Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia (2022), 1–8

doi:

REVIEW

Overview of machine learning and deep learning models for Covid-19

identification acoustic signal-based
Y. Lakrad, Y. Siyah, and M. EL Omari
computer and telecommunication research laboratory,Master IT, Faculty of Science, Rabat, Morocco
Author for correspondence: Y. Siyah, Email: youssef.siyah@um5r.ac.ma.

(Received ; revised ; accepted ; first published online )

Abstract
COVID-19 can be pre-screened on the basis of symptoms and confirmed by laboratory tests such as reverse transcription polymerase chain
reaction (RTPCR). This RT-PCR treatment is more expensive and induces a violation of social distancing rules, and is time consuming. The
rapid antigen test (RAT) is another molecular testing method which alleviates the time limitation of RT-PCR but has high false negatives
(low specificity). Therefore, it was necessary to look for alternative methods to detect Covid 19. The techniques proposed in this overview
are machine learning and deep learning techniques based on the sound of coughing and breathing, these techniques can detect the virus
quickly and gives everyone the opportunity to test at home without going to a laboratory by recording audio clips of their coughing and
breathing sounds and downloading the data anonymously. In this work, we used different machine learning and deep learning methods. After
a comparison between these methods, the LSTM, 8-KNN and GA-ML models were found to give accuracy of 98%, which is the highest
reported so far among the other models proposed in this overview.
Keywords: COVID-19, Machine learning, Deep learning, Audio

