TR 2019 Internal Combustion Engine

Chapter 2 ICE Theory of Cycle

Dr. Kanit Wattanavichien

 States of substance and ideal gas
States of substance and ideal gas
– Solid
– Liquid and Liquid/Solid combination
– Vapor and Liquid/Vapor combination
– Solid/Liquid/Vapor combination
As an approximation can assume solids and liquids are incompressiblle (i,e
density = const.)
• For vapor state, a simplified equation can be used –ideal gas model.
• P.v = Ro.T …(2.1a)
• Units: P = kPa, v = m3/kmole, Ro = 8.314 kJ/kmole-K ;
and T = deg K .
• The above equation can also be represented as:
• P.V = n.Ro.T where V = volume (m3), n = moles …(2.1b)
• P.v = R.T where R = Ro/Mol. Wt and v = m3/kg …(2.1c)
• P.V = m.R.T where V = volume (m3), m = mass (kg)…(2.1d)
Ideal gas processes
Ideal gas processes
Ideal gas processes
Representation on P-v plot
 Energies
• Internal energy (u or U), du = Cv.dT
• Enthalpy (h or H ), dh = Cp.dT
• Work or work energy (w or W)
• Heat energy or heat transfer (q or Q)
 Systems
Closed System (m = const, energy may cross system
boundaries, ex. Gas in piston-cylinder mechanism)
Open System (m and energy may cross system boundaries,
ex. Intake process)
 steady state, steady flow
 uniform state, uniform flow
 unsteady state/flow
First Law of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Properties of gas mixtures
Properties of gas mixtures
Summary for ideal gas processes
Summary for ideal gas processes
Summary for ideal gas processes
 The Carnot Cycle
• Working medium receives heat at a higher temperature and rejects heat
at a low temperature
• The cycle will constitute of two reversible isothermal and two reversible
adiabatic
• It will gives the concept of maximum work output between two
temperature limits.
• Working principle:
– i. Cylinder and piston arrangement working without friction
– ii. Wall of cylinder are assumed to be perfect insulator
– iii. Cylinder head is so arranged that it can be a perfect heat
conductor as well as perfect heat insulator
– iv. Analyzing the cycle thermodynamically the efficiency of the cycle
can be written as
The Carnot Cycle
The Carnot Cycle

Mean effective pressure Pm is defined

the hypothetical constant pressure
acting on the piston during its
expansion stroke produce the same
work output as that from the actual
cycle.
 Thermodynamic Cycles
• Air-standard analysis is used to perform elementary
analyses of IC engine cycles.
• There are several standard cycles, using air as the working
fluid, that are used to model reciprocating internal
combustion engines. These are „closed‟ models whereas
the engine is an „open‟ cycle.
• The two types of reciprocating engine cycles analyzed are:
1) Spark ignition –Otto cycle
2) Compression ignition –Diesel cycle
 Thermodynamic Cycles
Simplifications to the real cycle include:
 1) Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
 2) Combustion process not considered
 3) Intake and exhaust processes not considered
 4) Engine friction and heat losses not considered.
assumptions common to the ensuing analysis:
 1.air is the working fluid
 2.combustion is represented by heat transfer to air
 3.air goes through a closed cycle
 4.air is returned to its original state by heat transfer from the air.
SI Engine Cycle vs Thermodynamic Ideal Otto Cycle
 First Law Analysis Parameters
In order to calculate the thermal efficiency, we must note that
the air standard cycle considers a fixed mass of fluid. In
constant volume processes, we do not use the steady flow
energy equation (SFEE) and the enthalpy to study the cycle
but, rather, the non-flow energy equation (NFEE) and the
internal energy. For a calorifically perfect gas, this is:

both the SFEE and the NFEE are simply forms of the first law
of thermodynamics ie. the law of conservation of energy.
Ideal OTTO CYCLE

S
First Law Analysis of Ideal Otto Cycle
First Law Analysis of Ideal Otto Cycle
First Law Analysis Parameters
Ideal OTTO CYCLE
Effect of Compression Ratio on Thermal Efficiency

• Spark ignition engine compression ratio limited due to “knock”

• For r= 8 the efficiency is 56% which is about twice the actual value
Current
 Ideal OTTO CYCLE

Cylinder temperatures vary between 20K and 2000K so 1.2 < k < 1.4
k = 1.3 most representative
Effect of Compression Ratio on Thermal Efficiency and MEP
Ideal OTTO CYCLE
 Ideal OTTO CYCLE
Mean Effective Pressure
Ideal OTTO CYCLE
OTTO CYCLE
OTTO CYCLE
OTTO CYCLE
 Questions on OTTO Cycle
1. In an engine working on ideal Otto cycle the temperatures at the beginning
and end of compression are 50 C and 373 C. find the compression ratio and
air standard efficiency of the engine.
2. An air standard Otto cycle has a compressive ratio of 7. All the start of
compressive the pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 27 C. If the max
temperature of the cycle is 727 C calculate (a) Heat supplied (b) Net work
done (c) the thermal efficiency.
3. A gas engine working on the Otto cycle has a cylinder of diameter 100 mm
and stroke 150 mm. The clearance volume is 175 cc. Find the air-standard
efficiency. Assume Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg.K and Cv= 0.717 kJ/kg K for air.
4. In S.I engine working on the ideal Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 5.5.
The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are 1 bar
and 27 C respectively. The peak pressure is 30 bar. Determine the pressure
and temperatures at the salient points, the air standard efficiency and the
mean effective pressure. Assume ratio of specific heat to be 1.4 for air.
Thermodynamic Cycles for CI engines
Early CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle
 Ideal Diesel Cycle

