Systems Engineering in Aerospace – Review of
Past, Present and Future Trends
Tareq Shahwan (6406718) James Crone ()
Concordia University
Fall 2013
Abstract - This paper presents a review of six articles
related to systems engineering in aerospace from a
historical and modern perspective. The current use of
systems engineering in aerospace is first examined,
followed by a review of specific examples of systems
engineering approaches from the past, its current state,
and future opportunities. The paper then provides
reflection and analysis of the effectiveness of those
modern trends such as the implementation of Artificial
Expertise and (FCAPS) management principles upon
complex systems. Considering the complex nature of
aerospace systems and their long and successful history
of implementing systems engineering, it was revealing to
discover that a common theme emerged from the review
of the articles, namely that human behavior and work
culture still dominate the probability of success of
leveraging systems engineering for enhanced
productivity and product optimization.
Index Terms – Aerospace, Systems Engineering, Systems of
Systems (SoS), FCAPS, Artificial Intelligence, Expert
Systems, ORE (Open rotor engines), MEA(More-Electric-
Airplane).
SYSTEMS ENGINEERING IN AEROSPACE
Systems engineering has become the state of the art
methodology for organizing and managing aerospace
production1. Aerospace products incorporate a wide variety
of technologies and must perform a number of essential
activities beyond the task of flight. In order to transport
people or goods from place to place the aircraft has to be
able to not just fly, but fly in a safe manner and cater for the
needs of the passengers (air pressure, temperature, food,
lodging, noise, emissions) and the areas it is flying over
(noise, emissions, safety of flight) and do it continuously
over and over. The disciplines involved vary from
aerodynamics to flight control system to structures.
Additionally, influencing criteria such as manufacturing,
cost and maintenance requirements have strong effects on
the design of the vehicle. Each of these disciplines, in turn,
has specific models that are used to analyze and optimize the
system. For example , there are different degrees of fidelity
of each model that are applied depending on the nature of
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Deepak Sharma (5855179)
the analysis required and the degree to which fidelity is
required to enable a safe, cost-effective and usable system 1.
These development within the emerging field of aerospace
systems engineering have necessitated the emergence of new
structure to that field, which is composed of functional
methodologies and engineering related skills, that are meant
to tackle the complex nature of Aerospace Engineering3.
Henceforth, we can define systems engineering in the field
of aerospace engineering as a methodology that spans
“concept exploration phase to the design phase of the system
development cycle that provides iterative process to assure
requirement definition, system integration and requirement
verification”. 3
The resulting possibilities of combinations of ways to
analyze airplanes as whole are very large, and systems
engineering becomes a mandatory approach required to
formalize a way to solve problems and optimize solutions.
From a design perspective, systems engineering has evolved
into covering the development activities as well. This
allows for better assessments of system trade-off studies as
the evaluation now takes place at not just component bit at a
sub-system optimization level. The next level of complexity
added relates to manufacturing, where system engineering
tools can now take into account the variations of
manufacturing methods into system effectiveness by not just
considering the function of the component but the
production efficiencies used in construction, and
opportunities for applying alternate manufacturing
technologies whereby manufacturing simplicity can be
traded against component durability, performance, etc.
FIGURE 1
TABLE OF DISCIPLINES VERSUS FIDELITY1
From this, it is observed that systems engineering has
been effectively used in the concept development stage of
system engineering, starting from needs analysis through
exploration and definition , and then to the decision and
analysis stage. The major challenge lies in understanding
the level of granularity or precision of each analytical tool,
and to ensure that the various tools used for each discipline
are complimentary when used together. This is an example
of where human interaction directly impacts the
effectiveness of Systems engineering. If the user selects
tools that are either too complex or too simple for the task,
when considering the other disciplines involved, the result of
the systems engineering approach may be limited.
Reasons for not choosing appropriate tools may be due
to the fact that the user may not have such compatible tools
available, or there is personal or departmental preference or
historical precedence that requires a certain tool must be
used to maintain the validity of the analysis.
An even more complex consideration is economic cost,
both manufacturing and in life cycle usage, or cost of
operation. System engineering can be employed to consider
probabilistic problems of not just different component an
system manufacturing costs, but different costs of operations
(such as maintenance, cost of fuel, cost of flight crew,
financing, etc). This way, long term economic viability can
have influence on the fundamental design criteria. No
longer is the vehicle design for today, it is deigned to
consider a changing environment and utilization 20-30 years
into the future.
Here the approaches of systems of uncertainty can be
applied. Economic models, manufacturing optimization,
scheduling, cost reduction can all be considered using
probabilistic approaches. Again, there is choice of the
model simplicity, ranging from min-max approaches, up to
expected value criterion, and the benefits of sequential
versus parallel manufacturing choices.