1. INTRODUCTION still unaffordable to most global populations. Sometimes, it

is unpleasant to the children. Not least, this test is not yet
The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus
accessible to the people living in remote areas, where medical
pandemic, is an ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus dis-
facilities are scarce [2]. Alarmingly, the physicians suspect
ease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory
that the general people refuse the COVID-19 test in fear of
syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The novel virus was
stigma [1]. Governments worldwide have initiated a free mas-
first identified from an outbreak in Wuhan, China, in De-
sive testing campaign to stop the spreading of this virus, and
cember 2019. Attempts to contain it there failed, allowing
this campaign is costing them billions of dollars per day at the
the virus to spread to other areas of China and later world-
average rate of $23 per test[30]. Hence, easily accessible, quick,
wide. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the
and affordable testing is essential to limit the spreading of the
outbreak a public health emergency of international concern
virus. The COVID-19 detection method, using human audio
on 30 January 2020 and a pandemic on 11 March 2020. As
signals, can play an important role here.
of 22 August 2022, the pandemic had caused more than 596
Recently, AI has been extensively implemented in the dig-
million cases and 6.45 million confirmed deaths, making it one
ital health sector and specifically in the COVID-19 health
of the deadliest in history. Figure 1 shows the Evolution of
crisis, due to the variety of information it provides, such as
COVID-19 cases and deaths up to august 2022. The WHO
COVID-19 growth-rate detection, risk, and infection severity
reports as most common symptoms of C19 fever, dry cough,
identification, in addition to death prediction. AI is a broad
loss of taste and smell, and fatigue; the symptoms of a severe
umbrella that consists of many subdivisions, including machine
COVID-19 condition are mainly shortness of breath, loss of
learning (ML) and deep learning (DL), which both imitate
appetite, confusion, persistent pain or pressure in the chest,
the functionality of the human brain and behaviors based on
and temperature above 38 degrees Celsius. Monitoring the
the data that is fed to cluster tasks[18]. AI has numerous ap-
development of the pandemic and screening the population
plications in both speech-signal processing and digital-image
for symptoms is mandatory. Arguably the procedures mostly
processing. Both facilitate the process of controlling, mon-
used are temperature measurement – e.g., before boarding
itoring, and overcoming the COVID-19 epidemic through
a plane – and diverse corona rapid tests – e.g., before being
their four-step procedure: detection, prevention, recovery,
allowed to visit a care home. In the clinical test for diagnosing
and response[28]. Scientists believe that it is possible to de-
C19 infection, the anterior nasal swabs sample is collected as
termine the presence of a COVID-19 infection by analyzing
suggested by Hanson et al.[17].
the generated sounds from the respiratory system, whether
To date, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-
cough, breathing, or regular speech. Furthermore, medical
PCR) is considered the gold standard for testing coronavirus[32].
imaging data such as chest X-ray and lung computed tomog-
However, the RT-PCR test requires person-to-person contact
raphy (CT) scans can be beneficial in COVID-19 detection[5].
to adminis-ter, needs variable time to produce results, and is
2 Y. Lakrad et al.
In this overview, we will present several machine learning
and deep learning techniques collected from the sounds of the
respiratory system (coughing, breathing, speech) and evaluate
these techniques to select the best performing model against
COVID-19.The organization of this document is as follows:
Section 2 presents the data set collected. It also details the
classification methods with their performance. In section 3,
the experiments and results are detailed in a table. Section
4 defines machine and deep learning and then presents the
steps for developing a machine learning model. Finally, the
conclusion of the reported work and the future directions of
the proposed approach are presented in section 5.
Figure 1. COVID-19 cases reported weekly by WHO Region, and global deaths,
as of 21 August 2022
2. Materials and methods
Model 1: In 2022, Rumana Islam and Esam Abdel-Raheem
and Mohamed Tarique[20] provided a method to use deep
learning to automatically classify and detect covid19 diseases
from cough sound. this model used a database composed of
cough sound samples on covid19 diseases, it is called Virufy.
The Virufy is a volunteer-run organization, which has built
a global database to identify COVID-19 patients using AI.
The database contains both clinical and participatory data.
Clinical data is accurate as it was collected and processed in
a hospital according to standard operating procedure (SOP).
Subjects were confirmed as healthy individuals (i.e. COVID-
19 negative) and COVID-19 patients (i.e. COVID-positive)
using the RT- test PCR, and the data was labeled accordingly.
Model 2: In 2021, Yunus Emre Erdogan and Ali Narin [15]
provided a method based on machine learning algorithms to
automatically classify and detect covid19 diseases from cough
sound. the first step of this model is the extraction of the tradi-