• In actual spark-ignition engines, the upper limit of compression ratio

is limited by the self ignition temperature of the fuel.
• This limitation on compression ratio can be eliminated if air and fuel
are compressed separately and brought together at the time of
combustion.
• In this cycle, heat is added at constant pressure instead of constant
volume as in Otto cycle.
• This also consist of 4 processes namely,
1. Reversible adiabatic compression.
2. Reversible constant pressure heat addition
3. Reversible adiabatic expansion
4. Reversible pressure heat rejection
Ideal Diesel Cycle
 Ideal Diesel Cycle
• Process 1-2: Air inside the cylinder is compressed as piston moves from
BDC to TDC adiabatically until its volume is reduced from V1 to V2. Thus the
pressure and temperature of air increases from P1T1 to P2T2.
• Process 2-3: From an external source heat is added. This heat addition will
increase the temperature and pressure as the piston moves from 2 to 3 the
volume increases and pressure remains constant. This is treated as
constant pressure heat addition. Thus after receiving certain specified
volume the supply of heat is cut-off. Thus point 3 is known as cut-off point.

Cutoff ratio:

• Process 3-4: The air which has gained energy is expanded adiabatically to
BDC thus developing work. This stroke is called power stroke and the
expansion continues till the piston reaches BDC.
• Process 4-1: The cylinder is made to come in contact with a sink thus
causing the rejection of heat instantaneously till the air reaches its initial
state and completes the cycle.
First Law Analysis of Diesel Cycle
First Law Analysis of Diesel Cycle
Ideal Diesel Cycle
Ideal Diesel Cycle
 Ideal Diesel Cycle
Mean Effective Pressure
Mean effective pressure Pm is defined the hypothetical constant
pressure acting on the piston during its expansion stroke produce
the same work output as that from the actual cycle.
Ideal Diesel Cycle
Effects of compression ratio and cut-off ratio on Thermal Efficiency
Effects of compression ratio and cut-off ratio on Thermal Efficiency
 Ideal Diesel Cycle
In an engine working on Diesel cycle inlet pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 17 C
respectively. Pressure at the end of adiabatic compression is 35 bar. The ratio of expansion i.e.
after constant pressure heat addition is 5. Calculate the heat addition, heat rejection and the
efficiency of the cycle.
Assume γ=1.4, Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg.K and Cv= 0.717 kJ/kg K for air
Ideal Diesel Cycle
Modern CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Dual Cycle
Modern CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Dual Cycle

In dual cycle a part of the heat is first supplied to the system at constant volume
and then the remaining part at constant pressure
Modern CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Dual Cycle
Modern CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Dual Cycle
Modern CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Dual Cycle
 Ideal Dual Cycle
For an engine working on the ideal Duel cycle, the compression ratio is 10 and the maximum
pressure is limited to 70 bar. If the heat supplied is 1680 kJ/kg, find the pressure and temperatures at
the various salient points of the commencement of compression are 1 bar and 100 C respectively.
Assume γ=1.4, Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg.K and Cv= 0.717 kJ/kg K for air

Consider process 1-2

Consider process 2-3

Heat added during constant volume process

 Ideal Dual Cycle
Total Heat addition=1680 kJ/kg
Heat added during constant pressure process

Cut-off ratio

Consider the Process 4-5

 TWO-STROKE CYCLE ENGINE OPERATION

Cylinder-pressure versus cylinder-volume trace for a two

stroke cycle engine cylinder. Exhaust and scavenge ports are Cylinder volume/clearance volume V/Vc, cylinder pressure p, exhaust port open
uncovered by the piston as shown. area Ae, and intake port open area Ai are plotted against crank angle.
Comparison between two and four stroke engines
Actual OTTO Cycle VS Thermodynamic Ideal OTTO Cycle
For a spark ignition engine: the Ideal Otto cycle compare to a typical
actual indicator diagram may look like:
 Actual OTTO Cycle
For a spark ignition engine, comparing real engine and ideal air
standard Otto cycle, a typical indicator diagram may look like:
The differences between the actual and the ideal cycles:
1. Compression: processes are similar, with only a small heat loss.
2. Combustion: actual combustion is not instantaneous and therefore cannot be at a constant
volume. A finite combustion rate gives a lower maximum pressure.
3. Dissociation: During dissociation the heat is absorbed cause some combustion heat losses.
4. Expansion: heat transfer is significant. The cylinder pressure also falls from „c‟ due to
exhaust blowdown.
5. Pumping loss: negative work out because the exhaust needs to be expelled and the fresh
mixture induced
6. Other: gas leakage past pistons
combustion duration depends on
 type of fuel chamber design and shape
 number and position of ignition sites
 engine speed
The variations in specific heats with temperature (particularly of products)
and species dissociation reduces lower pressure and lower temperature,
thus lower heat release during combustion.
 Dissociation
A typical curve that indicates the reduction in the temperature of the exhaust gas
mixtures due to dissociation with respect to air-fuel ratio. In the Figure, lean mixtures
and rich mixtures are marked clearly.

