Stratigraphy • Less evolved = older; more evolved = younger

• study of layers of rocks or the objects embedded within those layers ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• based on the assumption (which nearly always holds true) that deeper Seriation
layers were deposited earlier, and thus are older, than more shallow •  a method of determining a chronology (as for archaeological material) by
layers a detailed study of a particular style or type that reveals an increase or
• The sequential layers of rock represent sequential intervals of time decrease in the popularity of the style giving a tentative scale from early to
• William “Strata” Smith: Father of Engish Geology late
• Stratigraphy in Geology and Archaeology is different by means of scale • Sir William Flinders Petrie in 1899
• PRINCIPLES • PRINCIPLES
1. Law of Superposition 1. Hereditary Continuity
- stating that in any undisturbed sequence of rocks deposited in  Like begets like
layers, the youngest layer is on top and the oldest on bottom  assumes that things produced at a certain moment, resemble
- Charles Lyell similar objects produced in earlier moments and vice versa
2. Principle of Original Horizontality
 Two Types:
- scientific law stating that sediments settling out from bodies of
water are deposited horizontally or nearly horizontally in layers a. Analogous – evolutionary convergence
b. Homologous –shared ancestry
that lie parallel or nearly parallel to the Earth's surface.
- Nicholas Steno 2. Historical Continuity
 assumes that formal similarity means temporal similarity
3. Flora and Fauna
4. Reverse stratigraphy 3. Principle of Ordering
- the result of a process whereby one sediment is unearthed by  Similar  closer; Different  farther
human or natural actions and moved elsewhere, whereby the • TECHNIQUES
latest material will be deposited on the bottom of the new 1. Phylectic Seriation
sediment, and progressively earlier material will be deposited - Arrange artifacts of similar form in an order such that change in
higher and higher in the stratigraphy
traits is gradual and continuous
- triggered by rockslides, treethrows, collapse of walls on river
banks - FOUR CRITERIA:
5. Law of Cross-cutting relationship a. Uniqueness of trait
- states that an igneous intrusion is always younger than the rock b. Presence of a probable ancestral trait in the geographic
it cuts across area
6. Principle of Lateral Continuity c. Quantity of shared traits
- states that layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all d. Geography proximity of the localities
directions; in other words, they are laterally continuous
2. Occurrence Seriation
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- Depends on observation of presence and absence
Typologies 3. Frequency Seriation
• A method of relative dating that categorizes archeological finds into - Depends on observation of presence and absence
different types. - Depends on distribution/abundance of object across time period
• These categories are then used to establish a sequence of events; a - Bell shaped curve
possible chronological order
• Battleship curves
• METHODOLOGY
• Advantages
1. Classification
a. Descriptive Type  one of the earliest applications of statistics to questions about
b. Chronoligical Type archaeological data
c. Functional Type  Pioneered a further application of typology
d. Stylistic Type  Provides a visual arrangement
2. Good sample size • Seriation: manipulated graphically. The standard graphical result of
3. Establish categories
seriation is a series of "battleship curves," which are horizontal bars
a. Intrinsic classification: refers to the artefact itself
b. Extrinsic refers to the artefact where the artefact was found representing percentages plotted on a vertical axis.
4. Consider attributes (use the ones that best fit the research)
5. Establish subcategories as needed
• APPLICATION
Types (Shared attributes)  Style (Shape/Decoration)  Context (Culture)
 Same type = Same style = Same context = Same period
 Different type = Different style = Different context = Different period
 form a chronology based on gradual (evolutionary) changes in style
• ADVANTAGES and DISADVANTAGES
A. Advantages
1. simpler to establish than absolute dating
2. manages large mass of archaeological data
3. enables one to compare what has been found at two sites or • Typology vs Seriation:
in different levels of the same site
B. Disadvantages
1. objectives of classifications may change according to the
problems being investigated, thus revising their
classifications when circumstances require it.
2. a good sample size in order to have a detailed analysis
3. Categories need to be established and these can come
under very broad headings
4. Bias
5. Practical barriers to testing typologies are often large (time,
energy, and money).
 Seriation dating is a form of typology dating. Typology dating organizes
objects according to physical characteristics in a specific time frame.
Seriation dating organizes objects according to physical changes over time.
C-14
 Radiocarbon dating (or simply carbon dating) is a technique that uses the
decay of Carbon-14 (14C) to estimate the age of organic materials, such as
wood and leather.
 up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years.
 presented to the world by Willard Libby in 1949
 The dating method is based on the fact that carbon is found in various
forms, including the main stable isotope (12C) and an unstable isotope
(14C). Through photosynthesis, plants absorb both forms from carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. When an organism dies, it contains a ratio of
14C to 12C, but, as the 14C decays with no possibility of replenishment,
the ratio decreases at a regular rate (its half-life) and this provides an
indication of the age of any carbon-based material
 Carbon-14 has a relatively short half-life of 5,730 years (5,568 years =
Libby value)
 most frequent uses of radiocarbon dating is to estimate the age of organic
remains from archaeological sites.
 The decay of organic matter. This means that almost all living organisms
are constantly exchanging carbon-14 atoms with their environment. This
exchange stops when the organism dies. Nevertheless, release of CO2
from the organism continues, by processes of molecular decay
(disintegration). These processes, however, do not change the fraction of
C-14 relative to the other two species of carbon (C-12 and C-13) in
decaying organic matter.
  METHODS
1. Gas Proportional Counting. In the gas counting technique the sample is
converted to CO2 by combustion of organic samples or by acid treatment
of carbonates. After careful purification the obtained CO2 is introduced
into the proportional counter directly for the counting of beta particles
from 14C decays.
2. Liquid Scintillation Counting. Liquid Scintillation Counting is an analytical
technique which is defined by the incorporation of the radiolabeled
analyte into uniform distribution with a liquid chemical medium capable of
converting the kinetic energy of nuclear emissions into light energy.
3. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry. Mass spectrometers detect atoms of
specific elements according to their atomic weights.
 ADVANTAGES
1. C-14 dating is accurate right before 50,000 years and it should not be used
to date items over about 100,000 years old.
 DISADVANTAGES
1. Size of the sample: The size of the archaeological sample is important, the
larger the better, as purification of the sample removes some matter.
2. Sample handling: The handling of samples must be done with care in order
to avoid contamination by more recent carbon.
3. Limits due to exponential decay: As mentioned earlier, the decay of 14C is
exponential in nature. This results in significant upper and lower limits.
Radiocarbon dating is not very accurate for fairly recent deposits as very
little decay has occurred.
Thermoluminiscence
 Thermoluminescence dating is the use of heat on archeological or
geological samples to produce a light signal that is proportional to an
accumulated radiation dose. It is used to date rocks, minerals and
ceramics for dates between approximately 300 to 10,000 B.P. (before
present).
 Thermoluminescent dosimeter, or TLD, is a type of radiation dosimeter. A
TLD measures ionizing radiation exposure by measuring the amount of
visible light emitted from a crystal in the detector when the crystal is
heated
 Process
When a material is heated or exposed to sunlight, electrons are excited
and can be trapped in small imperfections in the molecular lattice of the
sample, for example pottery or sediment. When the sample is exposed to
heat, these trapped electrons are once again excited and recombine with
the parent material. When this happens, they give off energy in the form
of light that can be measured.
 Methodology
Thermoluminescence dating requires two measurements for a successful
date estimate. The first measurement is how much radiation the sample
has been exposed to over the years. The second evaluates how much
natural radiation is found both within and around the sample. Using these
measurements, you can calculate how long the sample has been exposed
to the radiation. This gives you the estimate for how long it has been since
the sample was last heated.
 Limitations
Thermoluminescence dating can only be used to date the object to the
last time that it was heated to 350 degrees Celsius or higher, such as a clay
vessel being fired, or a rock used as part of a fire hearth.
 Benefits
Thermoluminescence dating can be used on samples for which
radiocarbon dating is not possible. It is commonly used on pottery,
ceramics, rocks, minerals and geological sediments. It can also be useful
for comparing samples, even if the absolute age is not closely determined.
 Warning
Thermoluminescence dating requires the sample to be exposed to heat
over a period of time, which means that the sample may be compromised
in the process.
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OBSIDIAN HYDRATION
 Obsidian hydration dating (OHD) is a geochemical method of determining
age in either absolute or relative terms of an artifact made of obsidian.
 The technique relies on the fact that a measurable rind grows at a known
rate on the surface of the lithic material called obsidian when it is freshly
exposed, such as by a break or purposeful flaking.
 Obsidian is a volcanic glass that was sometimes used as a raw material in
the manufacture of stone tools such as projectile points, knives, or other
cutting tools through the process of flintknapping.
 Obsidian obeys the property of mineral hydration, and absorbs water,
when exposed to air, at well defined rate. Over time, water slowly diffuses
into the artifact forming a narrow "band," "rim," or "rind"
 The rim can be seen and measured with many different techniques such as
a) a high-power microscope with 40-80 power magnification b) depth
profiling with SIMS secondary ion mass spectrometry
 SAMPLE PROCESSING DETERMINANT
1) the hydration rate
2) the thickness of the hydration rim
3) the soil temperature and soil relative humidity at the archaeological site.
 METHODS
1. Conventional procedure. To measure the hydration band, a small slice of
material is typically cut from an artifact. This sample is ground down to
about 30 micrometers thick. The hydration rind is then measured under a
high-power microscope. The technician measures the microscopic
amount of water absorbed on freshly broken surfaces. The principle
behind obsidian hydration dating is simple–the longer the artifact surface
has been exposed, the thicker the hydration band will be.
2. Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) procedure. In case of
measuring the hydration rim using the depth profiling ability of the
 secondary ion mass spectrometry technique, the sample is mounted on a
holder without any preparation or cutting. This method of measurement is
non-destructive.
 Irving Friedman and Robert Smith of the U. S. Geological Survey
 LIMITATIONS
The rate of hydration is not uniform throughout the world. Variations
exist in temperature over time from site to site.