tional features using the empirical mode decomposition (EMD)
and the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) of the acoustic
cough data, then the selection of this feature made by the Reli-
ef F algorithm and after they are classified by the SVM (Vector
Machine Support). This method used a database consisting of
cough acoustic samples on COVID-19(+) and COVID-19(-)
were obtained from the open access site https://virufy.org/.
The data was provided by a mobile application developed by
Stanford University. The data belong to a total of 1187 people.
All data was determined as positive and negative according
to the results obtained from the RT-PCR test. The database
contains 595 COVID-19(+) people and 592 COVID-19(-)
people have been tagged. All data has been noise removed.
In addition, all data were normalized with the normalization
method before the study.
Model 3: In 2022, Madhurananda Pahar and Marisa Klop-
per and Robin Warren and Thomas Niesler[25] provided a
method to detect COVID-19 in cough, breath and speech
using deep transfer learning and bottleneck features . the first
step of this model is the extraction of the characteristics of
the samples which are the mel frequency spectral coefficients
(MFCC) and the energies of the linearly spaced logarithmic fil-
ter banks, as well as their velocity and acceleration coefficients
and also signal rate zero-crossing (ZCR) [34] and kurtosis
[34], then selection of this feature is performed using CNN,
LSTM and Resnet50 architectures to improve performance
of COVID-19 based classification on signals cough, breath
and speech audio. and then the superficial classifiers are (LR,
SVM, KNN and MLP). This method used a database con-
taining 10.29 h of annotated audio recordings with four class
labels (cough, speech, sneeze, noise) was available to pre-train
the neural architectures. The composition of this dataset is
summarized as 11202 cough sounds (2.45 h audio), 2.91 h of
speech from male and female participants, 1013 sneeze sounds
(13.34 min audio) and 2.98 h other unvoiced sounds.
Model 4: In 2022, Ezz El Din Hemdan1 and Walid El
Shafai and Amged Sayed[19] provided a method called CR19
to detect COVID-19 in cough audio signals using machine
learning algorithms for automated medical diagnostic applica-
tions. the CR19 consists of a hybrid GA-ML with six differ-
ent machine learning algorithms, namely Linear Regression,
Naïve Bayes, K Nearest Neighbors, Support Vector Machine,
Logistic Regression, and Decision Tree. the first stage of this
model is the acquisition and collection of data, in this phase
the audio data will be collected from mobile phone sources
to be processed and then we have the data preprocessing, it
is to load the data collected to be adapted for further process-
ing within the proposed framework to indicate the positive or
negative COVID-19 case for each audio signal in the data set
and thereafter we have phase 3 this is for training and finally
the classification and detection of COVID-19 in cough data.
Model 5: In 2022, Mahmoud Aly and Kamel H. Rahouma
and Safwat M. Ramzy[6] provided a COVID-19 diagnostic
method using machine learning and outsourced breathing
and voice recordings. The network architecture of this deep
learning model is very simple, it contains three layers, the
first layer contains 16 nodes with ReLU activation function,
the second layer to reduce overfitting at a rate of 0.5 and the
third layer contains a single node with the ReLU activation
function. sigmoid activation function. This model used the
Coswara dataset where each user recorded 9 different types of
sounds like coughing, breathing, and speaking tagged with
COVID-19 status. the database contains 9 separate datasets,
each dataset contains samples of a single type of sound labeled
(deep breath, shallow breath, heavy cough, shallow cough,
fast count, normal count, vowel-A , vowel-E, vowel-O) with
COVID-19 status (positive) or (negative). The total number
of samples in each dataset was 1299, where (126) positive and
Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia
(1173) negative. Moreover.
Model 6: In 2022, I. Anee Daisy and R. Lavanya[12]
provided a deep learning-based method for non-vocal human
sound classification and Covid -19 cough detection. this model
is used the algorithm of CNN (CONVOLUTIONAL NEU-
RON NETWORK) in order to extract the characteristics of
each audio signal, the acoustic characteristics are selected in the
time and frequency domains, including the short term energy,
the loudness , zero crossing rate (ZCR), power spectral density
(PSD), and spectral entropy. This model used the Coswara
dataset where each user recorded 9 different types of sounds
like coughing, breathing, and speaking tagged with COVID-
19 status. The COVID-19 identification in this study is based
on the ResNet50 variant with a database contains the different
types of audio sounds such as cough sounds, snoring, sneezing
and COPD.
Model 7: In 2022, Mohammed Usman and Vinit Ku-
mar Gunjan and Mohd Wajid and Mohammed Zubair and
Kazy Noor-e-alam Siddiquee[33] provided a method using
speech as a biomarker for COVID-19 detection based on ma-
chine learning. this model is used on the Microsoft Azure
Machine Learning Studio (MAMLS) cloud platform to per-
form binary classification, and classification performance is
analyzed and compared for five state-of-the-art classification
algorithms available in MAMLS This model uses short-term
Fourier transform (STFT) coefficients as characteristics of each
