k X σ k 2 = X σ2 (t)∂ t = . Let − 1 ≤ t o < t 1 < t 2 < t 3 < … < t η ≤ 1 Where X σ (t k ) = 0 ; σ = η + 1 ⇒
−1 4σ2 − 1
µ ¶ ¯ ¯
β +α β −α 1 + 2k π X σ (t ) σ ¯¯ ¯¯
xk = + Cos · ∀ k = 0,1,2,3,…η ; A (t) = ; Cσ = 2 −1 2
⇒ C (t) = A (t) ⇒ due that¯¯ X σ (t)¯¯ ≤ 1 ⇒
2 2 σ 2 Cσ

A
Z β Z Z β
(β − α ) σ (β − α ) 2 σ β −α 1 β −α
A ( x) ≤ And C ( x) ≤ ⇒ A ( x)∂ x = X σ (t )∂ t And C ( x)∂ x = kX σ k 2 : L.M.S Equation :
2σ Cσ 2
2 Cσσ 2 α 2 C σ −1 α 2 C σ2
η X
" η # η
X X

J
X i (t k ) X j (t k ) a j = f (t k ) X i (t k )∀ i = 0,1,2…η ⇒ ( Applying orthogonality properties to the Bracket ¸Simplifies a j computation ) .
j=0 k =0 k=0

η η η µ ¶
1 X 2 X 2 X 1 + 2k jπ
( See Page 20 ) Hence : a 0 = f (x k ) , a1 = t k f (x k ) And aj = f (x k) C o s · ∀ j = 2,3,4…η ⇒
σ k=0 σ k=0
σ k=0 σ 2

η
X x−α (−1) k + 2 X σ (t ( x)) q
P η ( x) = a 0 + a k X k (t (x)) : t ( x) = 2 − 1 . Although P η ( x) Could be with Lagrangre : L k ( x) = 1 − t k2
k=1
β −α (t ( x) − t k ) σ
h i
λ
λ 1 − 2k Z 1
2
1 X (−1) k (2 λ − 2 k ) ! λ − 2 k Y 2λ
LEGENDRE Polynomial : X λ (t) = λ t ⇒ X 2 λ ( 0) = : t X λ − 1 (t) X λ (t)∂ t =
2 k !(λ − k ) !(λ − 2 k ) ! 2k −1 4 λ2 − 1
k=0 k=1
PAGE 11
Z
X λ + 1 (t ) − X λ − 1 (t ) (λ + 1) X λ + 1 (t) + λ X λ − 1 (t) λ X λ − 1 (t ) − λ t X λ (t )
X λ (t)∂ t = . Recurrence :t X λ (t) = : X λ‵ (t) =
1 + 2λ 1 + 2λ 1 − t2
m n (m + 1) (n + 1) X m (t) X n (t) = J1 − t 2N X ‵ m (t) ‵ · J1 − t 2N X ‵ n (t) ‵ : ¯X λ (t)¯ ≤ λ 2 m : X ‵ λ (1) = λ (λ + 1) ╱ 2
h i h i ¯ ¯
¯ (m ) ¯

2
Norma : kX λk 2 = : Now Let − 1 ≤ t o < t 1 < t 2 < t 3 < … < t η ≤ 1 Where X λ (t k ) = 0 And λ = η + 1 ⇒
1+ 2λ
β +α β −α X λ (t ) (2 λ ) ! (β − α ) λ (β − α ) 2 λ
xk = + tk ∀ k = 0,1,2,3,…η ; A (t) = ; Cλ = λ ⇒ A ( x) ≤ ⇒ C ( x) ≤
2 2 Cλ 2 (λ !) 2 2λ Cλ
2 2 λ C λ2
x − x0
COTES : Are Related to Equally Spaced Nodes : x k + 1 = h + x k ⇒ α ≤ x o < x 1 < x 2 < x 3 < … < x η ≤ β ⇒ t ( x) =

N
h

I M
β −α β −α 1 (−1) η − k η
When x 0 = α : h = ⇒ ( Closed Cotes ) And When x 0 = α + h : h = ⇒ ( Open Cotes ) . Any way : =
η η+2 A k (x k ) η !h η k

(−1) k − j J kj N f ( x + j h) ⇒ N η ( x) = f ( x 0) +
η
k
X X ∆ k f ( x 0) kY−1
∆ η f ( x 0)

U
Progressive k t h differences : ∆ k f ( x) = (t ( x) − j) ⇒ C η =
j=0 k=1
k! j=0
η !h η
¯ ¯
η
Y η
Y ¯ ¯
Lagrange − Cotes : ⇒ A ( x) = h η + 1 (t ( x) − j ) ⇒ A (t ) = h η + 1
¯ ¯
(t − j) ⇒ A max = max¯ A (t)¯

H
j=0 j=0
¯ ¯
à !
h2 2 h3
For instance : Respectively For η = ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ) ⇒ A max = , √ , h 4 , 3.631432208 h 5
4 3 3

H
η
à !
³ η´ Y h4
Simpson−Cotes : ( η≜EVEN ) ⇒ B (t) = h η + 2 · t − (t − j) ⇒ For η = ( 2 , 4 ) ⇒ B max = , 6.042360226 h 6
2 j 0 4
=

C
à !
2 h4 4 h6 8 10
Gauss− Cotes : ⇒ C max = A max ⇒ For η = (1,2,3,4 ) ⇒ C max = , ,h , 13.18729988 h ⇒ C max < B max < A max
16 27
COMMENT : Cotes competes with Chebyshev And Legendre due to it‵s relative simplicity . But Chebyshev is the best for INTERPOLATIONS .

T
While the most EFFICIENT for numerical integration may be Gauss Polynomial with Legendre nodes ( Gauss−Legendre ) . ⇒ Cotes stands for
when f (x ) is unknown ¸ but ( x ¸ y ) are knowns . Such as in Tables or Structural skeletons ( Naval And Civil constructions ¸ Etc ) . The Graph
bellow reveals that inclusive for interpolations ⇒ Legendre A ( x ) < Chebyshev A (x ) in the range between the First and Last nodes .

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PAGE 12
 Z β
NUMERICAL DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION : The integration ERROR = ε η = ζ η ( x) ∂ x
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ α
( N − 1) ¡ ¢
∂N ⎢ (N ) ∂ N ⎢ A ( x) (η + 1) (c ( x))⎥
N Aj x j (η + 1)
⎣ζ η ( x)⎥
⎦ = f (N ) ( x) − P η ( x ) = ⎣ · f ⎦= f (µ ) Where x j − 1 < µ < x j + 1
∂x N ∂ x ( η + 1) !
N ( η + 1) !
Z β Z tη " Y η
#
³ o pen ´
η + 2 ¡ ¢ (−1, η + 1)
Lagrange −Cotes : A (x)∂ x = h (t − j) ∂ t, ( The Latter = 0 For η ≜ EVEN ) . For ⇒ t 0, t η ≜
α t0 j=0
closed (0, η)

Z β Z β Z t η "³ η
#
B ( x) η´ Y

N
Simpson−Cotes : For ( η ) EVEN ⇒ ε η = ·f (η + 2 ) (c)∂ x : B ( x)∂ x = h η + 3 t− (t − j ) ∂ t
α (η + 2) ! α t0 2 j=0

WARNING ! : Integrating the interpolator F g ( x) without constructing ¸ is Feasible ONLY if ρ = 0 ⇒

Z β Z β

For instance : IF
Let g > η ⇒ F g ( x) = P η (x) + A ( x) M ( x) ⇒

η
X
α
[ F g ( x) − P η ( x) ]∂ x =

Z β Z β
α
U
A ( x) M ( x)∂ x = ρ

F g ( x) = [ Simpson −Symmetrical Nodes ( respect the origin ) ] or [ Gauss−Legendre ] THEN ρ = 0 . ⇒

η
X

H
Let P η ( x) = Ck xk : α ≤ xo < x1 < x2 < x3 < … < xη ≤ β ⇒ I = F g ( x)∂ x = P η ( x)∂ x = W k P η (x k)
k=0 α α k=0
Z β η
X β m+1 − αm+1
Wk = L k (x)∂ x or From The Following Linear System : k Wk =
xm ∀ m = 0,1,2,3,…η
m+1

H
α k=0

ad − bc b − a x−a b−a
NOTE : Let t∈[c¸d] ∧ x∈[a¸b] ⇒ x (t) = + t ⇔ t ( x) = (d − c) + c ⇒ L k ( x) = L k (t ( x)) ⇒ W k = ·ω
d−c d−c b−a d−c k

C
Where Respectively L k (t) And ω k Are Lagrange Multiplier And Weights For : c ≤ t o < t 1 < t 2 < t 3 < … < t η ≤ d
LAGRANGE−COTES INTEGRATION : Let (c, d ) = (0, η) And t k = k ∀ k = 0,1,2…η : ⇒ x k = α + h k ⇒ W k = h · ω k ⇒
Z η η η
(−1) (η − k ) Y X ηm + 1
ωk = (t − j)∂ t or From : k m ωk = ∀ m = 0,1,2,3,…η ⇒
0 k !(η − k ) ! j = 0

T
m+1
k=0
j≠k

I
" #
h − (β − α )3
For η = 1 ⇒ I = · P (α ) + P (β ) : ε 1 = f (2) (c) ( TRAPEZOIDAL ) .
2 12
" µ ¶ #
h α+β − (β − α ) 5 (4)
For η = 2 ⇒ I = · P (α ) + 4 P + P (β ) : ε 2 = f (c) PARABOLIC ( Simpson ) .

M
3 2 2880
" µ ¶ µ ¶ #
3h 2α + β 2β + α − (β − α ) 5 (4)
For η = 3 ⇒ I = · P (α ) + 3 P +3P + P (β ) : ε 3 = f (c) CUBIC ( Cotes ) .
8 3 3 6480
" #

V
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
14 h 32 3α + β 12 α+β 32 3β + α − (β − α ) 7 (6)
For η = 4 ⇒ I = · P (α ) + P + P + P + P (β ) : ε 4 = f (c) ( Boole ) .
45 7 4 7 2 7 4 1935360
NEWTON−COTES INTEGRATION : Let (c, d ) = (−1, η + 1) And t k = k ∀ k = 0,1,2…η : ⇒ x k = α + h (k + 1) ⇒
Z η+1 η η

A
β −α (−1) (η − k ) Y X η m + 1 + (−1) m + 2
h= : ωk = (t − j)∂ t or From : k m ωk = ∀ m = 0,1,2,3,…η ⇒
η+2 −1 k !(η − k ) ! j = 0 m+1
k=0
j≠k

J
For η = 0 ⇒ I = 2 h · P
" µ
µ

2
α +β
¶
: ε0 =
¶
(β − α ) 3 (2)

µ
24
f
¶#
¡ ¢
(c) RECTANGULAR { S 1 ( x) = f ( x o) + x − x 0 f ‵( x o) ≡ Simpson interpolator }

3h 2α +β 2β +α (β − α ) 3 (2)
For η = 1 ⇒ I = · P +P : ε1 = f (c) ( OPEN TRAPEZOID ) .
2 3 3 36
" µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶#
8h 3α +β 1 α +β α +3β 7 (β − α ) 5 (4)
For η = 2 ⇒ I = · P − P +P : ε2 = f (c) ( OPEN Simpson ) .
3 4 2 2 4 23040
" µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶#
55 h β +4α 1 3α + 2β 1 3β + 2α α +4β 19 (β − α ) 5 (4)
For η = 3 ⇒ I = · P + P + P +P : ε3 = f (c) ( OPEN Cotes ) .
24 5 11 5 11 5 5 90000
Analizing the error ε η ⇒ Recommendation : Use Open for η = 0 , 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 ,…, ( 2 Z ) And Closed for η = 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 ,…, ( 1 + 2Z ) .
A combination Closed−Open could improve the accuracy without sacrificing the efficiency . For instance : [ Closed Boole + Open Simpson ] ╱ 2
.
PAGE 13
CHEBYSHEV INTEGRATION : Let (c, d ) = (−1,1) ⇒ − 1 < t 0, t 1, t 2, t 3, …, t η < 1 Where X σ (t k ) = 0 And η+1=σ
− (β − α ) σ + 1 (σ ) (c) − (β − α ) 5 (4)
Lagrange−Chebyshev : σ = EVEN ⇒ ε η = ¡ ¢ f ⇒ For σ = 4 ⇒ ε 3 = f (c)
σ ! · 22 σ − 1 · σ 2 − 1 46080
" #
− (β − α ) σ + 2 1 1 7
(σ + 1) (c) ⇒ For σ = 5 ⇒ ε = − (β − α ) f (6) (c)
Simpson−Chebyshev : σ = ODD ⇒ ε η = + f 4
( σ + 1) ! · 2 2 σ + 1 ( σ + 1) 2 − 1 ( σ − 1) 2 − 1 15482880
√ " #
2 2 β −α 2 (β − α ) 5 (4)
Particularity : Let t 1 = 0 : t 2 = − t 0 = ⇒ : ω0 = ω1 = ω2 = ⇒ I = · P ( x 0) + P (x 1) + P ( x 2) And ε 2 = f (c)
2 3 2 3 11520
2 Á1 − t k2˜ (β − α ) 2 λ + 1 (λ !) 4 (2 λ)

N
È ˘ 2
GAUSS−LEGENDRE INTEGRATION : ω k = = Í ˙ And ε η = f (c)
(λ + 1) X λ + 1 (t k ) Á1 − t k ˜ ÎÎÏ X ‵ λ (t k )˚¸˚
2 2 2 2 (1 + 2 λ ) ((2 λ ) ! ) 3
È ˘
√ √
3 3 β −α (β − α ) 5 (4)
EXAMPLE : For λ = 2 Then t 0 = − , t1 = ⇒ ω0 = ω1 = 1 ⇒ I = (P (−x 0) + P ( x 0)) And ε 1 = f (c)
3 3 2 4320

U
r r
3 3 5 8 5
EXAMPLE : For λ = 3 Then t 0 = − , t1 = 0 , t2 = ⇒ ω0 = , ω1 = , ω2 = ⇒
5 5 9 9 9
µ ¶
β −α 5 8 5 (β − α ) 7 (6)
I= P ( x 0) + P ( x 1) + P ( x 2) : ε 2 = f (c) . Legendre is The Most EFFICIENT≜Accuracy╱Functional Evaluations .

H
2 9 9 9 2016000
£ ¤
COMPOUND INTEGRATION : Legendre is (2 λ − 1) ╱ λ N Times more efficient than Cotes . N≜ Multiplicity of the integral .
Z b X s
b−a
I= f ( x) d x : β − α = : s = INTEGER≜Number of Sections . ⇒ I = E η + Iδ : E η = s.ε η : c ∈ (a, b)

H
a s
δ =1
" # ( " #)
εη −h 4
f ( g ) ( b) − f ( g ) ( a)
− −
Eη = : g≜The Grade of The interpolator . Closed−Simpson : E 2 = f ‷(b) − f ‷(a) .
s→∞ (β − α ) · f (g + 1) (c) 180

EXAMPLE . Compound Lagrange−Cotes :

Z b

a
f ( x) d x = E η +
sX η
−1 X

C
δ =0 k=0
h ω k f [a + (δ η + k ) h]

T
b−a
Where : β − α = h η ⇒ h = : s ≥ b − a ⇒ α = a + δ η h And β = a + (δ + 1) η h ∀ δ = 0, 1,2,3,…s − 1
ηs
Z bZ d Z f
b−a d−c f −e τm

I
EXAMPLE . ( Nested ) : I = F ( x, y, z)∂ z∂ y∂ x ⇒ Let : τ 1 = : τ2 = : τ3 = : hm =
a c e s s s η
¡£ ¤ £ ¤ £ ¡ 1 ¢ ¤¢ 2 3 m
M (δ 1, δ 2, δ 3, i, j, k ) = F a + (δ 1 η 1 + i) h 1 , c + (δ 2 η 2 + j) h 2 , e + δ 3 η 3 + k h 3 ⇒
sX 2 − 1 sX
1 − 1 sX η1 X
3−1 X η3
η2 X
I =E+ h 1 h 2 h 3 ω i ω j ω k M (δ 1, δ 2, δ 3, i, j, k ) : E = s 1 · s 2 · s 3 · ε ¡η , η , η ¢ ⇒ For Closed−Boole :

M
1 2 3
δ1 = 0 δ2 = 0 δ3 = 0 i = 0 j = 0 k = 0

Cτ 1 F x α 1, β 1, γ 1 + τ 26 F y α 2, β 2, γ 2 + τ 36 F z α 3, β 3, γ 3
¸
− (b − a) (d − c) ( f − e) 6 (6) ¡ ¢ (6) ¡ ¢ (6) ¡ ¢
η=4⇒E= . For Newton−Cotes ⇒ (η, k )≜(η + 2, k + 1)
1935360

V
Z b − 1 λX
sX −1 ³ ´ h
τ τi
EXAMPLE . Compound Gauss−Legendre : f ( x) d x = E η + ω k f a + (1 + 2 δ + t k )
a 2 2
δ =0 k=0
b−a

A
Where : β − α = =τ : s≥ b−a ⇒ α = a + δ τ And β = a + (δ + 1) τ ∀ δ = 0,1,2,3,…s − 1 . Nesting is analogous to the latter example .
s
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¸
2 λ1 2 λ1 2 λ2 2 λ2 2 λ3 2 λ3 ¡ ¢
⇒ E = (b − a) (d − c) ( f − e)C(τ 1) K1 F x (α 1, β 1, γ 1) + (τ 2) K2 F y (α 2, β 2, γ 2) + (τ 3) K3 F z α 3, β 3, γ 3 Where :
" #

J
(λ m !) 4 (b − a) (d − c) ( f − e) 6 (6) 6 (6) 6 (6) ¡ ¢
Km = ⇒ For λ = 3 : E = · τ 1 F x (α 1, β 1, γ 1) + τ 2 F y (α 2, β 2, γ 2) + τ 3 F z α 3, β 3, γ 3
( 1 + 2 λ m) ( ( 2 λ m) ! ) 3 2016000
POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATION BACKGROUND
½ ¾ ½ ‸ ‸ ‸ ¾ ‸
− −
The base of all Polynomial P( t ) of grade ( ≤ N ) is T = 1, t, t 2, t 3, t 4, …t N ∧for all f( t ) : T = e t k 1, e t k 2, …e t k ∞ : k m ∈ ( Complex ).