Temperature is known to speed up the hydration process. Thus, artifacts

exposed to higher temperatures, for example by being at lower elevation,
seem to hydrate faster.
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AMINO ACID RACEMIZATION

Racemization dating is a process which uses the measurement of the rate of
carbon protein amino acids to date once-living organic tissue.

All living organisms have protein; protein is made up of amino acids. All but
one of these amino acids (glycine) has two different chiral forms (mirror
images of each other).

Lævorotatory and Dextrorotatory

While an organism lives, their proteins are composed of only 'left-handed'
(laevo, or L) amino acids, but once the organism dies the left-handed amino
acids slowly turn into right-handed (dextro or D) amino acids. Once formed,
the D amino acids themselves slowly turn back to L forms at the same rate.

Amino acid racemisation: The ratio between the D and L versions of each
amino acid increases with time from 0 (0%D / 100% L) to 1 (50%D / 50%L).

Racemization can be used to date objects between 5,000 and 1,000,000

years old

Amino acids: Aspartic acid, glumatic acid, serine, alanine, arganine, tyrosine,
valine, phenylalanine, leucine

Factors: Type of amino, average temp, environmental (temperature, water

concentration, pH)

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages: based on the ratio of L and R amino-acids one can determine
approximately how old a sample is.
Disadvantages: amino acids are prone to oxidation and decomposition over
time and probably are not the most reliable method for determining the age
of samples