audio. the algorithms used in this platform are: NN, SVM,
LoR, BDT and DF. The speech recordings used in this study
include two categories: speech from healthy individuals with
no known pre-existing medical condition at resting heart rate
and speech from asymptomatic individuals. COVID-19 pos-
itive people. The COVID-19 identification in this study is
based on the ResNet50 variant with a database containing the
different types of audio sounds such as cough sounds, snoring,
sneezing and COPD.
Model 8: In 2021, Fakhry, Ahmed and Jiang, Xinyi and
Xiao, Jaclyn and Chaudhari, Gunvant and Han, Asriel and
Khanzada, Amil and al. Virufy(is a non-profit research orga-
nization developing artificial intelligence (AI) technology to
screen for Covid-19 from cough)[16] provided a deep learning
based method for classification of non-vocal human sounds
and detection of Covid -19 cough. This model uses Multi-
Branch Deep Learning( multimodal data-based failure progno-
sis model) This model used the Coughvid dataset"A database
of breath, cough, and voice sounds for COVID-19 diagnosis".
This study provided experimental results reaching an AUC of
91% . Finally, this study aims to draw attention to the impor-
tance of the human voice alongside other respiratory sounds
for sound-based COVID-19 diagnosis.
Model 9:In 2021, Aly, Mahmoud and Rahouma, Kamel H
and Ramzy, Safwat M and al. Virufy(is a non-profit research
organization developing artificial intelligence (AI) technology
to screen for Covid-19 from cough)[6] provided a machine
learning based method for classification of non-vocal human
sounds and detection of Covid -19 cough. This model uses
Resnet50 (is a 50-layer deep convolutional neural network).
In this study, we used the Coswara dataset where each user
3
recorded 9 different types of sounds such as coughing, breath-
ing, and speaking, labeled with COVID-19 status.A combi-
nation of models trained on different sounds can diagnose
COVID-19 with more A combination of patterns trained on
different sounds can diagnose COVID-19 more accurately
than a single pattern trained on cough or breath only. Finally,
this study aims to draw attention to the importance of the hu-
man voice alongside other respiratory sounds for sound-based
COVID-19 diagnosis.
Model 10: In 2021, Coppock, Harry and Gaskell, Alex
and Tzirakis, Panagiotis and Baird, Alice and Jones, Lyn and
Schuller, Björn and al. Virufy(is a non-profit research or-
ganization developing artificial intelligence (AI) technology
to screen for Covid-19 from cough)[11] provided a machine
learning based method for classification of non-vocal human
sounds and detection of Covid -19 cough. This model uses
ResNet(is an artificial neural network (ANN)) and Features"Mel-
spectrogram".This model used database of people who are
positive "A database of breath, cough, and voice sounds for
COVID-19 diagnosis".
Model 11: In 2021 pahar . presents a machine learning-
based COVID-19 cough classifier that can discriminate COVID-
19 positive coughs from negative and healthy coughs recorded
on a smartphone. The datasets used contain both forced and
natural coughs which is The Coswara dataset, Coswara is
publicly available, contains 92 COVID-19 positive subjects
and 1079 healthy subjects. The method uses CNN based on
residuals "Resnet50" which is the classifier that gives the best
performance.
Model 12: In 2022, Kawther A. Al Dhlan [4] provided
a method for detecting COVID19 using a deep learning ap-
proach. The system proposed in this study consists of two
steps, preprocessing and classification. The least mean squares
filter removes artifacts or noise from the input speech signal in
the preprocessing stage. After completing the preprocessing
process, the Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) classi-
fier analyzes the filter signal to classify COVID-19 and non-
COVID-19 signals. The database used in this model contains
healthy and unhealthy sound samples, including COVID-19
identification.
Model 13: In 2022, Ali Bou Nassif and Ismaïl Shahin
and Mohamed Bader and Abdelfatah Hassan and Naoufel
Werghi[23] provided a covid-19 detection system using deep
learning algorithms based on speech and image data. in this
study, the features extracted for the optimal representation of
the speech signal are the Mel frequency cepstral coefficients
(MFCC) [2] and the model used is the long-short-term mem-
ory model (LSTM). LSTM is an advanced variant of RNN.
It stores data information for an extended period of time, and
past data is easier to retrieve from memory. The database
used in this model consists of 1159 cough, breath and speech
sound samples obtained from 592 participants, divided into
379 healthy patients and 213 COVID-19 infected patients. All
samples in the dataset were captured using a moving micro-
phone.
Model 14: In 2022,Hemdan Ezz El-Din and El-Shafai
Walid and Sayed Amged[19].Use a novel machine learning ap-
4 Y. Lakrad et al.
proach to detect COVID-19 patients (symptomatic and asymp-
tomatic). A research group at the University of Cambridge
shared such a dataset of cough and breath sounds samples
from 582 healthy patients and 141 COVID-19 patients,The
collected dataset includes data from 245 healthy individuals
and 78 asymptomatic and 18 symptomatic COVID19 patients.
The CNN stacking model is based on a meta-learning logistic
regression classification using spectrograms (the energy dis-
tribution of the sound is plotted against time and frequency)
generated by the time and frequency) generated from the user’s