−
nØ
ø Ø
ø Ø
ø Ø
ø ø o
Ø −
nØ
ø Ø
ø Ø
ø Ø
ø ø o
Ø
Let : T = T 0, T 1, T 2, T 3…, T N be knowns and X = X 0, X 1, X 2, X 3…, X M be the projection of system ( T ) on the ∟ system ( X ) .
k T Ø
ø Ø
ø
Ø
ø Ø
ø Ø
ø Ø
ø X k + 1∗ X j Øø Ø
ø Ø
ø Ø
ø
And k X j k 2 = X j∗ X j
j = 0 ¬ X j¬
Where : X 0 = T 0 : X k+1 = T k+1 − Ø
ø 2
· Xj ∀ k = 0,1,2,3,…( N − 1)

Ø
ø Ø
ø
Now since X m ≠ 0 ∀ m = 0,1,2,3…, M ⇒ The number of independent vectors of system ( T ) equals ( M+1 ) . ⇒If system ( T ) is a base Then
PAGE 13 A
System ( X ) would be an orthogonal base for system ( T ) . Such method could be used for orthogonal transformation of a matrix : C T G → C X G.
− ∟ −

Ø
ø Ø
ø
Orthogonals X j (t) ( Polynomials or Functions ) ¸ could be constructed by defining the inner product ( T ∗ X ) operation .
⇒ Such definition Respectively for polynomials ( Chebyshev ¸Legendre ¸ Hermite ¸ Laguerre ¸ Bernstein ) And Fourier Functions are as Follow :
Z 1 Z 1 Z ∞ Z ∞ m
X µ ¶ µ ¶ Z π
T (t ) X (t ) −t 2 −t k k
T∗X ≡ √ ∂t : T (t) X (t)∂ t : e T (t) X (t)∂ t : e T (t) X (t)∂ t : T X : T (t) X (t)∂ t
−1 1−t 2 −1 −∞ 0 m m −π k=0
¡ ¢
T 1∗M η2 − 1 ¡T 1∗ M η − 1 M η − 2
¢
⇒ MONIC RECURRENCE : Let M 0 = T 0 = 1 : Aη = : Bη =
⇒ Mη = t − Aη Mη − 1 − Bη Mη − 2
T 0∗M η2 − 1
T 0∗M η2 − 2

N
η η
" #
X N η (t) N η + 1 (s) − N η (s) N η + 1 (t) q X
2 q
Orthonormals : N j (s) N j (t) = · Bη + 2 : N j (t) = N η (t) N‵ η + 1 (t) − N‵ η (t) N η + 1 (t) Bη + 2
j=0
s−t j=0

U
Where : M η (t) = X η (t) ╱ C η ; N η (t) = X η (t) ╱ k X η (t) k . For a Polynomial P m (t) : IF m < η THEN X η (t)∗P m (t) = 0
Z d
Approximations : Let T∗X = ψ (t) T (t) X (t)∂ t ⇒ For F (t) ≅ φ m (t) ¸ Such to MINIMIZE the vectorial operation k F (t) − φ m (t) k 2 ⇒
c

¡X j¡ a 2j
m
X m
X

H
F∗X j
¡X j¡
2
φ m (t ) = a j X j (t ) Where aj = 2
⇒ The Least Mean Square Error = kF (t) − φ m (t)k 2 = kFk 2 −
j=0 j=0

Z b ∞
X G∗X j
¡X j¡
Parseval Identity : I∗ = ψ (t) F (t) G (t)∂ t = k Xj k2 aj bj Where bj = . For instance : IF ψ (t ) = 1 THEN

H
a 2
j=0

Z b "Z #
∫ cd F (t) X j (t)∂ t m
X d m
X
b−a
¡X j¡
2∂ F2
1) aj = ⇒ φ m ( x) = a j X j (t ( x)) And [ F ( x) − φ m ( x) ] x= · (t)∂ t − k X j k 2 a 2j

C
2 a d −c c
j=0 j=0

Z b
b−a X∞ ∫ cd G (t) X j (t)∂ t b−a X∞ 2a b

¡X j¡
λ λ
2) I∗ = F ( x) G ( x)∂ x = k Xj k2 aj bj Where bj = ⇒ For Legendre : I ∗ =
a d−c j 0 2 2 1 + 2λ

T
= λ =0

C η · ¡ X η + 1 (t)¡
( )
m
b−a X
C η + 1 · ¡ X η (t)¡
2 aλ bλ q
Now IF F( x ) And G( x ) are Algebraic Polynomials of Grade ( m ) ⇒ I ∗ = . GENERAL : Bη + 2 =

I
2 1 + 2λ
λ=0
‸
2X
m−1 → ‸ µ ¶
− 1 mX
−1 ¡ ¢ i j k π
j
Fourier Series : Let P m (t ( x)) = C k e i k t ( x) : A k ( j) = f xj e m . When t j = − π + π , ∀ j = 0,1,2,3,…, 2 m − 1 ⇒
m j 0 m

M
k=0 =

→
− →
− →
− →
−
The following holds : C k + C k + m = 2 A k (2 j) And C k − C k + m = 2 A k (1 + 2 j) ( Always The lower limit of the summation is j = 0 ).
Z d
T∗X = ψ (t) T (t) X (t)∂ t : ψ (t) > 0≜Inner product weight function ⇒ Doing ψ (t) · G 1 + 2 η (t) ⇒

V
GAUSSIAN QUADRATURE : Let
c
Z d η
X k X η + 1 k 2 f (2 + 2 η) (γ )
Z d
IF X η + 1 (t k ) = 0 ⇒ ψ (t) f (t)∂ t = ε η + ω k f (t k ) Where : ε η = · , ωk = ψ (t) L k (t)∂ t
c C 2η + 1 (2 + 2 η) ! c
k=0

A
η Z d " µ ¶ #
X 1 + (−1) m m+1
or solving : t km ω k = m
t · ψ (t)∂ t ∀ m = 0,1,2…η ⇒ Such integral for [ Hermite ; Laguere ] = Γ ; m!
c 2 2
k=0

C η + 2 ¡ X η + 1¡
J
Γ (x) ≜ Gamma Function . Although

H ! · 2H −1 π
√ √
H! π
ωk =
C η + 1 X η + 2 (t k ) X η‵ + 1 (t k )
Z ∞
2
2
: C η + j≜Coefficient of t η + j in X η + j (t)≜( Leader Coefficient ) . ⇒
√ " Ã r !
π 3
Ãr !# √
3 π (6)
HERMITE : ω k = : εη = H f (2 H ) (γ ) ⇒ e −t f (t)∂ t = f − + 4 f ( 0) + f + f (γ )
2 2
H X H − 1 (t k ) 2 (2 H ) ! −∞ 6 2 2 960
" #
e f (t)∂ t = I2 + 2M f I2 − 2M + I2 − 2M f I2 + 2M + f (4) (γ )
Z ∞
(L !) 2 · t k (L !) 2 (2 L) 1 √ √ √ √ 1
LAGUERE : ω k = 2 : εη = f (γ ) ⇒ −t
X L + 1 (t k ) ( 2 L ) ! 0 4 6
Z 1 Z β Z Î Í √ ˙
˚
f (t)∂ t π π f (2 σ ) (γ ) β − α 1 ÎÎÎÏ 1 − t 2 F ( x (t))˚˚˚¸∂ t
CHEBYSHEV : √ ⇒ ωk = : ε η = 2 σ − 1 Notice : F (x)∂ x = √ Also :
−1 1 − t 2 σ 2 (2 σ ) ! α 2 −1 1 − t2
Z ∞ Z ∞ Í ¸ Z Z ÎÍÎ ¸
2ÎÎ 2 ∞ ∞
Quadrature Adaption : F ( x)∂ x = e −t ÎÎÎe t F (t) ∂ t Analogously : F ( x)∂ x = e −tÎÎÎe t F (t) ∂ t
−∞ −∞ ÎÎÏ 0 0 ÎÎÏ
PAGE 13 B
 h i ⎡ ⎤
H
2
X (−1) k ⎢2 k −1 H
⎢ Y ⎥
⎥ (−1) H (2 H ) ! Y
HERMITE Polynomial : X H (t ) = (2 t ) H + ⎢ ⎥(2 t) H − 2 k
( H − j)⎦ ⇒ X 2 H (0 ) = = (−1) H · 2 H (2 k − 1 )
k! ⎣ H!
k=1 j=0 k=1

For instance : X 6 (t) = 64 t 6 − 480 t 4 + 720 t 2 − 120

, X 7 (t) = 128 t 7 − 1344 t 5 + 3360 t 3 − 1680 t : X ‵ H (t) = 2 H X H − 1 (t)
Z ∞ √ Z ∞ √
2 2 2
X H + 1 (t) = 2 t X H (t) − 2 H X H − 1 (t) . Norma : k X H k 2 = e −t X H (t)∂ t = H ! · 2 H π : t H e −t X H (s t)∂ t = H ! π X λ (s) : ( λ = H )
−∞ −∞

K H O X k Is 2M X H − k It 2M
¡ H
¢X H
X
√ √ X k ( s) X k ( t ) X H + 1 ( s) X H ( t ) − X H ( s) X H + 1 ( t )
X H (s + t) = 2 −H ╱ 2 : =
H ! · 2 H + 1 · (s − t )

N
k=0
k
k=0 k !2 k
⎡ ⎤
Z a Z a
L
X (−1) L + k ⎣kY
−1
LAGUERE Polynomial : X L (t) = (−1) L t L + (L − j) ⎦t L − k
2 . Remember : F (t)∂ t = (F (t) + F (−t))∂ t
k! −a 0
k=1 j=0

⇒ X 6 (t) = t 6 − 36 t 5 + 450 t 4 − 2400 t 3 + 5400 t 2 − 4320 t + 720

Notice that Laguere polynomial don‵t satisfies : X η (−t) = (−1) η X η (t)
,
Nor X 2 η − 1 (0 ) = 0
U
X 7 (t) = − t 7 + 49 t 6 − 882 t 5 + 7350 t 4 − 29400 t 3 + 52920 t 2 − 35280 t + 5040
. But ( σ , λ, H ) Satisfies though .
L X L (t ) − L 2 X L − 1 (t )

H
X L (0 ) = L ! : X L + 1 (t ) = (2 L + 1 − t ) X L (t ) − L 2 X L − 1 (t ) : X ‵ L (t ) =
t
¡X η (t)¡
Z ∞ Z ( Z d 2)
(L + 1 ) X L (t ) − X L + 1 (t ) η
Norma : k X L k 2 = e −t X L2 (t)∂ t = (L !) 2 : X L (t)∂ t = ; GENERAL : ψ (t) t X η (t)∂ t =
0 L+1 c Cη
L
X X k ( s) X k ( t )
k=0 (k !) 2
=
X L + 1 ( t ) X L ( s) − X L ( t ) X L + 1 ( s)
(L !) 2 (s − t ) H
. NOTE : For ( s = t ) Then see page 13B ( ORTHONORMALS ) .

" #

C
Z ∞ ∞ ³ µ ¶ √ µ ¶
1 Y x´ − x 1 (2 m ) ! π 1 √
GAMMA FUNCTION : Γ ( x > 0) = t x − 1 e −t∂ t ⇒ = x eγ x 1+ e k :Γ +m = ⇒Γ = π
0 Γ ( x) k 2 m ! · 22 m 2
k=1
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶ ³ ´ ³ ´
mY
−1 1−2 m x m−1 π

T
1 1 k
Γ +m ·Γ − m = (−1) m π : Γ x+ =m 2 · (2 π ) 2 · Γ (m x) : Γ (x) · Γ (1 − x) =
2 2 m S i n (x π )
k=0

I
¶ µ
1 k
Recurrence : Γ ( x + 1) = x Γ ( x) = ( x! When x ∈ Z + ) . Remember : e = L i m ≈ 2.718281828459045235360287… 1+
k
k→∞
Z ∞
Γ ‵(x) X∞ µ1 1
¶ Z ∞
2 1
µ
m+1
¶
Euler constant : γ = − −t
e L n (t)∂ t = 0.5772156649015328… ⇒ = −γ + − : m
t e −t ∂t = · Γ
0 Γ (x) k x+k−1 0 2 2
k=1

BETA FUNCTION : β ( x > 0, y > 0) =

0
Z 1
M
t x − 1 (1 − t ) y − 1∂ t =
0
Z ∞
tx−1
(1 + t ) x + y
Z π
∂ t = 2 2 S i n2 x − 1 θ C o s2 y − 1 θ ∂ θ =
0
Γ (x) · Γ ( y)
Γ ( x + y)

t x − 1 Ja b − t bN
Z a Γ Á x ˜ · Γ ( y)

V
y − 1
General : ∂ t = È b ˘x · a (x + b ( y − 1)) . Remember : π = 3.141592653589793238462643
0 Γ ÁÈ b + y˜˘
APPENDIX
Z b Z d ( x) Z f ( x y )
b−a

A
EXAMPLE # 1 . ( Closed− Cotes ) : I = F ( x, y, z)∂ z∂ y∂ x ⇒ ( Transformation procedure ) : Let x (r) = a + r ⇒
a c ( x) e ( x y) η1 · S1
d ( x ( r ) ) − c ( x ( r) )
y (r, s) = c ( x (r)) + s
η2 · S2

J
ÎÍÎ ¸
f [x (r), y (r, s)] − e[x (r), y (r, s)]
z (r, s, t) = eÎÎÎ x (r), y (r, s) + t ⇒
ÎÎÏ η3 · S3
b − a d ( x (r)) − c ( x (r)) f [x (r), y (r, s)] − e[x (r), y (r, s)]
Φ (r, s, t) = · · · F ( x (r), y (r, s), z (r, s, t)) ⇒
η1 S1 η2 S2 η3 S3
Z η S Z η S Z η S SX1 − 1 SX 2 − 1 SX
3−1 X η1 X η2 X η3
1 1 2 2 3 3
I= Φ (r, s, t)∂ t∂ s∂ r = E + ωi ωj ωk Φ (u η 1 + i, v η 2 + j, w η 3 + k )
0 0 0 u=0 v=0 w=0 i=0 j=0 k =0
⎛ ⎞ ⎡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
⎤
N
Y C C C
E=⎝ S j⎠ · ⎣M 1 Φ r 1 (α 1, β 1, γ 1) + M 2 Φ s 2 (α 2, β 2, γ 2) + M 3 Φ t 3 (α 3, β 3, γ 3)⎦
j=1
µ ¶
αk βk γk
Where (0,0,0 ) < , , < (η 1, η 2, η 3) . For instance : IF η = ( 1¸ 2 ¸ 3 ¸ 4 ) ⇒ K = ( −1╱6 ¸ −4╱15 ¸ − 9╱10 ¸ − 128╱21 )
S1 S2 S3
PAGE 13 C
 η
Z η Y
m m
Computing K : Let For η m = Odd ⇒ C m = η m + 1 ; Km = (u − p)∂ u
0 p=0

Z η ³ ηm
´Y N
m η Km Y
And : For η m = Even ⇒ C m = η m + 2 ; Km = u− m (u − p)∂ u : Mm = · ηj
0 2 Cm !
p=0 j=1
j≠m

Z b Z d (x) Z f (x y)
(η 1 + 1 ) a + b b−a
EXAMPLE # 2 . ( Open− Cotes ) : I= F ( x, y, z)∂ z∂ y∂ x ⇒ Let x ( r) = + r ⇒
a c ( x) e ( x y ) η 1 + 2 ( η 1 + 2) · S 1
( η + 1 ) c ( x ( r) ) + d ( x ( r ) ) d ( x ( r ) ) − c ( x ( r) )
y (r, s) = 2

N
+ s
η2 + 2 (η 2 + 2 ) · S 2
ÍÎ ˙˚ ÍÎ ˙˚
(η + 1) eÎÎÏx (r), y (r, s)˚˚¸ + f ÎÏÎx (r), y (r, s)˚˚¸ f [x (r), y (r, s)] − e[x (r), y (r, s)]
z (r, s, t) = 3 + t ⇒
η3 + 2 (η 3 + 2 ) · S 3
b−a d ( x (r)) − c ( x (r)) f [x (r), y (r, s)] − e[x (r), y (r, s)]

U
Ω (r, s, t) = · · · F ( x (r), y (r, s), z (r, s, t))
(η 1 + 2 ) S 1 (η 2 + 2 ) S 2 (η 3 + 2 ) S 3
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ η1 X η2 X η3
Z η +1 S Z η +1 S Z η +1 S
1 1 2 2 3 3
SX1 − 1 SX2 − 1 SX 3−1 X
I= Ω (r, s, t)∂ t∂ s∂ r = E + A (u, v, w, i, j, k )
−S 1 −S 2 −S 3 u=0 v=0 w=0 i=0 j=0 k =0

E= ⎝
YN
⎞ ⎡
⎠ ⎣
Sj · M1 Ωr
¡ ¢
C1
£

¡ ¢
(α 1, β 1, γ 1) + M 2 Ω s
C2
(α 2, β 2, γ 2) + M 3 Ω t
¡ ¢
C3
H
A (u, v, w, i, j, k ) = ωi ωj ωk Ω (1 − S 1 + (η 1 + 2) u + i), (1 − S 2 + (η 2 + 2) v + j), (1 − S 3 + (η 3 + 2) w + k )
⎛ ⎤
(α 3 , β 3 , γ 3 )⎦
¤

H
j=1
µ ¶
αk βk γk
Where (−1, − 1, − 1) < , , < (η 1 + 1, η 2 + 1, η 3 + 1) . For instance : IF η=( 0 ¸ 1¸ 2 ¸ 3 )⇒K=( 2╱3 ¸ 3╱2 ¸ 112╱15 ¸ 95╱6 )
S1 S2 S3

C
ηm
Z η +1 Y
m
Computing K : Let For η m = Odd ⇒ C m = η m + 1 ; Km = (u − p)∂ u
−1 p=0

T Iη j + 2M
Z η +1 ³ ηm
´Y N
m η Km Y
And For η m = Even ⇒ C m = η m + 2 ; Km = u− m (u − p)∂ u : Mm = · ⇒
−1 2 Cm !
p=0 j=1

I
j≠m

Due that K > 0 for open ¸ And K < 0 for Closed . ⇒For Multiple integral ( ≥ 2 D ) ¸ a combination ( Closed−odd ╱Open−even ) may improve the accuracy .
Z b Z d ( x ) Z f ( x y)
b+a b−a
EXAMPLE # 3 : I= F ( x, y, z)∂ z∂ y∂ x ⇒ ( Transformation procedure ) : Let x (u) = + u ⇒

M
a c ( x) e ( x y) 2 2
d ( x (u )) + c ( x (u )) d ( x (u )) − c ( x (u ))
y (u, v) = + v
2 2
f [x (u), y (u, v)] + e[x (u), y (u, v)] f [x (u), y (u, v)] − e[x (u), y (u, v)]
z (u, v, w) = + w ⇒

V
2 2
b − a d ( x (u)) − c ( x (u)) f [x (u), y (u, v)] − e[x (u), y (u, v)]
F (u, v, w) = · · · F ( x (u), y (u, v), z (u, v, w))
2 2 2
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
⇒I= F (u, v, w)∂ w∂ v∂ u ⇒

A
−1 −1 −1
σX 2 − 1 σX
1 − 1 σX 3−1 πN ¡ ¢ p p p
Gauss−Chebyshev : I = E + Ψ u i , v j, w k : Ψ (u, v, w) = 1 − u2 1 − v2 1 − w 2 · F (u, v, w)
i=0 j=0
σ1 σ2 σ3
k=0
⎡
⎢Ψu
2 1
¡

J
2 σ1
¢
(α , β , γ ) Ψ v
E = π N · ⎣ 2 σ −1 1 1 1 +
· (2 σ 1 ) !
¡
2 σ2
(α 2 , β 2 , γ 2 ) Ψ w
2 2 σ 2 − 1 · (2 σ 2 ) !
+
¢ ¡
(α 3 , β 3 , γ 3 ) ⎥
2 2 σ 3 − 1 · (2 σ 3 ) !
⎦
2 σ3
¢ ⎤

Where : (−1, − 1, − 1) < (α k , β k , γ k ) < (1,1,1 )

λX 2 − 1 λX
1 − 1 λX 3−1 ¡ ¢ (λ m !) 4 · 2 2 λ m
Gauss−Legendre : ⇒ I = E + ω i ω j ω k F u i , v j, w k . Let K m = ⇒
i=0 j=0 k=0 ( 1 + 2 λ m) ( ( 2 λ m) ! ) 3
ÍÎ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¸
Î 2λ 2λ 2λ
E = 2 N ÎÎÎK 1 F u 1 (µ 1, ρ 1, τ 1) + K 2 F v 2 (µ 2, ρ 2, τ 2) + K 3 F w 3 (µ 3, ρ 3, τ 3) N = Multiplicity of the integral . = ( 2¸ 3 ) For ( 2D ¸ 3D ).
ÎÎÏ
Z bZ ∞ Z ∞
b+a b−a
EXAMPLE # 4 : I = F ( x, y, z)∂ z∂ y∂ x ⇒ Let : x (u) = + u . ( Integrating respect (u) could be by Cotes ¸ σ or λ ) .
a −∞ 0 2 2