 With no dissociation maximum

temperature is attained at
chemically correct A/F ratio.

 With dissociation maximum

temperature is obtained when
mixture is slightly rich.

 Dissociation reduces the

maximum temperature by
about 300 °C even at the
chemically correct air-fuel ratio.
 Dissociation
The effect of dissociation on output power is shown in Figure for a
typical four-stroke SI engine operating at constant speed.

• If there is no dissociation the brake

power output is maximum when the
mixture ratio is stoichiometric.
• The shaded area between the brake
power graphs shows the loss of
power due to dissociation.
• When the mixture is quite lean there
is no dissociation.
• As the air-fuel ratio decreases i.e.,
as the mixture becomes rich the
maximum temperature raises and
dissociation commences.

During the expansion stroke the separated combustion product constituents recombine;
the heat absorbed during dissociation is thus again released, but it is too late in the stroke to
recover entirely the lost power. A portion of this heat is carried away by the exhaust gases.
 Actual Diesel Cycle
*** most of the above also applies to diesel engines.***
The combustion duration is determined by:
1. physical delay: the time taken to atomise, vaporise and mix the fuel
with the air
2. chemical delay: the time taken for preflame reactions to initiate a
fuel combustion reaction.
Therefore, to minimise the delay we require:
1. good atomisation
2. volatile fuel
3. good self-ignition quality (Cetane no.)
4. good spray penetration
5. high air temperature
 comparison between Otto and Diesel cycles:
Otto
Fuel properties • Volatile (for good gas
mixing)
• Autoignition resistant (high
octane number)
Fuel injection • Low pressure (during
induction)
Control of power • Output controlled by
output throttling of mass flow
• A/F ratio nearly constant
Combustion • Uniform mixture ignited at a
point
• Flame Propagation is
uncontrolled (homogeneous)
Compression ratio • High as possible for high
Thermal efficiency
• knock limited
Other • high power / mass ratio
• cheaper than diesel
• high engine speed
possible
• fuel is more refined and
therefore more expensive
Diesel
• Less volatile
• Autoignition prone (high Cetane
number)
• High pressure (near end of
compression)
• Air only during most of
compression
• Fuel quantity is regulated and air
quantity not altered
• Therefore A/F ratio
changes
• Governed by rate of supply of
fuel (partially)
• Mixture varies in cylinder
(heterogeneous)
• high enough for autoignition
and high thermal efficiency
• lower power / mass ratio,
higher loads
• more expensive but longer life
• lower speeds becauseof
limited combustion rates
• fuel may be less refined and
therefore cheaper
 Fuels and ignition
An important difference between the diesel and petrol (Otto) engines is their respective use
of „heterogeneous‟ and „homogenous‟ combustion.
1 Homogeneous combustion (petrol)
a) the fuel and air are premixed as a gaseous mixture. Combustion proceeds from
initiation at one (or more) points, with ignition is by one or a number of sparks
b) conditions up to spark ignition must be such that the fuel does not ignite.
c) fuels are either a volatile liquid or gas: petrol, LPG, alcohol, natural gas.
d) fuels must be resistant to autoignition
2 Heterogenous combustion (Diesel)
a) fuel is injected as a finely atomised spray of liquid droplets. The fuel burns
when it is evaporated and mixed with air.
b) ignition is spontaneous, due to the high mixture temperature. The
compression ratio must therefore be high.
c) the engine compresses the air only, and the fuel is injected late into the
compression stroke.
d) fuel must readily autoignite.
 Limitations on the compression ratio
Spark ignition engines
knock: as the compression ratio increases, the peak pressure and
temperature increase. Eventually the self-ignition temperature is
reached and non-spark initiated combustion occurs. This gives
uncontrolled combustion and the related pressure waves are called
knock, and can result in poor performance and engine damage.

To prevent knock, usually either retard ignition, improve combustion

chamber designs or increase the fuel octane number
 Limitations on the compression ratio

Diesel engines
The trade-off in compression ratio is between:
1. improved efficiency.
2. increased heat losses with higher V r .
3. increased engine strength and friction
Heat losses and engine strength are considerations which can be
controlled by improved design