data.using the combined data set (Cambridge and collected).
Model 15: In 2020 Ritwik, Kotra Venkata Sai and Kalluri,
Shareef Babu and Vijayasenan, Deepu [29] attempt to study
the presence of cues regarding COVID-19 disease in voice
data.They use an approach that is similar to speaker recog-
nition. The dataset consists of audio clips extracted from
YouTube videos of television interviews (often a video call) of
COVID-19 positive patients. The speech portion of the audio
was extracted at a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz. The audio sam-
ples audio samples were converted to a single-channel (mono)
wav format and passed through a 300 Hz to 3.4 kHz bandpass
filter. This is done to simulate telephone quality speech. The
audio is finally downsampled to 8 kHz.
We collected speech data from nineteen speakers, includ-
ing ten COVID19-positive speakers and nine COVID-19-
negative speakers. The composition of male and female speak-
ers in each class is presented in Table 1 with the number of
utterances per class and gender. In this work, they also use the
short-term melodic spectrum as low-level low-level features.
They will follow an approach similar to the super vectors that
were originally used in speaker recognition to extract features
at the utterance level. An SVM trained with these features is
used to predict COVID-19 from the speech data.
Model 16: In 2021,Das, Rohan Kumar and Madhavi,
Maulik and Li, Haizhou[13]In this work, they focus on new
acoustic fronts for the detection of COVID-19 since the data
for the challenge is very limited. We consider auditory acoustic
acoustic indices based on the long term transform, the gamma-
tone filter bank and the equivalent equivalent rectangular band-
width spectrum to capture the discriminative features of the
discriminative signal characteristics for COVID-19 detection.
The database released for the DiCOVA challenge is derived
from Coswara corpus which is collected by a crowd sourcing
platform from COVID-19 positive and negative individuals.
Each participant provided 9 audio recordings including soft
and loud cough, soft and deep breathing, sustained phonation
of vowels, and counting 1-20 digits at a fast and normal rate
in a digits at a fast, normal rate using the web application4.
The collected data are then divided into two tracks for the
DiCOVA Challenge. Track 1 includes sound recordings of the
individuals’ coughs, while Track 2 consists of deep breathing,
vowels and deep breathing, vowels, and normal speed number
counts. they focus only on the Track-1 database of the chal-
lenge in this work. they find that our three auditory acoustic
features perform better than the basic performing better than
the baseline MFCC features with the LR and RF classifiers.
Among them, erbSpec-RF obtains the best AUC
Model 17:In 2022 ,Hemdan, Ezz El-Din and El-Shafai,
Walid and Sayed, Amged[19] This paper proposes a frame-
work for efficient detection and diagnosis of COVID-19 using
using hybrid machines. Detection and diagnosis of COVID-
19 using hybrid learning algorithms with genetic algorithms
from cough audio signals. The proposed CR19 framework
combines genetic algorithms(A genetic algorithm(GA) is a
metaheuristic that belongs to the broader class of evolutionary
algorithms (EA).) to improve the efficiency and accuracy of
classification of the cough dataset. GA-KNN performs better
than other classifiers, indicating that this model provides a very
good diagnosis for COVID-19 from the patient’s cough with ,
GA-KNN shows an accuracy of more than 97% in the diagno-
sis of COVID-19 Finally, this study aims to draw attention to
the importance of human voice and other respiratory sounds
for the sound diagnosis of COVID-19.
In all the above works, the working steps are one, and
the only difference is the selection of the algorithm that the
researcher uses for the same purpose, which is to achieve an ac-
curate and reliable system to detect the presence of the Corona
virus in the objects to be tested. The following ?? represents
the different stages of audio processing in order to diagnose
covid19.
Figure 2. Framework for classification of COVID 19 status on speech
3. RESULTS
3.1 the Performances
To evaluate the results of a given system, either in machine
learning or in deep learning, the evolution metrics of this
system are calculated (precession, recall, f-score, specificity and
precision) as shown in the table1 we see base on the confision
matrix (TP, TN, FP and FN) which are the numbers of true
positives, true negatives, false positives and False negative [21],
respectively.
• TP : which specifies the numberof correctly classified pos-
itive samples.
• FN : which specifies the number of misclassified samples.
Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia
• FP : which specifies the number of negatives examples of
misclassified samples.
• TN : which specifies the number of negatives examples of
correctly classified samples.
and based on this matrix, we conclude a performance set as
shown in the following table:
Table 1. The metrics questions.
Equation Equation Equation
Number Name
1 Accuracy (TN + TP)/(TN + TP + FN + FP)
2 Recall TP/(TP + FN)
3 Specificity TN/(TN + FP)
4 Precision TP/(TP + FP)
5 F1-Score 2x((PrecisionxRecall)
/(Precision + Recall))
3.2 Results & Discussion
Model 1: The performance of the proposed system[20] in
terms of accuracy, precision, F1 score and VPN for the time
domain feature vector are: 0.912, 0.829, 0.889, 0.873 respec-