PAGE 13 D
 b − a v2 + w p ¡ ¢
F (u, v, w) = ·e · F ( x (u), v, w) or Ψ (u, v, w) = 1 − u 2.F (u, v, w) . Now Let Hermite And Laguere nodes be v j, w k ⇒
2
sX η HX
−1 X −1
− 1 LX
2 ¡£ ¤ ¢
Newton−Cotes : Let h= ⇒ I = Ec + h ω i ω j ω k F − 1 + ( ( η + 2 ) δ + i + 1 ) h , v j, w k
(η + 2).s
δ =0 i=0 j=0 k =0

σX
− 1 HX
− 1 LX
−1
π ¡ ¢ λX
− 1 HX
− 1 LX
−1 ¡ ¢
Chebyshev : I = Eσ + ω ω Ψ u i , v j, w k . Legendre : I = Eλ + ω i ω j ω k F u i , v j, w k
i=0 j=0 k =0
σ j k i=0 j=0 k =0
" #
√ π (2 λ) H! (2 H ) 2 (L !) 2 (2 L)
Eσ = π · 2 σ −1 Ψu (α 1, ∆ 1, ρ 1) + H − 1 Ψv (α 2, ∆ 2, ρ 2) + Ψw (α 3, ∆ 3, ρ 3)
2 · (2 σ ) ! 2 · (2 H ) ! (2 L) !
" #

N
√ (λ !) 4 · 2 2 λ + 1 (2 λ ) H! (2 H ) 2 (L !) 2 (2 L)
Eλ = π· F
3 u
(α 1 , ∆ 1 , ρ 1) + H − 1 Fv (α 2, ∆ 2, ρ 2) + F w (α 3, ∆ 3, ρ 3)
(1 + 2 λ ) ((2 λ ) ! ) 2 · (2 H ) ! (2 L) !
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ HX 2 − 1 HX
1 − 1 HX 3−1 2 2 2
EXAMPLE # 5 : I = F ( x, y, z)∂ z∂ y∂ x = E + ω i ω j ω k F ÁÈu i, v j, w k ˜˘ : F (u, v, w) = e u + v + w F (u, v, w)

U
−∞ −∞ −∞ i=0 j=0 k=0

⇒ E = I π M · ÎÎÎ K 1 F u 1 (µ 1, ρ 1, τ 1) + K 2 F v 2 (µ 2, ρ 2, τ 2) + K 3 F w 3 (µ 3, ρ 3, τ 3)
√ N ÍÎÎ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¸
Hm ! 2H 2H 2H
Let K m = H
2 m ( 2 H m) ! ÎÎÏ

H
Z ∞Z ∞Z ∞ 1 − 1 LX
LX 2 − 1 LX3−1 ¡ ¢
EXAMPLE # 6 : I = F ( x, y, z)∂ z∂ y∂ x = E + ωi ωj ωk F u i, v j, w k : F (u, v, w) = e u + v + w F (u, v, w)
0 0 0 i=0 j=0 k=0
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
(L m !) 2

H
2L 2L 2L
Let Km = ⇒ E = K 1 F u 1 (µ 1, ρ 1, τ 1) + K 2 F v 2 (µ 2, ρ 2, τ 2) + K 3 F w 3 (µ 3, ρ 3, τ 3) .Where (µ k , ρ k , τ k ) > (0,0,0 )
(2 L m) !
Z ∞ Z ∞ HX
− 1 LX−1 ¡ ¢ 2
EXAMPLE # 7 : I = F ( x, y)∂ y∂ x = E + ω i ω j F u i , v j, : F (u, v) = e u + v F (u, v)
−∞ 0

C
i=0 j=0
" # " #
√ H! (2 H ) ¡ ¢ (L !) 2 (2 L) ¡ ¢
E= π· Fu ∆ 1, ρ 1 + Fv ∆ 2, ρ 2 . CHEBYSHEV associated Polynomial : X c (t) = S i n (c + 1) · C o s -1 t ╱ S i n C o s -1 t ⇒
2 H · (2 H ) ! (2 L) !

BcF
K c + 1 O t c − 2 k Jt 2 − 1 N = 2 c
T
2 cY
−1 µ ¶ Z 1 p Z 1 p
X k (k + 1 ) π π
X c (t ) = t − Cos : 1 − t 2 · t m∂ t = f (Γ , β ) . Norma : 1 − t 2 · X c2 (t)∂ t =
2 k −1 c+1 −1 −1 2
k=1 k=0

X c = 2 t X c − 1 (t ) − X c − 2 (t ) =
X ‵ σ + 1 (t )
c+1
¡ ¢
I
∗COMMENT . The following could be useful : Respectively for ( Lc ¸ Nc ¸ λ ¸ σ ¸ c ¸ H ¸ L ) ⇒ ∑ ωk
¡ ¢ c+1
: IF X c t k = 0 ⇒ −1 k + 2 · X ‵ c t k =
2
1 − tk
³ ´
: | Xc | ≤ c + 1 : Xσ = Xc − t Xc − 1 : 1 − t2 Xc = t Xσ + 1 − Xσ + 2
√
= ( η , η + 2 , 2 , π ¸ π╱2 , π,1).

M
ROOTS AND GAUSSIAN WEIGHTS
∗Roots and Weights for Gauss−Legendre : X 8 (t) = 0 ⇒
t→ →ω
±0.1834346425 → → 0.3626837834

V
±0.5255324099 → → 0.3137066459
±0.7966664774 → → 0.2223810345
±0.9602898565 → → 0.1012285363
∗∗Roots and Weights for Gauss−Hermite : X 7 (t) = 0 ⇒

A
t→ →ω
0→ → 0.810264617557
±0.816287882862 → → 0.425607252606

J
±1.67355163077 → → 0.0545155820883
±2.65192365204 → → 0.000972170019505
∗∗∗Roots and Weights for Gauss−Laguere : X 6 (t) = 0 ⇒
t→ →ω
0.22284660418 → → 0.45896467393
1.18893210167 → → 0.417000830784
2.992736326 → → 0.113373382103
5.77514371783 → → 0.0103991939717

9.83746731537 → → 261.017238347 · 10 −6

15.9828739806 → → 898.547906431 · 10 −9

PAGE 13 E
 LAGRANGE-COTES

For n = 8
t={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7, 8}
N
w = { 0.279082892416 , 1.66151675485 , -0.261869488536,
2.96183421517 , -1.2811287478 , 2.96183421517 , -
U
0.261869488536 , 1.66151675485 , 0.279082892416 }
K = -18369.9393942

For n = 9 H
t={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
H
w = { 0.286975446428 , 1.58112723214 , 0.108482142856 ,
1.94303571429 , 0.580379464287 , 0.580379464284 ,

C
1.94303571429 , 0.108482142857 , 1.58112723214 ,
0.286975446429 }
K = -42994.4318171
T
I
NEWTON-COTES

M
For n = 8
t={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
w = { 4.45877425044 , -12.8858024691 , 36.7504409171 , -
V
60.7032627866 , 74.7597001764 , -60.7032627866 ,
36.7504409171 , -12.8858024691 , 4.45877425044 }

A
K = 973757.575868

For n = 9
J t={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
w = { 4.17179880401 , -10.0081554508 , 23.7561563051 , -
25.8958575838 , 13.4760579255 , 13.4760579255 , -
25.8958575838 , 23.7561563051 , -10.0081554508 ,
4.17179880401 }
K = 1990509.58357

PAGE 13 F
 CONSTRUCTING THE INTERPOLATOR FROM OTHER PERSPECTIVE :
The General interpolator F g ( x) ( See Page 10 ) . Could be split in two ( 2 ) Parts : ⇒ F N + η + 1 ( x) = P η ( x) + A ( x) Q N ( x)
X N
Where : ( N+1 ) = Total Distributed Derivatives And Q N ( x) = b k x k ⇒ The Setup for the computations of b k
k=0

m ¡ ¢
X
are from ( N +1 ) Conditions . Where one ( 1 ) condition has the Form : f (m) (a) = P (m) (a) + m (s)
s A (a) Q
(m − s)
(a)
s=0

The outlined condition is accounting for the m t h Derivative at x = a ≜ Could be a node or not . The system is Linear for b k .
Remember that IF (a) is a node THEN A (0) (a) = 0 . { Such Perspective of the subject open an analysis panoram } .
FOR INSTANCE : When accounting only for NODAL FIRST DERIVATIVES such that N ≤ η ⇒ Q N ( x) Could be

‸
be included in such formula . ⇒ Let such nodes be x k And let Y k = ‸ ¡‸ ¢
Ak xk
¡‸ ¢
f ‵ x k − P‵ η x k
⇒ Q N ( x) =
XN ‸
Y k L k ( x)
N
constructed by means of Lagrange formula analogously just as for P η ( x) . But only those nodes having first derivatives may
¡‸ ¢

U
k=0

‸
A ( x) · A ( x) ( N + η + 2 )
⇒ The Error ζ η = f ( x) − F N + η + 1 ( x) = f (c) . Notice That When N = [ 0; η ] ⇒ [ Simpson ; Gauss ] .
( N + η + 2) !

H
EXAMPLE # 1 . ( Antinodal first derivatives ) : Let The nodes be at X λ (t) = 0 And The Derivatives at X σ (t) = 0 ⇒
(λ · σ )≜EVEN ; t k ≜Legendre Nodes ; a k ≜Chebyshev Nodes . ⇒ b k Are from the following Linear System :
" # " #
σX
−1 ¡ ¢ k ¡ ¢ k −1 ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
X ‵λ aj aj − k Xλ aj aj b k = f ‵ a j − P‵ λ − 1 a j C λ ∀ j = 0,1,2,3…σ − 1

H
k=0

{ For nodal derivatives ¸ then the second term in the summation equal zero } .
X λ (t ) X λ (t ) · X σ (t )
⇒ The interpolator is F λ + σ − 1 (t) = P λ − 1 (t) + Q σ − 1 (t ) ; ζ η = f (λ + σ ) (c) Where − 1 < c < 1

C
Cλ C λ · C σ · (λ + σ ) !
Z 1
2
Notice that for λ = σ ⇒ ζ η (t)∂ t = 2 f (2 λ) (c) And that C λ C σ > C 2 λ Therefore :
−1 C λ · ( 2 λ ) ! · (1 + 2 λ )
The outlined Legendre+Chebyshev Combination ¸ is The best interpolator And quadrature integrator in one . ( λ = σ = Even ) .

" # T
EXAMPLE # 2 . ( Semi−antinodal first derivatives ) : Nodes at X λ (t) = 0 And Derivatives at the roots of t · X λ − 1 (t) = 0 ⇒
λ≜ODD . Hence derivative at t = 0 is a nodal derivative ⇒ b k are From the following Linear System :
" #

I
λX−1 ¡ ¢ k ¡ ¢ k −1 ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
( Antinodal Conditions ) : X ‵λ tj tj − k Xλ tj tj b k = f ‵ t j − P‵ λ − 1 t j C λ ∀ j = 0,1,2,3…λ − 2
k=0

f ‵(0) − P‵ λ − 1 (0)
( Nodal Condition ) : b 0 = · Cλ . ( In The above Linear system t j≜Roots of X λ − 1 (t) ) .

M
X ‵ λ (0)
X (t ) X (t) · t X λ − 1 (t) (2 λ)
⇒ The interpolator is F 2 λ − 1 (t) = P λ − 1 (t) + λ Q λ − 1 (t) ; ζ η = λ f (c) Where − 1 < c < 1 ⇒
Cλ C λ · C λ − 1 · (2 λ ) !
Z 1
2λ (2 λ ) !

V
ζ η (t)∂ t = ¡ ¢ f (2 λ) (c) . Remember : C λ = λ ; Cσ = 2σ − 1
−1 C λ · C λ − 1 · (2 λ ) ! · 4 λ 2 − 1 2 (λ !) 2
Due that λ C λ = (2 λ − 1) C λ − 1 ⇒ The integrals in both Examples #1 And #2 Are equals .
EXAMPLE #3 : If throughout example #2 we substitute λ for σ ⇒: such interpolator wouldn‵t be a quadrature integrator :

A
Z 1
X σ (t )
Due Q σ − 1 (t)∂ t ≠ 0 . This same situation arise in example #1 if σ > λ . ⇒ A quadrature integrator must be of grade : g ≤ 1 + 2 η .

I 1 − t 2 k M X λ (t )
−1 C σ
λX−1
EXAMPLE # 4 . ( Constructing P λ − 1 (t) ) : X λ (t m) = 0 ⇒ Could be P λ − 1 (t) = f (t k )

J
⇒
k=0
λ X λ − 1 (t k ) (t − t k )

I1 − t 2 k M
" #
λX
−1
X λ − 1 (a) − a X λ (a) X λ (a)
P‵ λ − 1 (a) = ¡ ¢ − f (t k ) ⇒ At The Nodes :
k=0
1 − a 2 (a − t k ) λ · (a − t k ) 2 X λ − 1 (t k )

I 1 − t 2 k M f (t k )
¡ ¢ −1
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ λX−1
1 X λ − 1 t j λX
P‵ λ − 1 t j = f t j + 2
¡ ¢
i=0 j
t − ti 1 − t j k = 0 t j − t k X λ − 1 (t k )
i≠ j k≠ j
" ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ #
λX
−1 ¡ ¢ f ‵ t j − P‵ λ − 1 t j X λ (t )
⇒ Gauss−Legendre : F 2 λ − 1 (t ) = f tj + ¡ ¢ X λ (t ) ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
j=0
Cλ X ‵λ tj t − tj X ‵λ tj

PAGE 13 G
 ELLIPSOIDAL PROJECTIONS
‸ ‸ ‸
Let Semiaxes ( a ¸ b ¸ c ) for an Ellipsoid ¸ Stands Respectively on Cartessian axes ( i, j, k ) . ( See Appendix on Page #4 ) .
GEOGRAPHIC ⇔TRANSVERSE Coordinates TRANSFORMATIONS :
A Point ( P ) on an Ellipsoidal Surface May be Represented by The Cartessians ( X ¸ Y ¸ Z ) ¸ or by The Geographics ( Ω ¸θ ) .
or JΩ j, θ jN ⇒
¡ ¢
But The Same Point Respect a Fictitious Pole on axes ( i or j ) ¸ Could Respectively be As Ω i, θ i
Ø
ø ‸ ‸ ‸
System ( k ) ¸Sequence (abc) : P = a C o s θ C o s Ω i + b C o s θ S i n Ω j + c S i n θ k
Ø
ø ‸ ‸ ‸
System ( i ) ¸Sequence (bca) : P = b C o s θ i C o s Ω i j + c C o s θ i S i n Ω i k + a S i n θ i i

N
Ø
ø ‸ ‸ ‸
System ( j ) ¸Sequence (cab) : P = c C o s θ j C o s Ω j k + a C o s θ j S i n Ω j i + b S i n θ j j
→
−
∗ Sequences are Applied To Equations holding Analogies to The Geographic System ( k ) Owns . Such as Transverse Projections or Vector N
Relations are Obtained By Equating The Components of The outlined Parametric Equations . We Mention The Basics : ( Division Yields TANGENT Relations . )
X = a S i n θi = a C o s θ C o s Ω = a C o s θj S i n Ωj
Y = b S i n θj = b C o s θ S i n Ω = b C o s θi C o s Ωi
Z = c S i n θ = c C o s θi S i n Ωi = c C o s θj C o s Ωj
° °
U
b S i n θj b ° ° aSinθ
i b S i n θj c S i n θ

H
Y b °Ø ø °
⇒ = T ANα = = C o t θi C o s Ωi = T a n θj S i n Ωj : ° P ° = = =
X a S i n θi a a ° ° S i n δi S i n δj Sinδ
Y Z X
α i = ± C o s -1 p ( − )Z < 0 : α j = ± C o s -1 p (−)X <0 α = ± C o s -1 p ( − )Y < 0
Y 2 + Z2 Z2 + X 2 X2+Y2

H
COORDINATES IDENTITIES FOR THE GEOGRAPHIC SYSTEM . ( k ) ⇒ Sequence ( a ¸b ¸c ) :
a a2
T anλ = T anΩ = T a n α : ( λ ¸Ω ¸ α ) are Respectively GEODETIC ¸ ANOMALISTIC and GEOCENTRIC Longitudes .
b b2 s
q µ ¶ µ ¶
CosΩ 2 SinΩ 2

C
T anθ Re T a n δ
R e = (a · C o s Ω ) 2 + (b · S i n Ω ) 2 ⇒ + = =
a b c T a n ∆ c2 T a n ∆
( ∆ ¸ θ ¸ δ ) Are Respectively GEODETIC ¸ ANOMALISTIC and GEOCENTRIC Latitudes .
β And The ISOMETRIC LATITUDE ψ : ¯ ¯
β = a.b.R e b 2 + Ja 2 − b 2N S i n 2 Ω
T
³ ´− 3 µ ¶ ¯ 2 2¯
π δ ¯Re − c ¯ − Re
2 : IF R e = c THEN ψ = L n + ELSE Let : ℇ2 = ¯ ¯ : T an ∆ = T anθ ⇒
4 2 ¯ Re2 ¯ c
¡ −¢ ¡ −¢

I
IF Re > c THEN γ = − ℇ T a n h -1 ℇ S i n ∆ ELSE γ = ℇ T a n -1 ℇ S i n ∆
−
Áπ ∆ ˜
⇒ ψ = γ + L n T a n ËËË + ¯¯¯
Ë ¯
È4 2 ˘
CONFORMAL PROJECTIONS :

M
Let T= Standard Anomalistic Latitude Of The Projection ⇒
STEREOGRAPHIC : ρ = R e · (1 + S i n T ) · e − β ψ : φ = λ : K C h = β · (1 + S i n T ) · e − β ψ · S e c θ
s
Z Ω
a2 − b2
MERCATOR : L (Ω ) = b 1+ S i n u2 ∂ u ⇒ x = L (Ω ) · C o s T : y = Re · ψ · C o s T : KC h = S e c θ · C o s T

V
0 b2
1 CosT
Ln
Re
− T1 + T2 Re C o s T2 C o s T2
LAMBERT : Let T a n ∆ m = T an : h = c S i n T2 + − :τ = ⇒
c 2 T an ∆ m ψ2 − ψ1
τ h · τ −ψ τ

A
ρ = h · e−ψ τ · S e c ∆ m : φ = · λ : KC h =
− −
·e · S e c ∆ m · S e c θ ( Notice That h is Constant ).
β Re
Projections in System ( i ) or ( j ) Are Transverse .They‵re Analogous To ( k ) . ⇒ Begining¡ From ¢Coordinates Identities Through ¸ do :
Simply Substitute (abc) For (bca) or (cab) ¸ Also Respectively using (Ω i, θ i) or Ω j, θ j in The Equations of Projections .

