Theories of Communication

Hypodermic or Magic Bullet Theory

As the name suggest, bullet theory says the messages were thought to be like
magic bullets that were shot directly into the receiver.

Perception: it assumes that receivers are passive and defenseless and that
whatever is shot at them, they receive it blindly. In this theory the magic
bullet is the message transmitted by the media and the victims of the bullet
are innocent audience who are exposed to every thing shot at them. The
theory also portrays that the media have direct, immediate and powerful
effects on those who pay attention to their content. The theory assumed that
they reached every eye and ear in the same way and brought about the same
changes of thought and behaviors in the entire audience. Two assumptions
that can be drawn are:
1. People receive information directly from the mass media and not
through the intermediary.
2. That reaction is individual, not based on how other people might
influence them.
This theory beliefs that media are extremely powerful institution and the
medias consumers are dummies. They sees media gatekeepers as highly
manipulative and somehow much more clever than their audience.

Limitation: the influence of media on individuals depends on many factors,

including individual’s psychological differences, membership in social
categories etc. all of these shape and limit a person’s exposure to the media
or how he or she will eventually interpret media content.
 Agenda Setting Theory
The term was coined by Maxwell McCombs and Donald L.Shaw in 1972 in
the context of election campaign where politicians seek to convinced the
voters about the party’s most important issues.

An Agenda is a selection of items arranged to give some items more

importance than others.

Perception: Agenda theory says that the news media present the public net
with the picture of the world as it is but with an agenda of their own a
selection of reports about what is happening in the world. It tries to explain:
1. how stories are selected, packaged and presented a process known as
gate keeping,
2. the resulting agenda, and,
3. how this agenda affects what people think about the relative
importance of the issues presented.

The theory also ‘predicts’ that if a particular news item is presented

prominently and frequently by the press, the public will come to believe that
it is important. Thus, the press does not necessarily tell us what to think,
but it tells us what to think about.
Gatekeeping helps in agenda setting: Newspapers receives abundance
news in their offices and only a few of them are selected. This process is
called Gatekeeping. It results in some stories being in the news and some
not, in some being given strong emphasis and other being buried. Thus,
Gatekeeping results in a news agenda presented by the media to the public.

Shaw, Mc Comb and their associates found correlation between the agendas
set by the media and the public’s beliefs about the importance of issues.
Some additional conclusions are:
1. There is a progressive increase in the use of mass communication
during a presidential campaign.
2. The influence of the media’s agenda on an individual’s concern with
issues is directly related to how much he or she is exposed to mass
communication. Those individuals most frequently exposed to mass
communication show higher levels of agreement between personal
agendas and mass media agendas.
Importance: Agenda setting appears to be one indirect way in which the
media can change society over a long period of time.
 Uses and Gratification Theory

This theory has shifted its focus from what the media do to the people
to what people do with the media. This theory was given by Katz in
1959 in this theory.

The term use assumes that audiences are active and willingly expose
themselves to media for any kind of use or desire to use the mass media
and these people get maximum influenced by the media content and it
cannot influence an individual who has ‘no use’ for it in the
environment in which he lives.
The term ‘Gratification’ refers to the rewards and satisfaction
experienced by the audiences after the use of media, it helps to explain
motivations behind media use and habits of media use or the actual
needs satisfaction by the media are called media gratification.
Idea: this theory assumes that mass media audiences make active use
of what the media have to offer arising from a complex set of needs
which the media in one form or another gratify.
Some of the uses and gratifications which are as follows:

I.Cognition: it means the act of coming to know something.

According to this function the audiences uses the mass media to
gratify the need of information. At the audience level there are
two different types of cognitive functions that are performed by
the media:
1. one is to use the media to keep up with the information on current
events e.g. I wan to know what is going in the world.
2. the other is using the media to learn about things in general or
things that relate to person’s general curiosity. E.g. media gives
me idea.

These needs are related to strengthening our knowledge and understanding

for the world we live in and are based to certain extent on a desire to explore
and master the surrounding environment. Thus the use of media in this way
is linked to the fulfillment of the basic human needs.
II. Diversion: Another basic need of human is for diversion.
Diversion can take many forms. Some of them are:
 Stimulation: it means one use mass media to get
relief from the boredom or the routine activities of
 everyday life. E.g. viewers watch the programme
when they are bore or they have nothing to do or
simply to pass time.
 Relaxation: it is to escape from the pressure and
problems of day to day life. The media is one of
the source of the relaxation or relief.
 Emotional release: pent up emotions and energy.
The use of media for emotional release. One of the
big attractions of the soap operas for example,
seems to be that many people in the audience are
comforted by seeing that other people have
troubles greater than their own.
 Reality exploration or advice: the programme is
used to help solve problems in their viewer’s own
life. Some of the programme helps viewers to
understand his or her own life as well as others and
to provide an accurate reflection of reality.
III. Social Utility: these needs include our needs to strength
our contacts with family, friends and other in our society.
The media function that addresses this need is called social
utility. When the programme tool for social interaction with
others and the people view the programme with friends and
enjoy talking about the programme the media is said to be
fulfilling this need.
Social utility is also apparent in other instances as well.
Going to the movie with friends is the most common factor.
Some people report that they use media, particularly
television and radio to overcome the loneliness. The TV set
represents the voice in the house that might otherwise be
alone. Radio keeps people company in their work place.
People who might otherwise be deprived of social
relationship find companionship in media content and media
personalities.