tively, and for the frequency domain feature vector are: 1.000,
0.975, 0.974, 0.952 , and for the mixed domain feature vector
are: 0.941, 0.938, 0.937, 0.934. The comparison between
these vectors shows that the proposed system achieves better
performance with the frequency domain feature vector using
the cough sound samples, thus it is more accurate and reliable
compared to the other vectors.
Model 2:In this study[15], the highest performance values
obtained for the linear SVM are: an precision equal to 98.4%,
a recall of 99.5%, a specificity of 97.3%, an accuracy of 97.4%
and an F1 score of 98.6% with the EMD and DWT measure-
ments (traditional characteristic ) and the selection of Relief F
functions. and for the highest performance values obtained
from ResNet50 deep feature selection with Relief F for CNN
are: an precision of 97.8%, recall of 98.5%, specificity of
97.3%, accuracy of 97.4%, and F1 score values of 98.0%. So
from a little comparison, it can be clearly stated that features
obtained by traditional feature approaches show higher per-
formance than deep features.
model 3 :in this study[25], the evolution of the efficiency of
transfer learning and bottleneck feature extraction is achieved
using CNN, LSTM and Resnet50 architectures to improve
the performance of COVID classification -19 19. 19 based on
cough, breath and speech audio cues. The experimental results
provided by the system proposed in this study reach an area
under the ROC curve (AUC) of 0.982 for cough, followed by
an AUC of 0.942 for respiration and 0.923 for speech.
model 4 :In this study[19], a method called CR19 is provided
to detect COVID-19 in cough audio signals using machine
learning algorithms for automated medical diagnostic applica-
tions. The study provides experimental results demonstrating
that GA-ML improves the accuracy of GA-ML for all classi-
fiers compared to non-GA based techniques. We also observed
that among these six classifiers, GA-KNN was more than 97%
5
accurate in diagnosing COVID-19 from cough audio signals.
model 5: In this study [6],The experimental results for the
combination of patterns (shallow breathing, severe cough, shal-
low cough, fast count, E vowel, O vowel) reached an AUC of
96.4%, and the AUC for the combination of patterns (severe
cough, shallow cough, E vowel) was 92%. Ultimately, this
study demonstrates the importance of using different breath,
cough, and speech sounds for accurate and more reliable diag-
nosis and screening of COVID-19.
model 6 :In this study [12],this model successfully detected
COVID-19 subjects with a maximum sensitivity of 94.21%,
specificity of 94.96% and area under the receiver operating
characteristic curves (AUROC) of 0.90.
model 7 :The experimental results obtained in [33] using the
five classification algorithms showed an average level of per-
formance, the evaluated measurement values being around
70% of their value, but the best performance was observed
for the determination algorithm trend with the highest value.
The highest for the "recall" scale is 0.7892. Because a higher
invocation value means fewer false classifications of a "false
negative" class. The cost of misclassifying a COVID-19 posi-
tive sample as COVID-19 negative is high, and therefore the
choice of recall as an evaluation measure should be maximized
while adjusting model parameters.
model 8 :In this study[16],The model adopts multi-branch
deep learning (multi-modal data-based fault prediction model),
and the experimental results provided in this study reach an
AUC of 91%. Finally, this study aims to draw attention to
the importance of human voice and other breath sounds for
auditory diagnosis of COVID-19.
model 9 :In this study [6],The results show that by averag-
ing the predictions of several separately trained and evaluated
models for different types of sounds, a simple binary classifier
achieves an AUC of 96.4Finally, this study aims to draw atten-
tion to the importance of the human voice over other breath
sounds in the sound diagnosis of COVID-19.
model 10 :In this study[11],The results show that 96.4%
AUC can be achieved using a simple binary classifier In this
study[11],The results show that 96.4% AUC can be achieved
using a simple binary classifier
model 11 :In this study[4],The method uses a CNN based on
the residual "Resnet50", which is the best performing classifier
with an AUC of 94%.
model 12 :The proposed system [4] in reduces the validation
loss and increases the validation accuracy, which enables the
model to learn low root mean square error, and the exper-
imental results obtained using the proposed GAN method
are represented by the accuracy , recall, accuracy, and The
F-measure is 96.54%, 96.15%, 98.56%, and 0.96, respectively.
these results is good compared to the ANN, CNN, RNN
model[4].
model 13 :The proposed system [23] does Three types of ex-
periments were conducted, using speech-based, image-based,
and speech-image-based models. Long-Short-Term Memory
(LSTM) was used for the vocal classification of the patient’s
cough, voice and breathing, achieving an precision greater
than 98%. Additionally, CNN models VGG16, VGG19, Den-
6 Y. Lakrad et al.
snet201, ResNet50, Inceptionv3, InceptionResNetV2, and
Xception were calibrated for classification of chest X-ray im-
ages. The VGG16 model outperforms all other CNN models,
achieving 85.25% precision without fine tuning and 89.64%
after performing fine tuning techniques. Additionally, the
speech and image-based model was evaluated using the same
seven models, achieving an precision of 82.22% by the Incep-