J
‸ ‸ ‸ ‸
So we have for Spheroidal Transverse Projections : Let a Fictitious Pole be on The Equator at α 0 ¸ on Axes e 3 ¸ Of The Coordinated System e 1, e 2, e 3 .
( X¸ Y¸ Z ) The Point To be Projected . ⇒ E 1 = Y C o s α 0 − X S i n α 0 : E2 = Z : E3 = X C o s α0 + Y S i n α0 ⇒ Use Sequence (aba) And :
E E1
θ e = S i n -1 3 : α e = ± C o s -1 q
( − ) When E 2 < 0
aE21 + E22
s
AREA PRESERVING : PLANAR : ⇒ ρ = CS Ω ,
³ ¸
π´ 2 S (Ω , θ )
− S (Ω , θ ) · , φ = α : CYLINDRICAL : x = L (Ω ), y =
2 α L (Ω )
ah T + T2 bh T + T2 p A2 − B2 A2 − B2 ³ π´
CONICAL : ⇒ A = T an 1 :B= T an 1 : C = A2 + h2 : p = :q= : Se = S Ω , − S (Ω , θ )
c 2 c 2 B 2 2
C s 2
q q Z Ω s Z Ω
RH Se 4 R2 H 2 − C 4 q2 S i n2 2 Ω
R (Ω ) = B 1 + p S i n 2 Ω : H (Ω ) = C 1 − q S i n 2 Ω : S c = ∂Ω ⇒ρ=H ,φ= ∂Ω
0 2 S c 0 4H4
PAGE 14
 THE GEODESIC
Ø
ø Ø
ø
Let P 1, P 2 be Two (2) Points of a Plane That Intersect The Ellipsoid ¸ And Passes Through The Origin ¸Thus Generating a Curve in Space .
→
− Ø
ø Ø
ø ‸ ‸ ‸
This Spatial Curve ¸ is Called GEODESIC . HenceThe Mentioned Plane NORMAL is : G = ± P 1 x P 2 = A i + B j + C k Where C > 0 . ⇒
− →
→ − →
−
It holds for the Geodesic that P · G = 0 ¸ Where P is The Parametric Equation of The Ellipsoid . ⇒
The Following Equations Trace The Geodesic ¸ Respectively in Anomalistic And Geocentric Geographic Coordinates :
a ACosΩ + bBSinΩ ACosα + BSinα
EQ1. T anθ = ¸ T anδ = EQ2.
−c C −C

N
a
The Above Equations ¸ are LINKED by The Following Relation : T a n Ω = T a n α . REMEMBER :
b
k 1 C o s ( x − k 3) k
For y = k 1 S i n x + k 2 C o s x ⇒ y = Where T a n k 3 = 1 ⇒ Notice That :
S i n k3 k2

U
π
Geodesic Equatorial Intersection : y = 0 When (x − k 3) = ± And The Geodesic Vertex : y = ( Max ¸ Min ) When (x − k 3) =( 0 , π )
2
Hence ¸ The Elliptic Semiaxes √ P e √ , √ P v √ of the Geodesic ¸ is √ P √ Evaluated Respectively at The Equatorial Intersection And Vertex
→
− →
− →
−

H √ P e√
→
−
→
− →
−
Pe· P
√P e √ · √ P√ √ P v√
∼ ∼ ∼
Geocentric ( α ) And Anomalistic ( γ ) Oblique Longitudes : C o s α = →
− →
− : T anγ = →
− T an α

If Required : The Following Formulae Can be Applied to The Geodesic :

Ib 2 + Ia 2 − b 2 M S i n 2 γ M 2
3
‸ a2 − b2 ‸ a2 − b2
H
For an Ellipse of Semiaxes ( a ¸ b ) And Anomalistic Angle ( γ ) ⇒The Radius of Curvature ( ρ ) And Center of Curvature ( Φ ) Are :
Z γ s
→

C
→ 2 a2 − b2
ρ= : Φ =a C o s3 γ + b S i n3 γ : Length = b 1+ S i n2 γ ∂γ
ab a −b γ1 b2
Øø ø
∂P · Ø
T
Ø
ø Ø
ø →
− →
−
∂ θ
→
−
GEODESIC TANGENT ( T ) And AZIMUTH ( Z ) : T = G x N : CosZ = ° Ø

T
ø ° ° ° ( For N See Page #4 ) .
°
°∂ P °° ° °Øø °
°
°
° ∂θ °° · °
° T°°

I
GEODESIC ARC LENGTH ( L ) :
Substituting EQ1 in The Parametric Equation of The Ellipsoid yields :
ÎÍ ˚˙ 1
Let : F (Ω ) = ÎÎ(a A C o s Ω + b B S i n Ω ) 2 + c 2 C 2˚˚ 2 ⇒
ÎÏ ˚¸
acCCosΩ bcCSinΩ A B
X (Ω ) = , Y (Ω ) = , Z (Ω ) = − X (Ω ) − Y (Ω ) ⇒

M
F (Ω ) F (Ω ) C C
Let : Q (Ω ) = (a A C o s Ω + b B S i n Ω ) (b B C o s Ω − a A S i n Ω ) ⇒
∂ X −a c C IF 2 S i n Ω + Q C o s Ω M ∂ Y b c C IF 2 C o s Ω − Q S i n Ω M
= : =
∂Ω F3 ∂Ω F3

V
NOTE : The Following integral ¸ is Valid For Any Geodesic SPAN ¸ And it does not require Geometric Analyses :
Z Ω "µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶ #1
2 ∂X 2 ∂Y 2 A ∂ X B ∂Y 2 2
L= + + + ∂Ω
Ω1 ∂Ω ∂Ω C ∂Ω C ∂Ω

A
APPENDIX
TRIGONOMETRIC
à !
FUNCTIONS EXPANSIONS : Ã !
n n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3)……(n − k + 1) n! n
BINOMIAL COEFFICIENT : = = =

J
k n! k !(n − k ) ! n−k
à ! ( à ! à ! )
1 2 n ( −1 ) n 2 n 2 n
S i n2 n θ = + Cosn2θ − C o s (n − 1) 2 θ + ……(−1) n − 1 Cos2θ
22 n n 22 n − 1 1 n−1
( Ã ! Ã ! )
(−1) n − 1 2n − 1 2n− 1
S i n2 n − 1 θ = S i n (2 n − 1 ) θ − S i n (2 n − 3) θ + ……(−1) n − 1 Sinθ
2 2 (n − 1) 1 n−1
à ! ( à ! à ! )
1 2 n 1 2 n 2 n
C o s2 n θ = + Cosn2θ + C o s (n − 1) 2 θ + …… + Cos2θ
22 n n 22 n − 1 1 n−1
( Ã ! Ã ! )
1 2n − 1 2n − 1
C o s2 n − 1 θ = C o s (2 n − 1 ) θ + C o s (2 n − 3) θ + …… + Cosθ
2 2 (n − 1) 1 n−1
à µ ¶ ! à µ ¶ 2!
∞
Y θ 2 ∞
Y θ X∞ 1
Sinθ = θ · 1∓ : Cosθ = 1∓ : T anθ = 8θ ( Lower Sign For Hyperbolics ) .
jπ (2 j − 1) π (2 j − 1) 2 π 2 ∓ 4 θ 2
j=1 j=1 j=1

PAGE 15
 TRANSFORMATIONS
→ ¡ −¢ ‸ ‸ ‸ − ¡ ¢ ¡ −¢ ¡ −¢ ¡ −¢ − ¡ ¢
Let : P X = X 1 i + X 2 j + X 3 k : Where X = X 1, X 2, X 3 . Now Let The Substitutions : X 1 = f 1 T , X 2 = f 2 T , X 3 = f 3 T Where T = T 1, T 2, T 3
Ø
ø
Ø
ø ¡ −¢ → ¡ − ¡ − ¢¢ ¡ −¢ ‸ ¡ −¢ ‸ ¡ −¢ ‸ → ∂Q ∂ fm jm n
⇒ Q T = P f T = f1 T i + f2 T j + f3 T k Now Let : h n = : jm n = : rm n = ° → ° ⇒ The Following Matrices Emerge :
∂T n ∂T n °
° °
°
° h n°
° °
The JACOBIAN ( J ) And The ROTATION ( < ) ¸ For The Transformation from System ( X ) To System ( T ) : ( n Stands For Column ) ⇒
Í ˙
J X T = ÎÏÎ j m n˚˚¸ 3 x 3 And < X T = [r m n] 3 x 3 : The Transformation is INVERTIBLE When det J X T ≠ 0 ⇒ X ↔ T ⇒
‸ ‸ ‸ ‸ ³‸ ‸ ‸ ´ t
Át˜ = Át 1, t 2, t 3˜ = i, j, k ∗< X T ¸ Differentials : (∆ X 1, ∆ X 2, ∆ X 3) = (∆ T 1, ∆ T 2, ∆ T 3)∗J X T

N
È˘ È ˘
° ° ° ° ° °
→ → ∟ t ¯ ¯ ° ° → °° ° ° → °° ° ° → °°
The Transformation is ORTHOGONAL When h j· h k = 0 ∀ j≠k ⇒ X ↔ T ⇒ <T X = < X T And ¯J X T ¯ = °
° h 1° ·
° ° ° h ° ·
2° ° ° h 3°
°
EXAMPLE #1. ( CARTESIAN Position Vector Transformation ) : We Know That The Components of a Vectorial Field Depends ONLY of < X T . But The Components

U
Of a Position Vector ¸ Additionally Depends of The Origin Position of The Cartesians Systems involucrated in the Transformations . ⇒ a Point in Space Could be :
Ø
ø ‸ ‸ ‸ Ø
ø ‸ ‸ ‸ Ø
ø ‸ ‸ ‸
P X = X1 i + X2 j + X3 k or P T = T1 t1 + T2 t2 + T3 t3 or P W = W1 w1 + W2 w2 + W3 w3
→
− →
−
Let The Origin And Rotation of System ( T ) And System ( W ) ¸be Knowns Respect System ( X )⇒Respectively : O X T , O X W , < X T , < X W

Ø
ø ‸
O X T = O X T1i +O X T2 j +O X T3k
¡− − ¢
‸ Ø
ø
→
−
The Objective is to Determine The Origin O T W And Rotation < T W of System ( W ) Respect System ( T ) . The Meaning of The Notation :
‸ ‸
O X W = O X W1 i +O X W2 j + O X W3k
‸ ‸ Ø
ø H ‸ ‸
O T W = O T W 1 t1 + O T W 2 t2 + O T W 3 t3 ⇒
‸

− ¡− ¢ − ¡− ¢

H
− − −
T = X − O X T ∗< X T : W = X − O X W ∗< X W ¸ But Also : W = T − O T W ∗< T W ⇒ From The Unitary Vectors Relations :
³‸ ‸ ‸ ´ ¯ ¯
‸ −1 ¡ ‸ ¢ −1 t
-1 t ¯¯ ¯¯
Á ˜
i, j, k = t ∗ < X T = w ∗ < X W ⇒ < T W = < X T ∗< X W ( For an Orthogonal Transformation < = < . Since¯¯<¯¯ = 1 )
È˘

C
− ¡− − ¢ − −
And From The Components Relations : O T W = O X W − O X T ∗< X T ;Vectors Differentials : ∆ W = ∆ T ∗< T W ( Only For Cartesian Systems ) .
EXAMPLE #2.( LINEAR TRANSFORMATION ) : When This Transformation is ISOMETRIC ⇒It Preserves GEOMETRY .
− ¡ ¢ − ¡ ¢ − ¡ ¢ − ¡ ¢ ¡ −¢
Let : A = A 1, A 2, A 3 , B = B 1, B 2, B 3 , C = C 1, C 2, C 3 , O = O 1, O 2, O 3 ∧ Xk = fk T = Ak T1 + Bk T2 + Ck T3 + Ok ∀ k = 1,2,3 ⇒
⎛ ⎞

T
a1 b1 c1
⎜ ⎟ − − −

¡A¡ ¡B¡ ¡C¡

⎜ ⎟ − A − B − C − −
< X T = ⎜a 2 b 2 c 2⎟ Where : a = − , b = − And c = − Also : Notice That O X T = O
⎝ ⎠

I
a3 b3 c3
⎞ ⎛
− t −
¡ − −¢ ⎜ B x C ⎟
− ¡ −¢ X−O ⎜ ⎜− −⎟ ⎟ − − − ∟ − − − − − −
T X = − − − ∗⎜ C x A ⎟ : | JX T | = A.B x C ¸ For X ↔ T ⇒ A . B = B . C = C . A = 0 ⇒

M
A.B x C ⎜
⎝ ⎟
⎠
− −
AxB

⎜¡ A ¡
⎛ ⎞
− -1
0 0 ⎟

¡B¡
V
⎜ ⎟
− ¡ −¢ ¡ − −¢ ⎜ − -1 ⎟
| J X T | = kAk·kBk·kCk ⇒ T X = X − O ∗⎜ 0 0 ⎟∗< X T ⇒ System ( T ) is ISOMETRIC for Equal Diagonals .
⎜ ⎟
¡C¡
⎜
⎝ ⎟
⎠
− -1
0 0

A
∠
NOTE : For X ↔ T ⇒ This same Diagonal Matrix Equation ¸ is Called AFFINE Transformation .( It is not an Orthogonal Transformation ) .
EXAMPLE #3. ( AFFINE ROTATION MATRICES ) : A System may be Rotated inclusive Around the Three ( 3 ) Axes .
Let ω p q be The Rotated Angle of Axes (q) ¸ Around Semiaxes ( p ) . Been ω > 0 When Counter Clockwise seen from p > 0 Towards The Origin . ⇒
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞

J
1 0 0 C o s ω 21 0 S i n ω 23
⎜
⎜0 C o s ω ⎟
⎟ ⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
< (1 ) = ⎜
⎝ 12 −S i n ω 13 ⎟ ⎠ , < (2 ) = ⎜
⎝ 0 1 0 ⎟
⎠
0 S i n ω 12 C o s ω 13 −S i n ω 21 0 C o s ω 23
⎛ ⎞
C o s ω 31 −S i n ω 32 0
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ S i n ω 31 C o s ω 32 0⎟
< (3 ) = ⎜ ⎠ ⇒ A System Could be of Combined Rotations . Such as : < X T = < (1)∗< (2)∗< (3)
0 0 1
⎛ ⎞
C o s ω 32 S i n ω 32 0
1 ⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
REMEMBER : < -1 (3) = · ⎜−S i n ω 31 C o s ω 31 0⎟ -1
⎠ ¸ Analogously For < (1) And < (2).
-1
C o s (ω 32 − ω 31) ⎝
0 0 1
For ORTHOGONAL Systems ⇒ ω p q = ω p m ⇒ Reducing The Affine Rotations Matrices to our Conventional ones .⇒Only one (1) Subindex is Necessary .
PAGE 16
 CONTINUATION OF EXAMPLE #3. ⎛ ⎞
−
⎜A⎟
¡ − −¢ − ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
The General Linear Transformation Equation Could be Written as : X − O = T ∗⎜ −
B⎟ Also ¸ The inverse Affine Equation is :
⎜
⎝ ⎟ ⎠
−
C

⎜¡ A ¡ 0
⎛ ⎞ ⎧ ⎫
− ⎪
⎪
0 ⎟ ⎪
⎪
⎪
X − O = T ∗⎜ 0 ¡ −B ¡ 0 ⎟∗< X T
⎜ ⎟ ⎪
⎨IN GENERAL : Affine X↔T Preserves Linear And Quadratic objects . Such as : ⎬
¡ − −¢ − ⎜ ⎟ −1

N
⎜ ⎟ ⎪ Rectangle↔Quadrilateral or Cube↔Parallelpiped or Sphere↔Ellipsoid .
0 ¡C ¡
⎜ ⎟ ⎪
⎪
⎝ −
⎠ ⎪
⎪
0 ⎪
⎩ ⎭

EXAMPLE #4. ( ELLIPSOIDAL EQUATIONS in GEODETIC Parameters of Representation ) . We are Seeking (λ, ∆, h) ↔ ( X 1, X 2, X 3 ) .

U
Respectively Let : (λ¸ ∆ ¸h)≜Geographic Geodetic Longitude ¸ Latitude And Ellipsoidal Height . ( X 1, X 2, X 3) ≜ Cartesian Coordinates . ⇒
a2 C o s λ
X1 = + hCosλCos∆
f (λ, ∆)
b2 S i n λ

H
X2 = + hSinλCos∆
f (λ, ∆)
c2 T a n ∆
X3 = + hS in∆
f (λ , ∆)
a 2 + Ib 2 − a 2 M S i n 2 λ + c 2 T a n 2 ∆
q

H
Where f (λ, ∆) = ⇒ For an Ellipsoid The Following ORTHOGONAL Matrix is Valid :

⎛ ⎞ .
−S i n λ −C o s λ S i n ∆ C o s λ C o s ∆ ³ ‸ ‸ ‸ ´ ³‸ ‸ ‸ ´ →
−
⎜ ⎟ ‸ N
√N√
⎠ ⇒ λ, ∆, h = i, j, k ∗< (E)

C
< (E) = ⎜
⎝ Cosλ −S i n λ S i n ∆ S inλCos∆⎟ ¸ For Clarity : h = →
−
0 Cos∆ S in∆
For The inverse Case ( CARTESIAN →Ellipsoidal Geodetic ) : Hence ( X 1, X 2, X 3) are Knowns And ( λ ¸ ∆ ¸h ) Are Required . Then :
q X
Let q = X 1 2 + X 2 2 ⇒ α = ± C o s -1 1 ¸(−) When X 2 < 0 ⇒
q
T
Compute : λ, R e ( From Coordinates Identities on page#14 ) And Solve The Following for θ :

I
q c X3 Re2 − c2
− = ⇒
Cosθ Re S i n θ Re

J X 3 − c f T(λa, ∆n )∆ N
Return To The mentioned Section And Compute ∆ . So Finally :
2

M h=
Sin∆
EXAMPLE #5 . (REDATUMING GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES . ) : Let a Point be in System (T) as Position ( λ t, ∆ t, h t ) . And
−
The mentioned Position ¸ is Based on The Following DATUM : For The Cartesian System ⇒( O X T , < X T ) And For The Ellipsoid ⇒( a t, b t, c t ) .

PROCEDURE : (λ t, ∆ t, h t) |
E x a m p l e#4
V−−−−−−−−→ T 1, T 2, T 3
¢
|
E x a m p l e#1
−
Determine ( λ w, ∆ w, h w ) Based on The Following DATUM : For The Cartesian System ⇒( O X W , < X W ) And For The Ellipsoid ⇒( a w, b w, c w )
Cartesian ¡ Cartesian ¡
→ W 1, W 2, W 3
−−−−−−−−
¢
|
E x a m p l e#4
Geogra phic
→ (λ w , ∆ w , h w
−−−−−−−−−−

A
.
EXAMPLE #6 .( DATUM TRANSITION ) . When Redatuming Small Area ⇒Jacobian Matrix Could Left Constant .⇒Obtaining The Diferentials .
For instance : Let The Mean Positions ( For The Area ) in Both Systems ( T¸W ) be : (λ o t, ∆ o t, h o t) And (λ o w, ∆ o w, h o w). ⇒

J
− − − −
∆ T = (∆ λ t, ∆ ∆ t, ∆ h t)∗J ot t : ∆ W = ∆ T ∗< T W ⇒ (∆ λ w, ∆ ∆ w, ∆ h w) = ∆ W ∗J o−tw
Where J ≜ Jacobian Matrix From The Above Ellipsoidal Transformation . And < T W ≜Cartesian Rotation from System ( T ) to ( W ) . ⇒
(λ w, ∆ w, h w) = (λ o w, ∆ o w, h o w) + (∆ λ w, ∆ ∆ w, ∆ h w)
MEMORIAL
Ø
ø Ø
ø
Ø
ø →
− ∂ P ∂ P a2 − b2
∗ FOR AN ELLIPSOID : P · N = abcCosθ : · = Sin2Ω Sin2θ
∂Ω ∂θ 4 q
α ∓ β 1 − α2 + β 2
∓ I β 2 + 1M
CosB
∗ ∗ FOR A SPHERICAL TRIANGLE : Let α = , β = CosbT anC ⇒ Cos A =
CosC
r
E s−a s−b s−c s
(+) For Reciprocal Capitalizations Letters . Also :Triangular Surface = E · R 2 Where : T a n = T an T an T an T an
4 2 2 2 2
.
PAGE 17
 GEOMETRIC ASPECT OF AN AFFINE TRANSFORMATION
− − − −
Let Three (3) Lines in 3D intersects at a common Point O , And each Lines passes respectively through The Points A , B , C . ⇒
− −

¡ A − O¡
A−O −
−
a = − − ¸ Analogously for b And − c . ⇒ < X T may be Determined . Notice That :
⎛ ⎞
− −
⎜b x c⎟
1 ⎜ ⎟
< −1
XT = − − − ⎜
−c x−a⎟ = (< (1)∗< (2)∗< (3)) -1 = < −1 −1 −1
(3) ∗< (2) ∗< (1) WARNING ! : Assuming Rotations Sequence as (1¸2¸3 ) .
a.b x c ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠
−

N
−axb
If The Rotation Angles are required ¸ hence They may be Determined by Solving The System : < X T = < (1)∗< (2)∗< (3).
− − −
−THE DIAGONAL ELEMENTS : Geometrically kAk¸kBk¸kCk ¸ Aren‵t Related with The mentioned Points ( A , B , C ) . But They‵re Units
Conversion Factors from Axis T k To System ( X ) . For instance : If (T 1, T 2, T 3) Are Respectively in ( feet ¸ Km ¸ inch ) And ( X ) in metres

⇒ √A √ =
− 1
3.28084
, √B √ =
− 1000
1
, √C√ =
− 1
39.37
⇒ Geometrically ¸They‵re SCALE RATIOS .
U
As a matter of fact ¸ an affine Transformation Could be Orthogonal or Not . But System ( X ) is always ISOMETRIC Though .
The Following Figure ¸ illustrates The Parameters of a 2D Affine Transformation :

H
.
.
.
.

