Population

• Population is the larger group from which

individuals are selected to participate in a study.

• It is the total collection of elements about which we

wish to make some inferences.
 Census

• Investigation of all individual elements that

make up a population
• A census is a count of all the elements in a
population.
 Sampling
• Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a
study in such a way that the individuals represent the larger group from
which they were selected.

• Sample is the representatives selected for a study whose characteristics

exemplify the larger group from which they were selected

• In research terms, a sample is a group of people, objects, or items that

are taken from a larger population for measurement.

• The sample should be representative of the population to ensure that

we can generalise the findings from the research sample to the
population as a whole.
 The purpose for sampling
• To gather data about the population in order to make an inference that
can be generalized to the population.

• To draw conclusions about populations from samples, we must use

inferential statistics, to enable us to determine a population’s
characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or sample) of the
population.

• We obtain a sample of the population as it is usually not practical and

almost never economical to assess the entire population.
• Some populations are so difficult to get access to, hence sample can
be used. E.g. prisoners, people with severe mental illness, disaster
survivors etc. This inaccessibility may be associated with cost or time
or just access.
There would also be difficulties measuring whole populations
because: -
• Destructiveness of the observation- Sometimes the very act of
observing the desired characteristic of the product destroys it for the
intended use. Good examples of this occur in quality control. E.g. to
determine the quality of a fuse and whether it is defective, it must be
destroyed. Therefore if you tested all the fuses, all would be destroyed.

• Accuracy and sampling - A sample may be more accurate than the

total study population. A badly identified population can provide less
reliable information than a carefully obtained sample.
 Mistakes to be conscious of …
1. Sampling error
2. Sampling bias
…which threaten to render a study’s findings invalid

Sampling Error
• …the chance and random variation in variables that occurs when any
sample is selected from the population

• …sampling error is to be expected

• …A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes,

however, there is no guarantee that any sample will be precisely
representative of the population. Chance may dictate that a
disproportionate number of untypical observations will be made.
• …Sampling error can make a sample unrepresentative of its
population. It comprises the differences between the sample and the
population that are due solely to the particular participants that have
been selected.

• …to avoid sampling error, a census of the entire population

must be taken

• …to control for sampling error, researchers use various sampling

methods.
 Sampling Bias
• Sampling bias is a tendency to favour the selection of participants that
have particular characteristics.

• Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. The most
notable is the bias of non-response when for some reason some
participants have no chance of appearing in the sample e.g. no internet
access for completion of an online questionnaire.

• It is a nonrandom differences, generally the fault of the researcher,

which cause the sample to over-represent individuals or groups within
the population and which lead to invalid findings.

• Sources of sampling bias include the use of volunteers and available

groups
 Steps in sampling
1. Define the Population

• Identify the group of interest and its characteristics to which the

findings of the study will be generalized.

…called the “target” population (the ideal selection)

…oftentimes the “accessible” or “available” population must

be used (the realistic selection)
2. Determine the sample size

• The size of the sample influences both the representativeness of the

sample and the statistical analysis of the data
…larger samples are more likely to detect a difference between
different groups

…smaller samples are more likely not to be representative

Rules of thumb for determining the sample size...
3. Control for sampling bias and error

• Be aware of the sources of sampling bias and identify how to avoid

it.

• Decide whether the bias is so severe that the results of the study will
be seriously affected.

• In the final report, document awareness of bias, rationale for

proceeding, and potential effects.
4. Select the sample

• A process by which the researcher attempts to ensure that the

sample is representative of the population from which it is to be
selected

…requires identifying the sampling method that will be used

Types of Sampling method
A. Random / probability Sampling
• allows a procedure governed by chance to select the sample; controls
for sampling bias.
-Simple random sampling, -Stratified, -Cluster, -Systematic

B. Nonrandom / nonprobability sampling

• does not have random sampling at any state of the sample selection;
increases probability of sampling bias
- convenience, purposive, snowball, quota
 Probability / random sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
• the process of selecting a sample that allows individual in the
defined population to have an equal and independent chance of
being selected for the sample

• Advantage
- Easy to conduct
- Requires minimum knowledge of the population to be sampled

• Disadvantage
- Requires list of population elements
- Time consuming
- Larger sample needed
- Produces larger errors
- High cost
2. Stratified Sampling
• the process of selecting a sample that allows identified subgroups in
the defined population to be represented in the same proportion
that they exist in the population

• Advantage
- Control of sample size in strata
- Increased statistical efficiency
- Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups
- Enables use of different methods in strata

• Disadvantage
- Increased error if subgroups are selected at different rates
- Especially expensive if strata on population must be created
- High cost
Steps in Stratified Sampling

a. Identify and define the population

b. Determine the desired sample size
c. Identify the variable and subgroups (strata) for which you
want to guarantee appropriate, equal representation.
d. Classify all members of the population as members of one
identified subgroup.
e. Randomly select (using a table of random numbers) an
“appropriate” number of individuals from each of the
subgroups, appropriate meaning an equal number of individuals
3. Cluster Sampling
• the process of randomly selecting intact groups, not individuals,
within the defined population sharing similar characteristics

• Advantage
- Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if
properly done
- Economically more efficient than simple random
- Lowest cost per sample
- Easy to do without list

• Disadvantage
- Often lower statistical efficiency due to subgroups being
homogeneous rather than heterogeneous
- Moderate cost
4. Systematic Sampling
• the process of selecting individuals within the defined population
from a list by taking every Kth name.

• Advantage
- Simple to design
- Easier than simple random
- Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion

• Disadvantage
- Periodicity within population may skew sample and results
- Trends in list may bias results
- Moderate cost
Steps in Systematic Sampling

a. Identify and define the population

b. Determine the desired sample size
c. Obtain a list of the population
d. Determine what K is equal to by dividing the size of the
population by the desired sample size.
e. Start at some random place in the population list. Close you
eyes and point your finger to a name.
f. Starting at that point, take every Kth name on the list until the
desired sample size is reached.
g. If the end of the list is reached before the desired sample is
reached, go back to the top of the list.
 Nonprobability / nonrandom sampling
1. Convenience Sampling
• The process of including whoever happens to be available at the
time.
• Convenience samples are nonprobability samples where the element
selection is based on ease of accessibility. They are the least reliable
but cheapest and easiest to conduct.
• Examples include informal pools of friends and neighbours, people
responding to an advertised invitation, and “on the street”
interviews.
2. Purposive Sampling

• Also called judgment sampling

• The process whereby the researcher selects a sample based on

experience or knowledge of the group to be sampled

• An experienced individual selects the sample based on his or her

judgment about some appropriate characteristics required of the
sample member

• This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that

have expertise in the area being researched
3. Quota Sampling

• The process whereby a researcher gathers data from individuals

possessing identified characteristics and quotas.

• Ensures that the various subgroups in a population are represented

on pertinent sample characteristics, to the exact extent that the
investigators desire.
4. Snowball Sampling

• A variety of procedures

• Initial respondents are selected by probability methods

• Additional respondents are obtained from information provided by

the initial respondents