tionResNetV2 model. So with a small comparison between
the results we conclude that the best model is LSTM which is
based only on speech.
model 14 :In this study ,Using a novel machine learning
method to detect COVID- 19 boxes that are both symptomatic
and asymptomatic using the CNN as a helper. The accuracy,
sensitivity, and specificity for symptomatic and asymptomatic
boxes were96.5%, 96.42%, and 95.47% and 98.85%, 97.01%,
and 99.6%, respectively.
model 15 :In this study [29],In this work, they also use the
short-term melodic spectrum as low-level low-level features.
They follow an approach similar to the super vectors originally
used in speaker monitoring to extract utterance-level features.
The SVMs are trained with these features in a similar way
to the super vectors originally used in speaker monitoring to
extract features at the utterance level. An SVM trained with
these features is used to predict COVID- 19 from the speech
data. withe accuracy of 88.6% and an F1-Score of 92.7%.
model 16 :In this study [13],They found that our three audi-
tory acoustic features performed better than the basic MFCC
features The use of LR and RF classifiers perform better than
the basic MFCC features. Among them, erbSpec-RF achieves
the best AUC of 73.4% on the validation set, showing its
strong potential for detecting COVID-19 from cough sounds.
model 17 :In this study [19],genetic algorithms (genetic algo-
rithms (GA) are meta-heuristics belonging to a broader class
of evolutionary algorithms (EA)) to improve the efficiency
and accuracy of classification of cough datasets. GA-ANN
outperforms other classifiers, demonstrating that this model
provides a very good diagnosis of COVID-19 based on patient
cough. The accuracy of GA-ANN is >97% with a diagnosis
of COVID-19 Finally, this study aims to draw attention to the
importance of human voice and other breath sounds in the
informed diagnosis of COVID-19.
4. Artificial Intelligence
4.1 Machine Learning
Machine Learning or automatic learning [8] is a scientific
field, and more specifically a subcategory of artificial intel-
ligence. It consists of letting algorithms discover “patterns”,
namely recurring patterns, in data sets. This data can be num-
bers, words, images, statistics... The development of a Machine
Learning model involves four main steps represented in the
figure3.
The first step is to select and prepare a set of training data.
This data will be used to feed the Machine Learning model
to learn how to solve the problem for which it is designed.
The data can be labeled, in order to indicate to the model the
characteristics which it will have to identify. They can also
be unlabeled, and the model will have to spot and extract the
recurring features from itself.
The second step is to select an algorithm to run on the train-
ing dataset. The type of algorithm to use depends on the type
and volume of training data and the type of problem to be
solved.
The third step is training the algorithm. This is an iterative
process. Variables are run through the algorithm, and the re-
sults are compared with those it should have produced. The
“weights” and bias can then be adjusted to increase the accu-
racy of the result. The variables are then run again until the
algorithm produces the correct result most of the time. The
algorithm, thus trained, is the Machine Learning model.
The fourth and final step is to use and improve the model.
We use the model on new data, the origin of which depends on
the problem to be solved. For example, a Machine Learning
model designed to detect spam will be used on emails.
Machine learning algorithms are divided into two categories
which are supervised and unsupervised algorithms [7]. Super-
vised machine learning is an elementary but strict technol-
ogy. Operators present the computer with sample inputs and
the desired outputs, and the computer searches for solutions
to get those outputs based on those inputs. The goal is for the
computer to learn the general rule that maps inputs and out-
puts. The main algorithms of supervised machine learning are:
random forests, decision trees, K-NN (k-Nearest Neighbors)
algorithm, linear regression , Naïve Bayes algorithm, support
vector machine (SVM), logistic regression and gradient boost-
ing. In unsupervised machine learning, the algorithm itself
determines the structure of the input (no labels are applied to
the algorithm). This approach can be a goal in itself (which
makes it possible to discover structures buried in the data)
or a means to achieve a certain goal. This approach is also
called “feature learning”. The main algorithms of unsuper-
vised machine learning are: K-Means, clustering/hierarchical
clustering and dimensionality reduction.
4.2 Deep learning
Deep Learning [8] is a branch of Machine Learning, but it
is the most commonly used today. It is an invention of Geoffrey
Hinton, dated 1986. Simply put, Deep Learning is an improved
version of Machine Learning. Deep learning uses a technique
that gives it a superior ability to detect even the most subtle
patterns. This technique is called deep neural network. This
depth corresponds to the large number of layers of computing
nodes that make up these networks and work in collaboration
to process data and deliver predictions. These neural networks
are directly inspired by the functioning of the human brain.
Computing nodes are comparable to neurons, and the network
itself is similar to the brain.
Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia 7