H
.
.
.
.

C
.
.
.
.

T
.
.
.

I
.
.
.
.
.

M
.
p
ROOTS OF ALGEBRAIC POLYNOMIALS :
−b + b2 − 4 a c −2 c −b
1) a x2 + b x + c = 0 ⇒ x1 = = p ( The latter is recommended for b > 0 ) : x 2 = − x1 ( Precision Purpose ! )
2a b + b2 − 4 a c a

V
2) X 3 + A X 2 + B X + C = 0 ⇒ The following relations
s holds : ( Simply use signs of same levels throughout the computations ) .
p r
A 2 2A 3 AB ±m 3 −b + b 2 ± 4 ±m A
3 -1
m= B− :n= − +C : b = n╱ :V = : Z1 = V ∓ V : X1 = Z1 − ⇒
3 27 3 27 2 3 3
√ A

A
3
( X 2, X 3) Are From : X 1 + X 2 + X 3 = − A And Χ 1 · X 2 · X 3 = − C : WHEN m = 0 THEN X 1 = −n −
3
IF ( m < 0 ∧ b 2 < 4 ) THEN Let φ = C o s -1 (− b╱2) ⇒ Z 1 = 2 Cos ( φ╱3 ) And (Z 2, Z 3) = 2 Cos [(φ╱3)±120°]
3) X 4 + a 1 X 3 + a 2 X 2 + a 3 X + a 4 = 0 ⇒ Let Y 3 − a 2 Y 2 + (a 1 a 3 − 4 a 4) Y + Á4 a 2 a 4 − a 3 2 − a 1 2 a 4˜ = 0 ⇒ ( X 1, X 2) Are from :

J
p p È ˘
2 − 4a + 4Y 2 − 4a X4 Y4
a + a Y − Y
X2+ 1 1 2 1
X+ 1 1 4
= 0 ⇒ ( X 3, X 4) Are From : X k = − a 1 And Xk = a4
2 2
k=1 k=1

COMMENT : In Example #4 . When Transforming From Cartesian to Geographic .⇒ The Following Could be used While R e ≈ c :
⎛ ⎞
X3 ⎜ Re2 − c2 ⎟
T anθ ≈ ⎝c + q ⎠ . But The Exact Solution Could be Analogous to as Follow :
q · Re q2 + X32
A B
Solve The Following For θ : Y= + ⇒ This may be Transformed in to The Following Fourth(4) Grade Polynomial :
S inθ Cosθ
2B A2 + B2 − Y 2 2B B2 A
C o s4 θ − C o s3 θ + 2
C o s2 θ + C o s θ − 2 = 0 ∗ ∗ ∗NOTE : Ymin. When T a n 3 θ =
Y Y Y Y B
PAGE 18
POLYNOMIAL TRANSFORMATION . ( Complex Polynomial ) :
Let : Z = x + j y = k Z k ε j θ ; T = u + j v = k T k ε j φ ; C k = a k + j b k = k C k k ε j γ k
n
X n
X ¡ ¢
T (Z ) = C k Z k = C 0 + kZk k C k k ε j γ k + k θ = C 0 + m k Z k( C o s φ + j S i n φ ) . Where :
k=0 k=1

q ³µ´ n
X n
X
m= µ 2 + τ 2 : φ = ± C o s -1 (−) IF τ < 0 ;µ= k C k k C o s (γ k + k θ ) ; τ= k C k k S i n (γ k + k θ )
m k=1 k=1

Notice that Respectively ( C 0 ¸ m ¸ φ ) originates a Translation ¸ Change of Scale and a Rotation of vector ( Z ) .
T ( Z ) Could be constructed by means of Lagrange Formula (see page 10 ) in complex mode . And the equations suggest :
For construction ⇒ T i (Z i) ∀ i = 0,1,2,3,…n Must be gathered along a central straight line on plane (x¸y ) .
For instance : The image of y = a·x ¸ could be the polynomial v = P η (u) ⇒ Such paths must be used for (x i, y i) And (u i, v i).
As a matter of fact ¸ The path on plane ( x¸ y ) could be any y = f ( x ) . But a circumference or a Line is more practical .
Remember : T = u ( x, y) + j v ( x, y) : v ( x, y) = u (− y, x) : x = k Z k C o s θ : y = k Z k Sinθ ⇒
∂T ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂T 1 ∂v 1 ∂u
CAUCHY − RIEMANN EQUATION : = = −j = +j ⇒ = −j
∂Z ∂ y ∂ y ∂x ∂x ∂ k Zk kZk ∂ θ kZk ∂ θ
n n
∂T X X ¡ ¢ ∂ u ∂ v ∂ u −∂ v
Hence From = k C k Z k − 1 = kZk k k C k k ε j γ k + (k − 1) θ The Follows are availables = : =
∂Z k=1 k=1
∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂x

∂T ∂v ∂u
And From = µ + jτ ⇒ = µ · kZk : = − τ · kZk
∂ k Zk ∂θ ∂θ
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
THE DIFFERENTIAL : ∆T = + j ∆x+ +j ∆ y = ∆u + j∆v
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
1 − Z n+1
Now Let C 0 = C 1 = C 2 = …C n ⇒ T (Z ) = C0 ⇒ ( For n =3 And C 0 = 1 ⇒ See Graph Below . )

S i nAIn + 12 M θ E − S i n θ2 C o s θ2 − C o sAIn + 12 M θ E S i n I n2θ M

" 1−Z #
T (Z )
= 1 + kZk + j . Notice That k[ … ]k =
C0 2 S i n θ2 2 S i n θ2 S i n θ2
£ n+1 ¤
1 − Zn+1 nZ − (n + 1) Z n + 1 Z
Let A ≜ Complex And C k = C 0 + k A ∀ k = 0,1,2,3…n ⇒ T (Z ) = C0 + A
£
1−Z
¤ (1 − Z ) 2
1−Z n + 1 n
(n − 1) Z − n Z n − 1
+1 Z
THEREFORE : IF T (Z ) = A ⇒ T‵(Z ) = A 2
1−Z (1 − Z )
Xm Xn Xm X n
F (Z )
Let : F (Z ) = A i Z i ; G (Z ) = Bk Z k ⇒ F · G = A i B k Z i + k . And When T (Z ) = ⇒
i=0 k=0 i=0 k=0
G (Z )

X n
m X X∞
1 k
T‵(Z ) · G 2 (Z ) = (i − k ) A i B k Z i + k − 1 . The following : T (Z ) = ε Z = ε x (C o s y + j S i n y) = Z
i=o k=0 k=0
k!

Transforms a Rectangle on plane ( x ¸ y ) in to a Ring−Sector on plane ( u¸v ) .

For n = 3 AND 0<THETA<pi/2
v T RANSFORMED FIRST QUADRANT OF A UNIT ARY CIRCULAR SECT OR FROM PLANE ( X , Y ) .

2.5

1.5

0.5

u
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
 QUADRIC SURFACES
A Quadric Surface has The Form : A x 2 + B y 2 + C z 2 + D x y + E y z + F z x + G x + H y + I z = φ = ( 0 or 1 ) .
The intersection of such Surface with the Coordinated Planes ¸ Generates a Curve of the Conic Family . Such Conic is identified by the
D2 E2 F2
Coordinated Plane DISCRIMINANT ( δ ) as Follows : δ x y = A B − : δyz = BC − : δz x = C A − ⇒ For Plane (xy) :
4 4 4
ELLIPSE ( δ x y > 0 ) ¸ HYPERBOLA ( δ x y < 0 ) ¸ PARABOLA ( δ x y = 0 And ( A + B) = 1 ) ¸CIRCLE of Radius=R if ( A = B = R −2 And D = 0 ) .
Analogously for the others Coordinated Planes .⇒( A , B , Cq¸ δ ) > 0 For an Ellipsoid . Also The conic appears rotated in the
− A + B + ( A − B) 2 + D 2 D
Coordinated Plane (xy) an angle ω3 : T a n ω 3 = Such may be simplified to : T a n 2 ω3 = And

N
D A−B
E F
Respectively for Plane (yz) And Plane (zx) : T a n 2 ω1 = : T a n 2 ω2 = . In 2D ⇒ ( ω ) Would the one used in < X T .
B−p C C−A
y −D ± −4 δ x y
Additionally : A x 2 + D x y + B y 2 = 0 When = ≜SLOPE of the Parabola axis or of the Hyperbola Asymptotes .

U
x 2B
In The Particular case that the generated Conics on the Coordinated Planes are Ellipses or Hyperbolas Then :
− −
Let on the Coordinated Plane ( mn ) C m n ≜Conic Centre . And S m n ≜Square of the Conic Semiaxes . ⇒
⎛ ⎞ -1 Ã ! -1

H
− S i n 2 ω3 C o s 2 ω3 − −1 A D ╱2
S x y = ( A ¸ B )∗ ⎝ ⎠ : C x y = ( G ¸ H )∗
C o s 2 ω3 S i n 2 ω3 2 D ╱2 B
⎛ ⎞ -1 Ã ! -1
S i n 2 ω1 C o s 2 ω1 B E ╱2

H
−
⎝ ⎠ − −1
S y z = ( B¸ C )∗ : C y z = ( H ¸ I )∗
C o s 2 ω1 S i n 2 ω1 2 E ╱2 C
⎛ ⎞ -1 Ã ! -1
S i n 2 ω2 C o s 2 ω2 −1 C F ╱2

C
− −
S z x = ( C ¸ A )∗ ⎝ ⎠ : C z x = ( I ¸ G )∗
C o s 2 ω2 S i n 2 ω2 2 F ╱2 A
−
EXPLANATION : The Semiaxes sequence in S m n holds with the rotation convention . And the Centre is in the order (mn) . For Example :
S x y = J5 2, 8 2N ⇒ The Semiaxes are ( 5¸8 ) in the direction just as for ω 3 > 0

T
−

−
C x y = (7,11) ⇒ This is Equivalent to say that x = 7 And y = 11

I
If the semiaxes sequence is not necessary ¸And φ=1 ¸ G = H = I = 0 ¸ ⇒Such semiaxes for the Respective Coordinated Planes are given by :
q q q
A+B± ( A − B) 2 + D 2 B+C± (B − C) 2 + E 2 C+A± (C − A) 2 + F 2
ÁR 1 2, R 2 2˜ = or or
È ˘ 2 δx y 2 δy z 2 δz x
x2 y2

M
1
⇒ R12 · R22 = ( Valid also for HYPERBOLAS ) . Remember the concept : + = 1 Where : R 1 2 = a 2 And R 2 2 = ± b 2 (+) for Ellipse .
δ a 2 ±b 2
⎛ ⎞
A D ╱2 F ╱2
− − ⎜ ⎟
Now Let : X = ( X ¸ Y ¸ Z ) : K = ( G¸ H ¸ I ) : [ A ] = ⎜
⎝ D ╱2 B E ╱2 ⎠⇒
⎟

V
THE QUADRIC EQUATION IN MATRIX FORM IS GIVEN AS :
F ╱2
− ÎÍÎ ˙˚˚ − t − −
E ╱2
X ∗ÎÎ A˚˚∗ X + K ∗ X = φ
ÎÏ ¸˚
C

Also ¸ Let The Diagonal MatrixAλE = < tX T ∗AAE∗< X T And Coefficients β = K ∗< X T Where : [ λ ] And < X T Are respectively
− −

A
THE EIGENWERTS And Unitaries EIGENVECTORS of [ A ] . ( < X T is orthogonal due that [ A ] is Symmetrical ) . ⇒

SYMMETRICAL QUADRIC SURFACE EQUATION IN SYSTEM ( T ) :

3
X
λ j j Tj2 = φ +
X3 βj2

J j=1 j=1
4λj j
¸ -1 µ ¶
− −1 − −β1 −β2 −β3
QUADRIC CENTRE ¸ which is the origin of System ( T ) : XO = K ∗CA = , , ∗< tX T
2 2 λ 11 2 λ 22 2 λ 33
Notice that the exposed method ¸ could be used for Symmetrization of conics in 2D By Simply using The respective ω in < X T .
COMMENTS :∗ For Charting Purposes ¸the intended Region to be Charted must be Approximated to an Ellipsoid that best FITS such region .
FITTING may be by means of the Least Mean Square Method or other Techniques . Any way ¸The objective is to determine the Alphabetical
Coefficients of the mentioned region . Thus obtaining the Ellipsoidal semiaxes a, b, c from the Symmetrical Ellipsoid in System ( T ) . This would
be the Reference Ellipsoid for that region . Notice that ( X ¸ Y ¸ Z ) Could be implicitly obtained from a GPS . The Geodesist may voluntarily null
Certain Alphabetical Coefficients . For instance : To maintain the Geographic Poles hence E = F = 0 .
∗ ∗ An affine Transformation Could be used ¸ to convert an Ellipsoid of semiaxes (a, b, c) in System ( T ) ¸ To a Sphere in System ( X ) . Such of
Radius = a ¸ by Letting : ¡ A ¡ = 1 : √ B √ = And √ C √ =
− − b − c
a a
PAGE 19
 LEAST MEAN SQUARE METHOD
Z d " #2
CONTINUOS L . M . S : ( See page 13B ) . Approximating Z( t ) by R m (t) ¸ such that E = ψ (t) Z (t) − R m (t) ∂ t ¸ be a MINIMUM ⇒
c
m
X
R m (t ) = β k X k (t ) Where ψ (t) is a Weight Function And β k Are From The Following Linear System :
k=0

m
X Z d Z d
βk ψ (t) X j (t) X k (t)∂ t = ψ (t) X j (t) Z (t)∂ t ∀ j = 0,1,2,3,…m . For Orthogonal Functions X (t) ⇒

N
k=0 c c

Z d ( ) Z d Z d m
X
1
ψ (t) X j (t) X k (t)∂t = 0 If j ≠ k And µ k If j = k ⇒ βk = ψ (t) X k (t) Z (t)∂ t ⇒ E = ψ (t) Z 2 (t)∂ t − β k2 µ k
c µk c c k=0

For other integration interval such as x∈[ a , b ] ⇒ R m ( x) =

m
X

k=0
β k X k (t ( x) ) And E=
b−a
d−c
·
"Z

c
d
U2
ψ (t) Z (t)∂t −
m
X
2
#
β k µ k . Now :
k=0

H
¶ µ
b − a η Cη
( See Pages 10 to 12 ) If [ Z ( x); R m ( x) ] are Polynomials of Grades [ η ; η−1 ] ⇒ R m ( x) = Z ( x) − · · X (t ( x)) Where ( λ = η )
2 Cλ λ
" η
#2
2 · η 2 η (η !) 2 X (−1) η − k · Z ( x k )
⇒ When Z ( x) = P η ( x)≜Lagrange−Cotes Polynomial of grade ( η ) And ψ (t) = 1 ⇒ E = · ·

H
1 + 2 η (2 η ) ! (η − k ) ! · k !
k=0

DISCRETE L.M.S : Is analogous to the continuos . Simply instead of an [ ∫ ] ⇒ a [ ∑ ] . And ( t ) would be ( t i ) . ⇒

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
Ø
ø

C
⎛ ⎞ βo
Z1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ X 1⎟
⎜β ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1⎟ ⎜Øø ⎟
⎜Z ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜X ⎟
⎜ 2⎟ ⎜β ⎟ ⎜ 2⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜Z ⎟ ⎜
⎜Øø ⎟

T
Ø
ø ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
Letting : Z i = Z (t i) ; X i = ( X 0 (t i), X 1 (t i), X 2 (t i), …X m (t i)) ⇒ Z N x 1 = ⎜ 3 ⎟ : β (m + 1) x = ⎜ β 3 ⎟ : X N x (m + 1) = ⎜ X 3 ⎟ ⇒
⎜…⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜…⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜…⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜…⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

I
⎝ ⎠ ⎜…⎟ ⎜…⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎟
⎠ ⎜ ⎟
Z N ⎝ ⎠
Ø
ø
βm XN
¡ ¢ − ¡ ¢ −1 ¡ t ¢ ¡ ¢
∇ E = X t∗X ∗β − X t∗Z = 0 : β = X t∗X ∗ X ∗Z : E = Z t∗Z − β t∗ X t∗Z

Ø
ø Ø
ø M
STATISTICAL DEVELOPMENT For X 0 (t i) = 1 ∀ i = 1,2,3…N :
³Øø ´ X Ø
Let X = ( X 1 (t), X 2 (t), X 3 (t), …X m (t)) : X k = ( X 1 (t k ), X 2 (t k ), X 3 (t k ), …X m (t k )) : R X =
N
¬ X − X k ¬ ⇒ R X = Minimum when :
ø Ø
ø 2 ³Ø
ø ´

k=1

Ø
ø
X = ρ =
Ø
ø
N
N
1 X Ø
ø
Xk
k=1
:
Ø
ø
V
ρ = (ρ 1, ρ 2, ρ 3, …ρ m) Where ρj =
N
N
1 X
X j (t k )
k=1
Ø
ø
. Notice that ρ is the CENTROID of the DATUM .