IV. Withdrawal: Humans occasionally needed to escape from

certain activities, in this connection; they use the media not
only for the relaxation but also for withdrawal. At times,
people use the mass media to create the barrier themselves
and other people and other activities. For example, the
media help people avoid certain chores that should be done.
 Perhaps many of us put off work until we finish watching
TV programme or reading the newspaper. Children are
quick to learn using the media inn this fashion.

Conclusion: The uses and gratification approach assumes that people are
aware of their own needs and are able to verbalize them. Media gratify these
identified needs of the audience and make them satisfy.
 Dependency Theory

This theory was given by S.J.Ball Rokeach and Melvin De Fleur. This
theory relates to the degree to which audiences are dependent upon the mass
media.
Idea: the theorist believe that potential for mass media messages to achieve
a broad range of cognitive and behavioral effects will be increased when
media system serve many unique and central information system. The fewer
the sources of the information in media world, the more likely the media will
affect our minds and thoughts, our attitudes and how we behave.

Other Conclusions:
 Just as the audience may changed by the information or message it
receives, in turn the media systems themselves are changed according
to the audience response. It is not the one way communication.
According to the author, the media and audience are interdependent
and serve as the internal part of the society.
 The effect of the mass media message also depend upon the socio
cultural parameters of the society

Effects:
This theory has underlined some of the following decisions of the
audiences which are to the maximum extent depend upon the media:
a) The interpretation of the situations which audiences are able
to make;
b) Attitude Formation;
c) Agenda Setting;
d) Expansion of people’s systems of belief’s and;
e) Clarification of values.

Importance:
 The media plays an important role in establishing and
maintenance of communal solidarity and oneness,
equally they may work towards the unfriendliness of
section of the population who are traditionally
discriminated against women, child exploitation and
reserved classes etc.
 At critical decision making times, such as elections,
people have became increasingly dependent on the
 media, especially television, for election information
and guidance.
 The greater the uncertainty in society, the less clear
are people’s frame of reference, consequently there is
greater audience dependence on media
communication.
 Cultivation Theory

This theory was developed by Gorge rbner on 1967. It is based on the

assumption that mass media have subtle effects on audience who,
unknowingly, absorb the dominant symbols, images and messages of media.

He calls it “Cultivation of dominant image pattern”

Idea: According to this theory, a long, persistent exposure to TV is

capable of cultivating common beliefs about the world. The theorist says
that media not always portray reality in society, but repeated exposure to
such distortions leads to development of particular beliefs about the world;
and these beliefs get reinforced once they are developed. He strongly
suggests that the powerful effects of mass media act as a moulders of
society. Additionally, cultivation analysis concentrates on the long term
effects of exposure rather than the short term impact on attitudes and
opinions.
It has also found, that a new phenomenon has arrived recently called,
resonance, situation in which the respondent’s real life experiences are
matching with those of the television world, thereby leading to a greater
cultivation effect.

Effects:
 Individuals who watch TV simply to pass time or because it
becomes habit appear to be more affected than people whose
viewing is planned and motivated.
 Moreover, cultivation appears to be enhanced when the viewer
perceives the content of entertainment shows to be realistic.
Audience members who look with skepticism on the accuracy
of TV shows seem less likely to display the cultivation effects.

Importance:
 Media cultivate many useful values in the society, which
enhance the standard of living of the people.
 It is very helpful at the time of election; when media
cultivated certain ethos and goodwill of the political parties
which has long term effects.
  It helps in eradication of the social evils by setting some of
the standard and good moral values among the viewers or
the audience.
 Media also helps in cultivating and imposing the rules and
regulations in the society and law and order.

Conclusion: Continuous exposures to the media willingly or unwillingly

lead to the cultivation and setting up of certain social system in the society
and in an individual; which helps and guide them in different aspects of life.
However, the degree of influence depends upon the socio cultural
environment around them.
 Play Theory

This theory was given by William Stephenson, he counters those who

speak of the harmful effects of the mass media by arguing that first and
foremost the media serves audiences as play experiences.
According to him, even newspapers are read for pleasure rather than
information and enlightenment. The media provides communication
pleasure rather than information and enlightment