Figure 3. Machine learning steps

Table 2. Comparison with many previous studies for sound-based COVID-19

diagnosis.

Research Dataset Sound type Models /Classifiers Performance

Fakhry et al. (Virufy)[16] Coughvid Cough Multi-Branch Deep Learning AUC=91%
Pahar et al.[24] Coswara Cough Resnet50 AUC=98%
Coppock et al.[11] Covid-19- sounds Cough Breathing ResNet AUC=84.6%
N.Sharma(2020)[31] Healthy and COVID-19 -positive:941 Cough,Breathing,vowel,Counting(1-20) Random forest classifier ACC=76.74%
C.brown et al.(2021)[9] COVID-19-positive:141 Non-COVID:298 Cough and Breathing CNN using spectrogram ACC=80%
pahar2021covid[24] Coswara Cough Residue-based CNN ACC=95.33%
Pahar(2021) [26] Coswara breaths Resnet50 AUC=92%
erdougan [15] Coswara cough ResNet50 CNN ACC=96,83 %
N.Sharma [31] Healthy/COvid(+)=941 Cough/Respiration Càntraste spectral,MFCC/RF ACC=66.76%
Proposed system[31] COvid(+)=50 COvid(-)=50 Cough MFCC,vecteur de chrominance/DNN ACC=97.5%
pahar(2022)[25] Coswara coughing,talking, sneezing,noise CNN, un LSTM et un Resnet50 AUC=94.2%
hemdan(2022)[19] Coswara breath sounds, coughing and speech CR19 ACC=97%
usman(2022)[33] COVID-19(+) and COVID-19(-) Speech STFT ACC=78.92%
al.(2022)[4] healthy,unhealthy sound GAN ACC=96,54%
nassif(2022)[23] Coswara coughing,breathing,speaking LSTM ACC=98%
das(2021)[13] Coswara Cough,breath,counting from 1-20 erbSpec/RF AUC=81%
das(2021)[13] Coswara Cough,breath,counting from 1-20 GTCC/MLP AUC=78.61%
chaudhari(2020)[10] Coswar,Coughvid cough CNN:LSTM:CRNN AUC=77.1%
ritwik(2020)[29] covid(+)=10,covid(-)=19 cough SVM ACC=88.6%
akman(2022)[3] CCS,CSS Cough,Speech CIdeR ACC=78%
muguli(2021)[22] Coswar Cough,Breath RF AUC=76.85%
despotovic2021[14] Coswar,Coughvid cough GA-ML ACC=98%
rahman(2022)[27] Cambridge coughing,breathing 8-KNN ACC= 98%

5. Conclusion
8 Y. Lakrad et al.

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