A
³Ø
ø ´ ³Ø
ø ´ ³Ø
ø ´ Ø
ø Ø ø
Now let the Knowns be P k = X k , Z k ∀ k = 1,2,3…N Where Z k = F X k ⇒ Let the FITTING Function be R m X = β 0 + β ∗ X ⇒

Since the Centroid ( P ) of the datum is a solution ⇒ R m I ρ M = −

Ø
ø Øø Ø
ø Ø
ø Ø
ø
z ⇒ P is a point of the Least Mean Square Fitting Surface . ⇒ β 0 = −
z − β∗ρ

J
" #2
N ³ ø´ X N ³ ø´ −
1 X Ø ¡− ¢ Ø Ø
ø
−
Where : z = Z k ⇒ The objective is to MINIMIZE : E β 0, β = Zk − Rm X k ⇒ ∇ E β 0, β = 0 ⇒ β Are From Solving :
N
k=1 k=1

m
X N
X N
X
βk ∆ X j i ∆ Xk i = Zi ∆ X j i ∀ j = 1,2,3,…m . Where ∆ X j i = X j (t i) − ρ j

3Ã
k=1 i=1 i=1

The Proportion of points that obey the FITTING is called Correlation Factor ( r ) . The Continuos equation is analogous to the following Discrete
à ! ! à !
N
X m
Y N
X m
Y XN
r= ∆ Zi ∆ Xji ╱ ∆ Zi2 · ∆ X j2i Where ∆ Z i = Z i − −z
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1

PAGE 20
 PARTICULAR CASES OF THE LEAST MEAN SQUARE METHOD
N N
1X 1X
For m = 1 ⇒ P k = ( X k , Z k ) ∀ k = 1,2,3,…N ⇒ R1 (X ) = β1 X + βo : ρ1 = Xk : z =
−
Zk
N k=1 N k=1
PN
∆ Xk Zk
∆ Xk = Xk − ρ1 : β 1 = Pk N= 1 2
: β o = −z − β 1 ρ 1
∆ Xk k =1
For m = 2 ⇒ P k = ( X k , Y k , Z k ) ∀ k = 1,2,3,…N ⇒ R2 ( X , Y ) = β1 X + β2 Y + βo ⇒
N N N

N
1X 1X 1X
ρ1 = Xk : ρ2 = Y k : −z = Zk : ∆ Xk = Xk − ρ1 : ∆ Yk = Yk − ρ2 ⇒
N k =1 N k =1 N k =1
⎛ X X ⎞

U
2
∆ Xk ∆ Xk ∆ Yk
⎜ ⎟
Let : D = det ⎝X X ⎠⇒
∆ Xk ∆ Yk ∆ Yk 2
⎛X X ⎞

D
1 ⎜
β 1 = · det ⎝ X
∆ X Z
k k

∆ Yk Zk
X
∆ X k ∆

∆ Yk 2
Y k
⎟
⎠ H
H
⎛ X X ⎞
2
1 ∆ Xk ∆ Xk Zk
⎜ ⎟
β 2 = · det ⎝X X ⎠ ⇒ β o = −z − β 1 ρ 1 − β 2 ρ 2
D ∆ X ∆Y ∆Y Z
C
k k k k
¡− ¢
CONSTRUCTING P k = X k , Z k :
− −
Notice that R m is a Linear Combination of X ¸ hence when for the Real Experiment Z is not a Linear Combination of the Variables X ⇒

T
The PRIMITIVE EXPERIMENTAL DATA MUST BE LINEARIZED . Therefore obtaining a NEW DATUM ¸ which is used for P k .
1) . EXAMPLE : An Experiment of one(1) Primitive Variable.

I
Let the Primitive data be: Ψ k = ( x k , F k ) ∀ k = 1,2,3…N
But it is suspected that F = a e b x ⇒ L n F = L n a + b x ⇒ Z = L n F : X = x : β o = L n a : β 1 = b ⇒
The New Datum is obtained as P k = ( x k , L n F k )
2 ) . EXAMPLE : An Experiment of two(2) Primitive Variables.
Let the Primitive data be: Ψ k = ( x k , y k , F k ) ∀ k = 1,2,3…N

M
But it is Suspected that F = A x 2 + B y 2 + C x y + D x + E y + F ⇒ Let A = β 1 : B = β 2 : C = β 3 : D = β 4 : E = β 5 : F = β o ⇒
¡
P k = x k 2, y k 2, x k .y k , x k , y k , F k
¢

V
3 ) . EXAMPLE : An Experiment of (w) Primitive Variables.
Let the Primitive data be : Ψ k = Jx k , x k , x k , …x k w, F k N
∀ k = 1,2,3,…N
1 2 3
£ ¤
It is Known that F ( −
x ) is a QUADRIC FUNCTION . ⇒ Let The matrix A w x w = a i j Where ai j = a j i

A
− −t
a = (a 1, a 2, a 3, …a w) : x = (x 1, x 2, x 3, …x w) ⇒ F ( x ) = x · A · x + a . x + a o ⇒
Let − − − − − −
à !
w
X w
X
F ( x ) = ao +
−
ai xi + a i j x i x j Notice that this F is a generalization of the Previous example. ⇒

J
i=1 j=1
à !
2 · ai j For i ≠ j − w (w + 3 )
βo = ao : βi = ai : βi j = : β j i = 0 ⇒ The Dimension of X is m = : Zk = Fk
a i j For i = j 2
∗∗∗For a Quadric Surface in 3D ¸ hence a o = 0 And F k = 1 ∀ k = 1,2,3,……N
" #
m
X
In GENERAL : Let F ( x ) = β 0 +
− β j f j ( x ) ⇒ P k = f 1 ( x k ), f 2 ( x k ), f 3 ( x k ), … f m ( x k ), F k
− − − − − Example : ( Fourier Series ) :
j=1

M µ ¶ µ ¶
X 2π nx 2π nx
Let F ( x) = F ( x + P) ⇒ a ≤ x k ≤ a + P ⇒ F ( x) ≈ F M (x) = β 0 + β (2 n − 1) S i n + β (2 n) C o s Where m = 2 M
n=1
P P

PAGE 21
 (k − 1) P 2π
SHORTCUT : Let xk = a + And φ k = x ⇒
N −1 P k
N N
2 X 2 X N −1
β (2 n − 1) = F ( x k ) S i n (n φ k ) And β (2 n) = F ( x k ) C o s (n φ k ) ∀ n = 0,1,2,3…M ≤
N N 2
k=1 k=1

COMPUTING THE OPTIMUM (Maxima And Minima ) of a Quadric Function :

The Critical Point P is obtained from the System of Linear equations below:
X w
∂F
= aj + 2 a j k · xk = 0 ∀ j = 1,2,3,…w ⇒
∂ xj

N
k =1
⎛ ⎞
− −t
− −t − − 1 − − -1 ¡−¢ 1 − − 1 A a
at = 0
∇ F ( −x ) = 2 · A ∗ x + − ∴ P = − · a ∗A ⇒ F P = · a · P + a o = − · det ⎝ ⎠
2 2 det A

U
−
a ao
∂2 F − − −
Evaluating the Critical Point : = 2 a jk ∀ ( j, k ) ⇒ H = 2 A Where H ≜HESSIAN Matrix. ⇒
∂ xj ∂ xk
¤ £

H
− − −
The EIGENWERTS (λ) of A Are the ones for H . Although [λ] is The Diagonal Matrix < tX T ∗A ∗< X T And
< X T ≜Unitary EIGENVECTORS Matrix of [A] . Although such don‵t have to be unitary if only the signs (±) for λ j j are required .
For an Optimum : IF ∀ j = 1,2,3…w λ j j < 0 ⇒ MAX . IF λ j j > 0 ⇒ MIN . ELSE Chair.
ai i

H
IF at the least once¸ < 0 ⇒ CHAIR!.
aj j
→
a) If the EIGENVECTOR ε is of dimension < w ⇒ System ( T ) is a Subspace of System ( X ) . For instance :
F (−
x ) Could be a STRAIGHT LINE or a PLANE CURVE in 3D.
−
x o = 0 ⇒ The OPTIMUM of F ( −
b)While −
− ‸
C
x ¡ =1
x ) Under the Constraint ¡ − is given by :
‸ ¡‸ ¢
The Critical Points are P j = ε j ∀ j = 1,2,3…w Where ε ≜Unitary Eigenvector . And F ε j = λ j j

T
c) EXPLAINING THE EIGEN PARAMETERS " #:
¡ −¢ − ∂2 F
The HESSIAN matrix of a function F X is by definition : H = h i j Where h i j =

I
∂ Xi ∂ Xj
w
X
The Characteristic Polynomial of a matrix [S] w x w is P(λ) = det ( [ λU ] − [ S ] ) = αk · λ k
k=0

−
M
Where U = [U ] w x w ≜ Identity Matrix . ( U i j = U j i = 0 And U j j = 1 ) ⇒
Let the ROOTS of P( λ ) be (λ 11, λ 22, λ 33, …λ m m) Where m ≤ w ⇒ Such λ‵s are The EIGENWERTS of [ S ] .
ÎÍ ˚˙ − t −t
Let T = (T 1, T 2, T 3, …T w) ⇒ The Characteristic Linear System for ( λ j j ) is : ÎÎS ˚˚∗ T = λ j j · T ⇒
ÏÎ ¸˚

V
− ¡ ¢ −
Let The ROOT of such System be : t j = t j 1, t j 2, t j 3, …t j n Where n ≤ w ⇒ t j≜EIGENVECTOR of [ S ] for λ j j.
− − − −
( t 1, t 2, t 3, …, t n) forms an Orthogonal System if [ S ] is Symmetrical .
w
Y w
X w
X

A
From P( λ ) we got : det [ S ] = λ j j = (−1) w α 0 And α w − 1 = − λj j = − S j j ⇒ The Diagonal
j=1 j=1 j=1

¡ − £ ¤¢ ¡ − £ ¤¢

J
Similarity matrix [ λ ] = [t] -1∗[S]∗[t] ⇒ f X , S And f T , λ Represents the same Mathematical Object ¸been
System ( X ) And System ( T ) CONCENTRICS . Valid inclusive if Both Systems are individually Non−Orthogonal .
.
The 3D matrix of unitaries eigenvectors [t] 3∗3 = ROTATION MATRIX < X T = < (1)∗< (2)∗< (3) = As follow :
⎛ ⎞
.
C o s ω 21 C o s ω 31 − C o s ω 21 S i n ω 32 S i n ω 23
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜ S i n ω 13 S i n ω 21 C o s ω 31 + C o s ω 12 S i n ω 31 − S i n ω 13 S i n ω 21 S i n ω 32 + C o s ω 12 C o s ω 32 −S i n ω 13 C o s ω 23⎟
⎝ ⎠
−C o s ω 13 S i n ω 21 C o s ω 31 + S i n ω 12 S i n ω 31 ∗b 3 C o s ω 13 C o s ω 23
. ∗b 3 = C o s ω 13 S i n ω 21 S i n ω 32 + S i n ω 12 C o s ω 32
.
Where ω p q≜Rotation Angle of Coordinated axis ( q ) ¸ around axis ( p ) .
PAGE 22
 OPTIMIZATION OF FUNCTIONS " #
m
X ¡ − −¢ ¡ −¢ − − ¡ −¢ − N − m
Lagrange Rule : ∇F = Lk ∇ Gk ⇒ L X , L = F X + L ∗G X : X ∈ℝ , G ∈ℝ , m≤ N −1
k=1

− −
Where Respectively : Lagrange Function ( L ) And Multipliers ( L )¸Objective ( F ) And Constraints ( G ) Functions .
¡− − ¢ − −
The Critical Point X c, L c is obtained from the following ( N + m ) Equations :∇ L = 0 . IF m = N−1 ⇒ X c Could be From :
⎛ ⎞
∂F
⎜ − ⎟

N
− − ¡ −¢ ⎜∂ X ⎟
⎜ ⎟
0 =G X And 0 = D e t ⎜ − ⎟
⎜
⎝∂ G ⎟ ⎠
−
∂X N xN

U
−
CRITICAL POINTS EVALUATION CRITERIA : Basically ¸ They are The Eigenwerts And The Directional Derivatives : Let λ ∈ ℝ k
− ¡− − ¢
λ ≜Eigenwerts of the Hessian Matrix of L for X c, L c ⇒ If the product of any two(2) diagonals elements of such matrix is < 0 ⇒ CHAIR .
IF ∀ j = 1,2,3,…k λ j < 0 ⇒ Relative MAX . λ j > 0 ⇒ Relative MIN . The Multidirectional Derivative Criteria is as follow :
IF d 2 n L < 0 ⇒ Relative MAX . IF > 0 ⇒ Relative MIN . IF = 0 And d 2 n + 1 L ≠ 0 ⇒ CHAIR . ( Increase ( n ) until Conclusion is Clear . )
PARTICULAR CASES :
2
A ) N = 2, m = 0 : Let δ = F 12 H
− F 11 F 22 ⇒ IF δ < 0 ⇒ MAX when F 11 < 0 And MIN when F 11 > 0 . CHAIR If δ > 0
2 G 1 F 12 G 12 F 22 F 2
Ã
2 G 1 G 12 G 12 G 22
!

H
B ) N = 2, m = 1 : Let δ = F 11 − + − G 11 − + ⇒ MAX when δ < 0 And MIN when > 0
G2 G 22 G2 G2 G 22
C ) N = 2, m = 1 ( Implicit Functions ) ⇒ Z = F ( X 1, X 2) ⇒ Critical Point : f ( X 1, X 2, Z ) = 0; G ( X 1, X 2, Z ) = 0; (Z 1 g 2 − Z 2 g 1) = 0
Where : g 1 = f Z G 1 − f 1 G Z ; g 2 = f Z G 2 − G Z f 2 Now Let : J 1 = Z 1 G 1 − f 1 g 1 ; J 2 = Z 1 G 2 − f 2 g 1 ⇒

C
δ = (J 1 g 2 − J 2 g 1) ╱− f Z ⇒ MAX when δ < 0 And MIN when > 0 .
EXAMPLE #1 ( Critical Point of a Quadric Surface ) . Let an implicit quadric function be :
A X 12 + B X 22 + C X 32 + D X 1 X 2 + E Χ 2 X 3 + F X 3 X 1 + G X 1 + H X 2 + I X 3 − φ = 0 Where : φ=( 1 or 0 ) And X 3 = F ( X 1, X 2)

T
A Cylinder with the base on Plane ( X 1 X 2 ) is : A X 12 + B X 22 + D X 1 X 2 + G X 1 + H X 2 − φ = 0 Where X 2 = F ( X 1)
µ ¶
∂ X 3 −2 A X 1 − D X 2 − F X 3 − G ∂ X 3 −D X 1 − 2 B X 2 − E X 3 − H
EQ1. For The quadric : Gradient of F =∇ X 3 = = , =
∂ X1 F X1 + E X2 + 2 C X3 + I ∂ X2 F X1 + E X2 + 2 C X3 + I

I
− (F X 1 + E X 2 + I ) ± (F X 1 + E X 2 + I ) − 4 C I A X 1 + B X 2 + D X 1 X 2 + G X 1 + H X 2 − φ M
q
2 2 2
EQ2 . X 3 = F ( X 1, X 2) = ⇒
2C
− F H − EG F D−2AE
Since∇ F = 0 ⇒ From EQ1 : EQ3 . 2 A X 1 + D X 2 + F X 3 + G = 0 EQ4. X 2 = f ( X 1) = + X
DE−2BF DE−2BF 1

Cylinder : EQ5 . F‵ =
∂ X 2 −2 A X 1 − D X 2 − G
=
M : EQ6 . X 2 = F ( X 1) =
−
⇒ Substituting EQ2 And EQ4 in EQ3 ¸ numerically yields X 1 . Thus X 2 is from EQ4 . Hence X c = Such ( X 1, X 2)
q ¡
−D X 1 − H ± (D X 1 + H ) 2 − 4 B A X 1 2 + G X 1 − φ
¢

V
∂ X1 2 B X1 + D X2 + H 2B
For a Horizontal Tangent Then F‵ = 0 . And For a Vertical one ( 1╱F‵ ) = 0 . ⇒ Substituting EQ6 in to EQ5 ¸ yields such Points of Tangencies .
NOTE : The mentioned Tangents are to the Cylindrical base . Therefore They‵re parallel to the Plane ( X 1 X 2) .
EXAMPLE #2 (Setup for Optimizing Distance ) . Optimize the distance between to Surfaces of Known Equations . Both in 3D System ( X ) . ⇒

A
The Square Distance is : d 2 = F ( X 1, X 2, X 3, X 4, X 5, X 6) = ( X 4 − X 1) 2 + ( X 5 − X 2) 2 + ( X 6 − X 3) 2 And the Surfaces Respectively as :
G 1 ( X 1 X 2 X 3) = 0 And G 2 ( X 4, X 5, X 6) = 0 ⇒ This is a case where N = 6 And m = 2
¡ −¢ X N ¡ −¢ X N
EXAMPLE #3 ( Setup for a Typical Cost Function ) . Let F X = f k ( X k ) And G j X = g j k ( X k ) ∀ j = 1,2,3,…, m ⇒

J ¡ − −¢ X
L X, L =
N ¡ ¢ X
fp Xp +
m
"
k=1

¡ ¢
Lj g j p Xp ⇒
#
k=1

p=1 j=1

∂ fp Xm ∂g j p
∂L ∂L ¡ −¢
= + Lj : = Gj X ⇒ For the Construction of the Hessian Matrix :
∂ Xp ∂ Xp j = 1 ∂ Xp ∂ Lj

∂2 L ∂2 fp m
X ∂2 g j p ∂2 L ∂g j p
= + Lj : = And The rest of Second derivatives are = 0.
∂2 Xp ∂2 Xp j=1 ∂2 Xp ∂ Xp ∂ Lj ∂ XP

PAGE 23
 CALCULUS EXTRACT
1.0. THE MULTINOMIAL SERIES
N
X N!
Let S = (A + B + C + D + E + F )N ¸Knowing That (A + Z )N = AN −k Z k ⇒
k=0
k !( N − k ) !

γ X
β X δ
N X
X k X
N ! A N − k Bk − β C β − γ Dγ − δ Eδ − ε F ε
S=
k=0 β =0 γ =0 δ =0 ε =0
( N − k ) !(k − β ) !(β − γ ) !(γ − δ ) !(δ − ε ) !ε !

The Series Above is Analogous To The General Equation¸ The Factorial Quotient is The MULTINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS.
2.0. DIFFERENTIALS AND MEAN VALUES
¡ −¢ − −
Let a Scalar Function be: F= f X Where X = ( X 1, X 2, X 3, …X n) : ∆ X = (∆ X 1, ∆ X 2, ∆ X 3…∆ X n) ⇒
The N t h Differential of F is given as: ∆ f N = ∆ X .∇ I∆ f N − 1M Therefore:
−

∆ f = ∆ X .∇ f X : ∆ f 2 = ∆ X .∇ (∆ f ) : ∆ f 3 = ∆ X .∇ I∆ f 2M Where∇ ≜The Gradient Operator

− ¡ −¢ − −

N
X N! ∂fN
Now When n = 2 Then ∆ f N = · ∆ X 1N − k · ∆ X 2k · And For n = 6 Then:
k=0
k !( N − k ) ! ∂ X 1 − k ∂ X 2k
N

β X γ X δ
N
XN X k X
N ! ∆ X1 N − k ∆ X2k − β ∆ X3β − γ ∆ X4γ − δ ∆ X5δ − ε ∆ X6ε ∂ f N
∆f = · Where:
k=0 β =0 γ =0 δ =0 ε =0
( N − k ) !(k − β ) !(β − γ ) !(γ − δ ) !(δ − ε ) !ε ! ∂XN

∂fN ∂fN
=
∂ X N ∂ X1 N − k ∂ X2k − β ∂ X3β − γ ∂ X4γ − δ ∂ X5δ − ε ∂ X6ε
− −

¡ X 2 − X 1¡
X −X
Let : X k = ( X 1 k , X 2 k , X 3 k , …X n k ) ⇒ The Direction From 1 To 2 is Given As: ∆ L = − 2 − 1 = (∆ L 1, ∆ L 2, ∆ L 3, …∆ L n) ⇒
− −

−
A Typical ∆ L = (C o s θ C o s φ , C o s θ S i n φ , S i n θ )
The N t h Directional Derivative οf F is Given as: d f N = ∆ L .∇ Id f N − 1M Therefore:
−

− ¡ −¢ − −
d f = ∆ L .∇ f X : d f 2 = ∆ L .∇ d f : d f 3 = ∆ L .∇ d f 2 ⇒ The Expansions are Analogous to those above.
¡ −¢ ° °
∇f X ° ¡ − ¢°
¡∇ f X ¡
− ° °
NOTICE That df is Maximum When ∆ L = ¡ − ¢ ⇒ At the mentioned maximum d f = ° ∇ f X °
° °
¡ − ¢ ¡ − ¢
¡ −¢ d f N −1 X 2 − d f N −1 X 1
¡X 2 − X 1¡
The Mean N t h Directional derivative in that Direction is: d f N C = − − Where:

− − ¡− − ¢
C = X1 + α · X2 − X1 : 0 < α < 1
−
NOTE: For The Mean Directional Derivatives Computations ⇒ ∆ L have to be Constant.
¡ −¢
∫ f X d− x
−
The Mean Value of F on The Region R : F = R
∫d−x
R
.
.
.
.
3.0. TAYLOR POLYNOMIAL
¡ −¢ ¡ −¢
f X Can be Approximated by P X in The Vicinity of − a ⇒
¡ −¢ ¡ −¢ 1 ¡ − ¢
f X =P X + ∆ fN C Where The Respective Terms Are Taylor Polynomial And The Residual.
N!
¡ − ¢ NX −1
1 − ¡− ¢
P X = ∆ f k (−
a ) Where C = − a + α. X − −
a : 0<α<1
k=0
k !
¡ −¢ − ¡− ¢
In The Expansion of P X or The Residual ¸ Let ∆ X = X − −
a
 4.0. RULE OF THE CHAIN
CASE #1
Let a Scalar Function be f(X).Then The Substitution X = φ (α ) yields: F (α ) = f (φ (α )) ⇒
µ ¶2
d F d f d φ ″ ″ d φ ″ d f
F (α ) =
0
= · ⇒ F (α ) = f ( X ) · + φ (α ) ·
dα dX dα dα dX
CASE #2
¡ −¢ − ¡ ¢ ¡− ¢
Let a Scalar be f X Where X = X 1, X 2, X 3, …X n Then The Substitution X k = φ k (α ) ∀ k = 1,2,3…n yields F (α ) = f φ (α ) ⇒
n −
¡ −¢ d φ X ∂ f d φk
F (α ) = ∇ f X ·
0
= ·
d α k = 1 ∂ Xk d α
à !
X n
∂ f d 2
φ j
X n
d φ j d φ ∂ 2
f
F ″ (α ) = · 2 · · k
·
j=1
∂ Xj d α k = 1 d α d α ∂ Xj ∂ Xk
CASE #3
¡ −¢ −
Let a Scalar Function be: f X Where X = ( X 1, X 2, X 3, …X n). Let The Substitution X k = φ k ( α
−
) ∀ k = 1,2,3…n
¡− ¢
Where α = (α 1, α 2, α 3, …α m) ⇒ F ( α ) = f φ ( α ) ⇒
− − −

n
∂F X ∂ f ∂ φk
= ·
∂ αp k = 1 ∂ Xk ∂ αp
à !
∂2 F Xn
∂f ∂2 φj X n
∂ φj ∂ φk ∂2 f
= · · · ·
∂ αp ∂ αq j = 1 ∂ Xj ∂ αp ∂ αq k = 1 ∂ αp ∂ αq ∂ Xj ∂ Xk
⎛ ⎞
∇ φ1 ( α
−
)
⎜ ⎟
⎜ − ⎟
⎜∇ φ 2 ( α )⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
¡ − ¢ ⎜ − ⎟
⎜∇ φ 3 ( α )⎟
Notice That:∇ F ( α ) = ∇ f X · ⎜
−
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ … ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ … ⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎟
⎠
∇ φn ( α
−
)
That Matrix is The JACOBIAN MATRIX οf The Substitutution.
CASE #4
Now let for in the previous case a second Substitution be α i = β i ( −
γ ) ∀ i = 1,2,3…m
¡ − ¡ − − ¢¢ ¡ −¢ £ ¤
Where γ = (γ 1, γ 2, γ 3, …γ w) ⇒ F ( γ ) = f φ β ( γ ) ⇒ ∇ F ( γ ) = ∇ f X · J
− − −
Where
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
∇ φ1 ( α −
) ∇ β1 ( −γ)
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟
⎜∇ φ 2 ( α − ⎟ ⎜
) ∇ β 2 ( γ ) ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟
⎜ ∇ φ 3 ( α )⎟ ⎜ ∇ β 3 ( γ ) ⎟
The Double Substitution JACOBIAN MATRIX : [J] = ⎜ ⎟·⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ … ⎟ ⎜ … ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ … ⎟ ⎜ … ⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎟ ⎜
⎠ ⎝ ⎟
⎠
∇ φn ( α )
−
∇ βm ( γ )
−

NOTE: For Multiple Substitutions The Jacobian Matrix is Analogous to the one above.
WARNING : A Substitution is INVERTIBLE Only When det[J ] ≠ 0
.
.
.
 .
EXAMPLE :Implicit Derivative
Let X k = φ k ( α
−
) ∀ k = 1,2,3,…n Where α
−
= (α 1, α 2, α 3, …α n) ⇒ If The Substitution is INVERTIBLE Then
¡ −¢
αk = βk X ∀ k = 1,2,3…n
And for the Jacobian matrices:
⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ ¡ − ¢ −1
∇ φ1 ( α )
−
⎜ ∇ β 1 X ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ¡ ¢
⎟
⎜ − ⎟
⎜ − ⎟
⎜∇ φ 2 ( α )⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎜ ∇ β 2 X ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ¡ − ¢⎟
⎜∇ φ 3 ( α )⎟ ⎜ ∇ β X ⎟
⎜ − ⎟ ⎜
⎟
⎜ ⎟=⎜ 3 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ … ⎟ ⎜ … ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ … ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ … ⎟
⎟ ⎜
⎟
⎝ ¡ − ¢⎠
∇ φn ( α
−
)
∇ βn X
¡ − −¢
Now let a System of Simultaneous Equations be: F k X , α = 0 ∀ k = 1,2.3,…n ⇒
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
¡− ¢ ¡ −¢
⎜∇ F 1 X k j ⎟ ⎜∇ F 1 X ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ¡ − ¢⎟ ⎜ ¡ − ¢⎟
⎜∇ F 2 X k j ⎟ ⎜∇ F 2 X ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ¡ ¢ ⎟ ⎜ ¡ ¢ ⎟
∂ αk ⎜ −
⎜∇ F 3 X k j ⎟ ⎟ ⎜
⎜∇ F 3 X ⎟ −
⎟
= − det ⎜ ⎟ ÷ det ⎜ ⎟
∂ Xj ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ … ⎟ ⎜ … ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ … ⎟ ⎜ … ⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎟
⎠ ⎜
⎝ ⎟
¡− ¢ ¡ − ¢⎠
∇ Fn X k j ∇ Fn X
− ¡ ¢
Where X k j = X 1, X 2, X 3, …X j − 1, α k , X j + 1, X j + 2, X j + 3, …X n
EXAMPLE : Implicit Curve in Space
³‸ ‸ ‸ ´
Let a Curve in i, j, k System¸be represented IMPLICITLY as the intersection of two(2) Surfaces (F) and (G) .
F ( X 1, X 2, X 3) = 0 : G ( X 1, X 2, X 3) = 0
The angle Ψ of Intersection of the surfaces¸ and the tangent τ to the curve is given by:
∇F · ∇G ∇ F x∇ G
CosΨ = : τ=
k∇ F k k ∇ Gk k∇ F x∇ Gk
One of the cοοrdinated axes can be the parameter of repesentation of the Curve.Therefore:
→
− ‸ ‸ ‸
P ( X 3) = X 1 ( X 3) x 1 + X 2 ( X 3) x 2 + X 3 x 3
→ ‸ ‸ ‸
v ( X 3) = X 10 ( X 3) x 1 + X 20 ( X 3) x 2 + 1 x 3
Ø
ø ‸ ‸ ‸
a ( X 3) = X 100 ( X 3) x 1 + X 200 ( X 3) x 2 + 0 x 3
→
−
Notice That P ( X 3) is Explicitly Unknown.But the objective is to Compute the Derivatives.
¡‸ ‸ ‸ ¢ ³‸ ‸ ‸ ‸ ‸´
Always Select x 1, x 2, x 3 in the SEQUENCE : i, j, k , i, j ¸The parameter X 3 Fix The Selection.
This mean that X 3≜X or to Y or to Z.
⎛ ⎞
∂F ∂F
⎜∂ X ∂ X ⎟
⎜ 1 2⎟ → ∇ F x∇ G
Let J = det ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ v ( X 3) =
⎝ ∂G ∂G ⎟
⎜ ⎠ J
∂ X1 ∂ X2
Now The Second derivatives are determined by Solving The Linear System as shown below:
∂ F 00 ∂ F 00 ∂∇F →
X ( X 3) + X ( X 3) = · v
∂ X1 2 ∂ X2 1 ∂ X3
∂ G 00 ∂ G 00 ∂∇G →
X 2 ( X 3) + X 1 ( X 3) = · v
∂ X1 ∂ X2 ∂ X3
.
 SEA WAVE
A Wind Blowing Steadly For About 48 hours over The Ocean¸ Generates a Steady−State SEA WAVE . After The Wind Shift Direction or Ceases¸The Wave Continues
Traveling Freely . This is said To be a SWELL . When a WAVE Reaches The Shallow ¸it is said To be a SHOAL . A Sea Wave has a TROCHOIDAL Transverse Section .
( System of UNITS is MKS ) ⇒ The Parametric Equations of a TROCHOIDAL ( Profile) SEA WAVE is given by :
2π
X (φ ) = a φ − b S i n φ : Y (φ ) = b (1 + C o s φ ) : φ = t
P
Where : X( 2π ) = Wave Length ( λ ) And Y(0) = The Wave Height ( H ) . ⇒
Respectively : The Slope¸ Still−Water Level ¸Centroid of The Crest¸ And Area of The Crest . Are given as :
∂Y −b S i n φ b (2 a − b ) − b (3 a − 2 b)
= : Y0 = : Y = : A = π b (2 a − b )
∂X a − bCosφ 2a 2a−b
γ · A·V2 −
Kinetic And Potential Energy ( J╱m ) (RESPECT THE TROUGH LEVEL ) : e k = : ep = γ · A · g · Y
2
Kg
Where V = Wave Speed ¸ g = Acceleration Of Gravity ¸ γ = Density ( For Sea Water γ = 1025 )
m3
S2 1
STEADY STATE Sea Wave : H = : P = 1.44 (F H ) 4 : V = 1.04 P
126.2
Where : S = Wind Speed ( Knot ) ¸ F = Fetch ( Nautical Mile ) ¸ ( V¸ P ) = Wave Speed And Period . ⇒
λ = V · P : IF λ > 2 L ⇒ The Vessel Could Capsize in The Trough . ( L = Length Of The Vessel ) .
Energy Discharged Broad Abeam on The Vessel : E = e k · L · C o s ψ ⇒ The Vertical Displacement Of The Center Of Gravity :
E
h= : W = Ship Displacement in ( Newtons ) . Therefore θ is Computable! .
W
θ = Dynamic Heeling Angle ¸ ψ = Axial Angle Between The Ship And The Wave .
COMMENT : Let d = The Depth of Water ¸Then Respectively For Swells And Shoals :
µ ¶ µ ¶
λ √ λ
V = 1.56 P d> : V = 0.00317 d d<
2 2
APPENDIX
1 ) . RELATIVE MOTION BACKGROUND :
Let Respectively ( x¸ y ¸ z ) Stands For Parallel ¸ Meridional And Vertical Components .
→ →
Also Let The Observer And Body EARTH SPEED ( Rapidity ¸Course And Zenithal Angle ) Respectively Be : V r , V m
Ø
ø
Let The Bodies Distance ( D ) Bearing ( B ) And Zenithal Angle ( β ) For a Given Instant Be D ⇒
→ → →
The Speed Of The Body Seen By The Observer is : V = V m − V r
THE MOST IMPORTANT FOR THE NAVIGATOR ¸ is The Closest Point of Approach CPA :
q →
V Ø
ø
CPA= D2 − Q2 Where Q= D·
V
While Approaching : IF CPA=0 THEN COLLISION! . For This Condition ( B ¸ β ) Remain Constant .
→ Ø
ø →
The Displacement ( Distance ¸ Bearing And Zenithal Angle ) at Any Lapse Of Time ( T ) is given By : d = D + T V ⇒
MANEUVERING EQUATIONS :
dx = Dx + T Vx = d · S i n β · S i n B
dy = Dy + T Vy = d · S i n β C o s B
dz = Dz + T Vz = d · C o s β
Dx − Dy T a n B Dz + T Vz
⇒T= : β = C o s -1
Vy T a n B − Vx d
dy
B = ±C o s -1 q (−) When d x < 0 ⇒ ⇒
dx2 + dy2
Equal Latitude Position ¸Equal Longitude Position And Equal Altitude Position Time Lapse Are Respectively :
− Dy − Dx − Dz
Tx = : Ty = : Tz =
Vy Vx Vz
Notice That IF T x = T y = T z ≥ 0 THEN COLLISION !
Now By Letting d = CPA in The Maneuvering Equations¸ Hence ( T¸ B ¸ β ) Are Computables . ALTHOUGH :
Vy
B C P A = φ ± 90° Where φ = ±C o s -1 q (−) When V x < 0
Vx2 + Vy2
Through The Period of TanB ⇒ B = φ+90° or B = φ−90° ¸Yields The Same T .
∗ If The Changes in Bearings are Towards AFT¸ Hence The passing of the Body is ASTERN us ¸ Therefore BC P A is ABAFTLY .
→
∗ ∗ The Rapidity ¸Course And Vertical Angle of The Wind ¸ That a Navigator Measures ( While on Voyage ) ¸ is Simply The Winds V .
2). SAILING PROBLEM : When Vessel on Course φ ⇒She Develop a Maximum Speed of V2 . This Course Line Intersect The Departure Meridian at a Point O.
Let M be The Distance From The Departure To O . On Other course Her Speed is V1 . Now To Minimize The Time of Voyage ¸ Course φ is Desired . ⇒
Compute The Distance From O to X on The Mentioned LINE . From Which The Vessel Should Bound To His Destiny . ( Been his Destiny on This LINE ) . ⇒
³ ´
M 2 1 − K2C os φ V
PLANE : 2
X − 2M Cosφ X + = 0 Where K = 2
1 − K2 V1
³ ´³ ´
³ ´ 2 − 1 + K 2 C o s2 M + S i n2 M C o s2 φ
2 2 2
SPHERICAL : S i n 2 M C o s φ S i n 2 X + C o s M − S i n M C o s φ C o s 2 X =
1 − K2
 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

N
.
.
.
.

U
.
.
.
.
.

H
.
SPHERICAL TRISECTION METHOD
REMEMBER : Relative Bearings Are Free Of Constant Errors.
APPLICATION EXAMPLE : Let The Relative Bearings ( ∆ 1, ∆ 2 ) ¸ Be Knowns For Three(3) Spherical Points ( #0 ¸ #1 ¸ #2 ).

H
Knowing The Coordinates Of The Spherical Points ⇒ Compute ( δ¸α ) For The Observer . ( Two (2) Positions Are Possible).
NOTICE THAT ( #0 ¸ #1 ¸ #2 ) Could Be Radio−Direction− Finder STATIONS . Or CELESTIAL BODIES .
DEVELOPMENT :
-1
d = C o s (S i n δ 1 S i n δ 2 + C o s δ 1 C o s δ 2 C o s (α 2 − α 1))

θ 1 = C o s -1
C o s d1 − C o s d C o s d2
C
d 1 = C o s -1 (S i n δ 0 S i n δ 1 + C o s δ 0 C o s δ 1 C o s (α 1 − α 0))
d 2 = C o s -1 (S i n δ 0 S i n δ 2 + C o s δ 0 C o s δ 2 C o s (α 2 − α 0))

: θ 2 = C o s -1
C o s d2 − C o s d C o s d1

T
S i n d S i n d2 S i n d S i n d1
-1 S i n δ 2 − C o s d S i n δ 1
λ = Cos : ∆ = ∆ 1 + ∆ 2 ( NOTICE : The Triangular Solution is Straightforward When ∆ =180° ) .
S i n d C o s δ1

I
WARNING‼! . Due That a Constant Relative Bearing is a Plane−Circle Of Position . ∆ k ≠ θ k is Recommendable.
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ IF ∆ ≠ 180° THEN Begin The Iteration With : ψ = 1° ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
STEP 1. β = θ 2 + ψ : K = − T a n -1 (C o s d · T a n β )
Cos∆·SinK

M
φ = K ± C o s -1 : (β , φ ) > 0
Cosd ·Sinβ
S i n d2 · S i n ∆1
ψ = S i n -1 S i n (φ − θ 1)
S i n d1 · S i n ∆2
Now Substitute ψ in STEP 1. Until ψ Converges .

V ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ P 1 = C o s -1
Cosφ + Cosβ Cos∆
Sinβ Sin∆
∗∗∗∗∗∗∗

The Latitudes For P o s 1 And P o s 2 Are From : δ = S i n -1 (S i n δ 1 C o s P 1 + C o s δ 1 S i n P 1 C o s (λ ± β ))

A
C o s P1 − S i n δ1 S i n δ
For Longitudes : α 1 − α = ± C o s -1 (−) When #1 is WESTERN! Respect The Observer.
C o s δ1 C o s δ
NOTES
∗When ( P 1, x, P 2 ) Are Determined by means of a SEXTANT. Then The Combinations ( 01 ¸ 02 ¸12 ) Yields Three ( 3 ) Positions.

J
Thus Forming a Triangle Of Position Instead of a PINPOINT Position . This is Due to an ERROR . Now Assuming a Constant Sextant Error :
Hence The PINPOINT Position is at The Intersection of The Internals or Externals Angles Bisectors . But With The Following Particularity :
The Correction Must Be TOWARDS ALL Bodies¸ or AWAY From ALL Bodies . THEREFORE Chοose The Appropriate Intersection .
∗∗ When Positioning From Three ( 3 ) Visual Bearings . THEN Use The PLANE TRISECTION METHOD For a PinPoint Position .
∗∗∗Positioning From ( N > 3 ) Objects ¸ yields a SPHERICAL POLYGON of Position . Which Its CENTROID is The PINPOINT⇒
N N N − −
− 1 X − 1X − 1X − Z -1 p X
X = C o s δj C o s αj : Y = C o s δj S i n αj : Z = S i n δ j : δ = T a n -1 p − : α
−
= ±C o s
N j=1 N j=1 N j=1 2 −2
X +Y
−2 −2
X +Y

∂ P1
∗∗∗∗Positioning from one ( 1 ) Celestial Body : = C o s δ S i n Z 1 ⇒ Measuring The derivative ¸ hence the latidude ( δ ) Coul be From :
∂ω " #
µ ¶
2 2 ∂ P1 2
S i n δ − 2 S i n δ1 C o s P1 S i n δ + S i n δ1 + − 1 S i n 2 P 1 = 0 ⇒WGS84 Latitude = T a n -1 (1.006694381 T a n δ )
∂ω
ENGINEER JAVIER ANTONIO MITCHELL HUNTER---javmitchhun@yahoo.es
 DARKEST TWILIGHT NORTH POLE

Denebola
315° Regulus 45°

Arcturus

Alphecca (Gemma) Procyo

Alkaid Phad
Mizar
Alioth Merak
Pollux
Dubhe Castor

Kocab Alhena
Rasalhague
Etamin Polaris Menkalinan
W Bete
Vega Capella Alnath
Bella
Alderamin
Cih Mirphak
SadrDeneb Caph Aldebaran
Shedir Algol
Gienah Cygni
Almaak
Altair
Mirach
Hamal
Scheat Alpheratz

Enif
Markab
225° 135°

Long.:0.00° Lat.:90.00° 7 Feb 2006 AD 9h 49m 40s (U.T.-5.0h)

 DARKEST TWILIGHT SOUTH POLE

315° Diphda 45°

Fomalhaut

Ankaa
β
Alnair
Achernar
Peacock Rigel
Nunki
A
Kaus Australis Saiph
W κ Sargas
Shaula α Canopus Murzim
ε
Miaplacidus Adara Sirius
Sabik Avior
2
αRigel Kentaurus
Wezen
2 δ
Turais Aludra
Suhail al Muhlif
Antares αAcrux
Agena κ Naos
Becrux
α ε Gacrux Alsuhail
Dschubba η
γ
Menkent

Alphard

225° Spica 135°

Long.:0.00° Lat.:-90.00° 7 Feb 2006 AD 9h 49m 40s (U.T.-5.0h)

 NORTH POLE TWILIGHT

N
12h
0°
12h 40m 11h 20m
13h 20m 10h 40m

14h 10h
+10°

315° 14h 40m Regulus 9h 20m45°

+20°

15h 20m 8h 40m

Arcturus
+30°

16h 8h
+40°
Procyon
Alkaid +50°
16h 40m Alioth 7h 20m
Pollux
Dubhe
+60° Castor

17h 20m +70° Alhena 6h 40m

+80°
Menkalinan
W Betelgeuse
E
18h 6h
Vega Capella Alnath
+80° Bellatrix

18h 40m +70° Mirphak 5h 20m

Deneb Aldebaran
+60°

19h 20m 4h 40m

Altair +50°

+40°
20h Hamal 4h

+30°

20h 40m 3h 20m

+20°
225° 135°
21h 20m 2h 40m

+10°
22h 2h

22h 40m 1h 20m

23h 20m 0h 40m
0h
0°
S

1/6
STAR CHART
 SOUTH POLE TWILIGHT

N
0h
0°
23h 20m 0h 40m
22h 40m 1h 20m

22h 2h
-10°

315° 21h 20m 2h 40m45°

-20°

20h 40m 3h 20m

Fomalhaut
-30°

20h 4h
-40°

Alnair
-50°
19h 20m 4h 40m
Achernar
-60°
Peacock Rigel
18h 40m -70° 5h 20m
Alnilam
Kaus Australis -80°

W Sargas E
18h Shaula α Canopus 6h
Murzim
-80° Miaplacidus Adara
Avior Sirius
2 Wezen
17h 20m
αRigel Kentaurus δ Suhail al Muhlif 6h 40m
-70°
2
AgenaαAcrux
Antares
Becrux
Gacrux
-60°

16h 40m 7h 20m

-50°

-40°
16h 8h

-30°

15h 20m Alphard 8h 40m

-20°
225° Spica 135°
14h 40m 9h 20m

-10°
14h 10h

13h 20m 10h 40m

12h 40m 11h 20m
12h
0°
S

2/6
STAR CHART
 SKY RA=0:DECEMBER 22 EVENING TWILIGHT OR JUNE 22 MORNING TWILIGHT

+80°

315° 45°
Menkalinan
+70°
Capella

Vega +60° Mirphak

Deneb
+50° Alnath

+40°

+30° Hamal Aldebaran

+20° Betelge
Altair Bellatrix
+10°
18h 40m 19h 20m 20h 20h 40m21h 20m22h 22h 40m
23h 20m
0h 0h 40m1h 20m2h 2h 40m 3h 20m 4h 4h 40m 5h 20m 6h
W Alnilam E
0°

-10° Rigel

-20°
Fomalhaut
-30°

-40°
Alnair
Kaus Australis -50°

Achernar
Peacock -60°

-70°
225° 135°

-80°

3/6
STAR CHART
 SKY RA=90 : MARCH 22 EVENING TWILIGHT OR SEPTEMBER 22 MORNING TWILIGHT

+80° Dubhe

315° 45°
+70°

+60°
Mirphak

Capella
+50°
Menkalinan

+40°
Castor
Hamal Alnath Pollux
+30°

Aldebaran+20° Alhena Regulus

Betelgeuse
Bellatrix
+10° Procyon
0h 40m 1h 20m 2h 2h 40m 3h 20m 4h 4h 40m5h 20m6h
Alnilam6h 40m7h 20m8h 8h 40m 9h 20m 10h 10h 40m 11h 20m 12h
W 0°
E
Rigel Alphard
-10°
Murzim
Sirius
-20°
Wezen
Adara
-30°

-40°

Suhail al Muhlif
-50° Canopus
δ
-60° Avior

Achernar
-70°
225° Miaplacidus 135°

-80°

4/6
STAR CHART
 SKY RA=180 : JUNE 22 EVENING TWILIGHT OR DECEMBER 22 MORNING TWILIGHT

+80°

315° 45°
+70°
Dubhe
+60° Alioth
Alkaid
+50°
Castor
Pollux +40°

Alhena
+30°
Arcturus
+20°
Regulus
Procyon +10°
6h 40m 7h 20m 8h 8h 40m 9h 20m 10h 10h 40m
11h 20m
12h 12h 40m
13h 20m
14h 14h 40m15h 20m16h 16h 40m 17h 20m 18h
W 0°
E
Alphard
Spica
-10°

-20°
Sirius
Murzim
-30°
Wezen Antares
Adara -40°

-50°
Suhail al Muhlif Gacrux Shaula
δ Becrux
2
-60°αAcrux Agena
2
αRigel Kentaurus Sargas
Avior

225° Canopus Miaplacidus

-70°
135°

α
-80°

5/6
STAR CHART
 SKY RA=270 : SEPTEMBER 22 EVENING TWILIGHT OR MARCH 22 MORNING TWILIGHT

+80°

Alioth
315° 45°
+70°

Alkaid
+60°

Deneb
+50°

Vega
+40°

+30°
Arcturus
+20°

Altair
+10°
12h 40m 13h 20m 14h 14h 40m15h 20m16h 16h 40m
17h 20m
18h 18h 40m
19h 20m
20h 20h 40m21h 20m22h 22h 40m 23h 20m 0h
W 0°
E

-10°
Spica
-20°
Antares
-30° Kaus Australis
Shaula
Sargas
-40° Fomalhaut

-50°
Alnair
Peacock
-60°
2
αRigel Kentaurus
Agena α
-70°
225° 135°
Gacrux
Becrux
2
αAcrux
-80°

6/6
STAR CHART
Longitude -74.80° Latitude 10.98°
Time: 5 Feb 2006 AD 19h 7m 14s (U.T.+-5.0h) N
1 2 3 352°
351°
350° 358°
355°
354°
353° 359°
357°
356° 0°1°2°3°4°5°6°7°8°9°
10°
349°
348°
347°
346° 11°
12°
13°
14°
345°
344°
343° 15°
16°
17°
342°
341°
340° 18°
19°
20°
339°
338°
337° 21°
22°
23°
336°
335° 24°
25°
334°
333° 26°
27°
332°
331° 28°
29°
330°
329° 30°
31°
328°
327° 32°
33°
326°
325° 34°
35°
324°
323° 36°
37°
322°
321° 38°
39°
320°
319° 40°
41°
315° 317° 318° 42°
43° 45°
316°
315° 44°
45°
314°
313° 46°
47°
312°
311° 48°
49°
310°
309° 50°
51°
308°
307° 52°
53°
306° 54°
305° 55°
304° 56°
303° 57°
302° 58°
301° 59°
300° 60°
299° 61°
298° 62°
297° 63°
296° 64°
295° 65°
294° 66°
293° 67°
292° 68°
291° 69°
290° 70°
289° 71°
288° 72°
287° 73°
286° 74°
285° 75°
284° 76°
283° 77°
282° 78°
281° 79°
280° 80°
279° 81°
278° 82°
277° 83°
276° 84°
275° 85°
274° 86°
273° 87°
272° 88°
91°
271° 89°
92°
W 270°
269°
90°
93° E
268° 94°
267° 95°
266° 96°
265° 97°
264° 98°
263° 99°
262° 100°
261° 101°
260° 102°
259° 103°
258° 104°
257° 105°
256° 106°
255° 107°
254° 108°
253° 109°
252° 110°
251° 111°
250° 112°
249° 113°
248° 114°
247° 115°
246° 116°
245° 117°
244° 118°
243° 119°
242° 120°
241° 121°
240° 122°
239° 123°
238° 124°
237° 125°
236° 126°
235° 127°
234°
233° 128°
232° 129°
130°
231°
230° 131°
229° 132°
133°
228°
227° 134°
226° 135°
136°
225°
224° 137°
223° 138°
139°
225° 222° 221°
220°
140°
141°
142°
135°
219°
218° 143°
217° 144°
145°
216°
215° 146°
147°
214°
213° 148°
149°
212°
211° 150°
151°
210°
209° 152°
153°
208°
207° 154°
155°
206°
205° 156°
157°
204°
203°
202° 158°
159°
201°
200° 160°
161°
162°
199°
198°
197° 163°
164°
165°
196°
195°
194°
193° 166°
167°
168°
169°
192°
191°
190°
189°
188°
187° 174°172°
173° 170°
171°
186°
185°
184°
183°
182°
181° 177°
178°
179°
180° 175°
176°

S
Longitude -74.80° Latitude 10.98°
Time: 5 Feb 2006 AD 19h 7m 14s (U.T.+-5.0h) N
1 2 3 358°
3 5
359°
3
357°
5
356°
355° 5
59°
0°1°23
2°3°

3
337°
336°
3 23°°

3
3324°
323° 36
36°
37°
37
6°7°
322°
3
315° 3
33317°
316°
315° 45°°
4
314°
3
313°
3

306°
3 54°
54°
305°
3 55°
55
5°
5
304°
3
303°
3

299°
2 6
61°
2
298° 62°
62
2°
2
297°
2 63°
63
3°
3
2
296° 64°
644°
4
2
295° 65°
65
5°
5
2
294° 66°
666°
6
293°
2 67°
677°
7
2
292° 68°
688°
8
291°
291
2
290
290°
2
2
289°
2
288°

2
279° 81°°
81
2
278° 82°°
82
277°
2 83°°
83
276°
2
276 84°°
84
275°
2
275 85°°
85
274°
2
274 86°°
273°
273 87°°
272°
272 88°
91° °
271°
271 92°
89°°°
W 270°
270 90°
93°° E
269°
269 94°°
268°
268
2 95°°
267°
267
2 96°°
266°
2
266 97°°
265°
2
265 98°°
264°
2
264 99°°
263°
2
263 100°
100°
262°
2
262 101
101°
01°
261°
2
261
102°°
10

252°
2
252
251°
251
2 111°
250°
250
2 112°°
112
249°
249
2 113°°
248°
248
2 114°°
247°
247
2
246°
246
2
245°
245
2
244°
2
244
243°
2
243
242°
2
242
241°
2

237
237°
2 125°
236°
2
236 126°
235°
2
235 127°
2
234° 128°

227°
2226° 135°
2225°
2 136°
225° 135°
218°
2 143°
144°
217°
2216°
2 145°
146°

204°
2 2
203° 157°
158°
159°

185°
184°
183°
°182°
°181°
°1
180°
°8 178°
179°
°0° °
°176°
°177°

S
Longitude -74.80° Latitude 10.98°
Time: 5 Feb 2006 AD 19h 7m 14s (U.T.+-5.0h)
1 2 3
N
351°
350° 354°
353°
352° 359°
357°
356°
355° 0°1°2°3°4°5°6°7°8°9°
358° 10°
349°
348°
347°
346° 11°
12°
13°
14°
345°
344°
343° 15°
16°
17°
342°
341°
340° 18°
19°
20°
339°
338°
337° 21°
22°
23°
336°
335° 24°
25°
334°
333° 26°
27°
332°
331° 28°
29°
330°
329° 30°
31°
328°
327° 32°
33°
326°
325° 34°
35°
324°
323° 36°
37°
322°
321° 38°
39°
320°
319° 40°
41°
315° 317° 318° 42°
43° 45°
316°
315° 44°
45°
314°
313° 46°
47°
312°
311° 48°
49°
310°
309° 50°
51°
308°
307° 52°
53°
306°
305° 54°
55°
304° 56°
303° 57°
302° 58°
301° 59°
300° 60°
299° 61°
298° 62°
297° 63°
296° 64°
295° 65°
294° 66°
293° 67°
292° 68°
291° 69°
290° 70°
289° 71°
288° 72°
287° 73°
286° 74°
285° 75°
284° 76°
283° 77°
282° 78°
281° 79°
280° 80°
279° 81°
278° 82°
277° 83°
276° 84°
275° 85°
274° 86°
273° 87°
272° 88°
91°
271° 89°
92°
W 270°
269°
90°
93° E
268° 94°
267° 95°
266° 96°
265° 97°
264° 98°
263° 99°
262° 100°
261° 101°
260° 102°
259° 103°
258° 104°
257° 105°
256° 106°
255° 107°
254° 108°
253° 109°
252° 110°
251° 111°
250° 112°
249° 113°
248° 114°
247° 115°
246° 116°
245° 117°
244° 118°
243° 119°
242° 120°
241° 121°
240° 122°
239° 123°
238° 124°
237° 125°
236°
235° 126°
234° 127°
128°
233°
232° 129°
231° 130°
131°
230°
229° 132°
228° 133°
134°
227°
226° 135°
225° 136°
137°
224°
223° 138°
139°
225° 221° 222°
220°
140°
141°
142°
135°
219°
218° 143°
217° 144°
145°
216°
215° 146°
147°
214°
213° 148°
149°
212°
211° 150°
151°
210°
209° 152°
153°
208°
207° 154°
155°
206°
205° 156°
157°
204°
203°
202° 158°
159°
201°
200° 160°
161°
162°
199°
198°
197° 163°
164°
165°
196°
195°
194°
193° 166°
167°
168°
169°
192°
191°
190°
189°
188°
187° 173°
174°
175° 170°
171°
172°
186°
185°
184°
183°
182° 178°
179°
180°
181° 176°
177°

S
Longitude -74.80° Latitude 10.98°
Time: 5 Feb 2006 AD 19h 7m 14s (U.T.+-5.0h)
1 2 3
N
350°
3550 359°
3
357°5
59°
358°
5 0
0°1°2° 10°
10
0
3
346°
3 4 34
4 349°
3
348°
347° 4 11°
1 °1
12°
1213°
1314°
1 4
343°
3 4 345°
3
344°
3 4 4 15°
1 16°
1 17°
1
342°
34
3
3338°
3337°
336° 22°
23°
°24°
°°
335°
3
3
331°
33
331
330
330°
3 30° 29°
30°
9°0°
°°
3329°
3
328°
3
3325°
324° 35°
36°
36
5°6°
33
323°
322°
322 37°
377
38°
38
7°8
8°
321°
3
321
320
320°
20° 40°
4
315° 317° 333
319°
318° 41°
4
41
01° °
42°
422°
2 45°
3
315°
3
314°
3 45
45°
5°
46°
46
6°
6
3313°
3
312° 48°
48
8°
311°
311
3
310
310°
3 10° 49°
49
9°
9
50°
50
0°
0
3309°
3
308° 52°
52 °
307°
3
306°
3 53°
53
3°
3
54°
54
4°
4
3305°
3
304° 55°
555°
5
303°
3
302°
3
3
300
300° 60°
6 0
2
299° 61°
6
611°
298°
2
2
297° 63°
633°
2
296° 64°
64
4°
4
2
295° 65°
655°
5
2
294° 66°
666°
6
293°
2 67°
677°
7
2
292° 68°
688°
8
291°
291
2
290
290°
2
2
289° 71°°
71
2
288° 72°
722°
2
2
287° 73°
733°
3
2
286° 74°
744°
4
2
285° 75°
755°
5
2
284° 76°
766°
6
2
283° 77°
777°
7
2
282° 78°
788°
8
281°
281
2 79°
79
9°
9
280
280°
2 80°°
80
2
279° 81°°
81
2
278° 82°°
82
2
277° 83°°
83
276°
2
276 84°°
84
2
275° 85°°
85
274°
2
274 86°°
86
273°
273 87°°
272°
272 88°
88
91°°°
271°
271 89°
92°
W 270°
270 90°°°
93° E
269°
269 94°°
268°
268
2 95°°
267°
267
2 96°°
266°
2
266 97°°
265°
2
265 98°°
264°
2
264 99°°
263°
2
263 100°
100°
262°
2
262 101
101°
01°
261°
2
261
260°
260
2 102°°
10
259°
2
259 103°°
258°
2
258 104°°
257°
2
257 105°°
256°
2
256 106°°
255°
2
255 107°°
254°
2
254 108°°
253°
2
253 109°°
252°
2
252 110°
110°
251°
251
2 111°
11°°
250°
250
2 112°°
112
249°
249
2 113°°
248°
248
2 114°°
247°
247
2 115°°
246°
246
2 116°°
245°
245
2 117°°
244°
244
2 118°
243°
2
243 119°
242°
2
242 120
120°
241°
2
241 121°
121°
240°
240
2 122°
122
22°
22
238°
2
238 1
124°
237°
2
237 125°
236°
2
236
235°
2
235 126°
234°
2233° 127°
128°
2232°
2231 129°
130
130°
231°
22 °
230° 131°
1 31°
229°°
2228° 132°
133°2°
2227°
2226° 134°
135°
2225°
2224° 136°
137°
2223°
2222 138°
139°
225° 222° 221°
221
21°
2220 140°
140
141°
1 41° 135°
220°
2219° ° 142°
42°°
2218°
2217° 143°
144°
2216°
2215° 145°
146°
2 147°
212°
2
2211° 15149°
150°
150
5
2211°
11
210°
210 151°
1 51°
152°
52°
2°
2 °
209°
205°
2204°
2203° 156°
157°
158°
2202°
2 159°
160°
198°
197°
196°
°°° 165°163°
164°°
195°
194°
193°
°192° 168°
169° 166°
167°
° ° ° °
°191°
°1
190°
19
°°° 170°
1
17
171°° °
183°
182°
°1
180°
°8
181° 178°
179°
°
°0°

S
Longitude -74.80° Latitude 10.98°
Time: 5 Feb 2006 AD 19h 7m 14s (U.T.+-5.0h) N
1 2 3 358°
3 5
359°
3
357°
5
356°
355° 5
59°
0°1°23
2°3°

3
337°
336°
3 23°°

3
3324°
323° 36
36°
37°
37
6°7°
322°
3
315° 3
33317°
316°
315° 45°°
4
314°
3
313°
3

306°
3 54°
54°
305°
3 55°
55
5°
5
304°
3
303°
3

299°
2 6
61°
2
298° 62°
62
2°
2
297°
2 63°
63
3°
3
2
296° 64°
644°
4
2
295° 65°
65
5°
5
2
294° 66°
666°
6
293°
2 67°
677°
7
2
292° 68°
688°
8
291°
291
2
290
290°
2
2
289°
2
288°

2
279° 81°°
81
2
278° 82°°
82
277°
2 83°°
83
276°
2
276 84°°
84
275°
2
275 85°°
85
274°
2
274 86°°
273°
273 87°°
272°
272 88°
91° °
271°
271 92°
89°°°
W 270°
270 90°
93°° E
269°
269 94°°
268°
268
2 95°°
267°
267
2 96°°
266°
2
266 97°°
265°
2
265 98°°
264°
2
264 99°°
263°
2
263 100°
100°
262°
2
262 101
101°
01°
261°
2
261
102°°
10

252°
2
252
251°
251
2 111°
250°
250
2 112°°
112
249°
249
2 113°°
248°
248
2 114°°
247°
247
2
246°
246
2
245°
245
2
244°
2
244
243°
2
243
242°
2
242
241°
2

237
237°
2 125°
236°
2
236 126°
235°
2
235 127°
2
234° 128°

227°
2226° 135°
2225°
2 136°
225° 135°
218°
2 143°
144°
217°
2216°
2 145°
146°

204°
2 2
203° 157°
158°
159°

185°
184°
183°
°182°
°181°
°1
180°
°8 178°
179°
°0° °
°176°
°177°