Such a complex model involving numerous disciplines,
multiple choices about tool fidelity, and combination of
deterministic and probabilistic approaches requires a formal
management approach on using system engineering. Small
changes in economic considerations such as inflation for 30
years into the future can have profound effect on the design
criteria. To cater for this uncertainty, a degree of filtering
and expert opinion is required to properly manage the
system engineering activities, which will be discussed later
in this paper.
Compounding this complexity is the commercial nature
of aerospace where numerous independent companies are
involved in supplying systems; hence there are limits to any
standardization of tools and methodologies. There exists a
robust aerospace quality system and qualification and
certification process in defining what has to be achieved and
to what fidelity and level of safety, but the how is left to the
innovation of the individual companies. Finally, ever
increasing sensitivity to aerospace economic viability and
sustainability (fuel burn, emissions, noise, etc) will require
advancement in system engineering capability to consider
probabilistic inputs (costs, inflation, etc) with much more
accuracy in the future.
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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
An example of prior advancements in the art of system
engineering within aerospace context, is the application of
expert systems and shared data bases to form artificial
intelligence capability, was identified two decades ago as
means for advancing the speed and effectiveness of sorting
through large data records and complex systems integration
problems, made possible by advancements in computers.3
Based on an example of space flight mission
requirements, a robust approach to developing an expert
system was defined consisting of; a knowledge base of facts
and heuristics (rules) associated with the problem, inference
engine for applying the knowledge base, and a dynamic data
base serving as working memory of the problem and input
status. This system also had a user interface to simplify the
use of the expert system.3
FIGURE 2
Diagram of Expert Systems used in Aerospace 3
However, in order to reach a successful completion of
such project (i.e. expert system for aerospace project), it was
found essential to implement systems engineering methods
in this undertaking. One of the most important aspects in that
methodology is the requirements definitions phase, where
the process of translating mission objectives happens, to
yield quantifiable parameters needed to measure the
efficiency of the different design solutions. It is important to
mention that requirements definition for this expert system
invovles a top-down decomposable approach, where we start
from the overall systems requirements and then gradually
decompose those requirements to a level of “ sufficient
details” 3 needed to build the physical systems. This is
followed by an extensive effort to understand the system
integration aspect, whereby the process of identification of
inter-relationships among subsystems, technical fields, and
requirements is completed, especially those which are
peculiar to expert systems , for example, abundance of
heuristics and symbolic manipulation of data. Finally,
requirements verification is a point of emphasis, as it
involves the process of ensuring that mission requirements
comply with the analysis and testing conducted.
Requirement traceability formulates the core of the
requirement verification process at this stage, taking into
consideration that requirement definition is an iterative
approach, continuously changing and improving through the
different phases of systems life cycle.3 this is detailed in the
below diagram (Figure 3)
Figure 3: Systems engineering approach used in expert
systems design within aerospace context. 3
Challenges were identified in setting up the system and
in finding ease of use in other than a closed loop space
mission payload where there is essentially one sole
contractor who controls the whole program and owns all
associated intellectual property 1. Conversely in other
aerospace applications such as aircraft, helicopters, ground
control stations, the sub systems are provided by a multitude
of private companies as it is a commercial business, unlike
space applications, where essentially it is a government
controlled entity. This raises difficulties in developing
expert systems where potentially competing companies
would be sharing intellectual property. Another difference
between space and aero applications lies in the design
purpose. Space applications are designed for very high
reliability where failure is not an option, as there is either
generally no return or a single use return to earth possible.
Aero systems are designed for very high reliability where
redundancy or backup systems are available in case of an
incident to a degree that allows for safe continuation of a
mission, with multiple cycles over many years of operation.
The added operational and life cycle complexity of aero
system use makes applications of expert systems that much
more difficult.
As a means to progressing into aero applications, it is
noted that diagnostics and health monitoring applications
such as root cause analysis of failed sensor may be a tangible
enhancement to the current state of the art.
progress to be made. Past progress in large complex
systems was due in part to optimization of sub systems due
to technical advancements in manufacturing, computation,
etc. Most of these systems are now at high stages of
maturity and further progress is incremental, as opposed to
step changes.
One of the most important approaches applied in the
aerospace field is the concept of System of Systems (SoS).
Conventional knowledge dictates that airplanes are complex
systems which contain a great deal of sub-systems, such as
fuselage, vertical and horizontal wings, and propulsion
systems. However, this view is very narrow and obsolete if
not placed within the context of Systems of Systems (SoS),
where the boundaries of these complex systems are explored
, investigating its interactions and interfaces with each other
and the environment ( e.g. utilizing context diagrams ). This
approach will automatically lead to an understanding of the
System of Systems aspects “(SoS ness)” 3 of many
aerospace-related systems , such as airports. To further
elaborate, if we examine the component systems of airports
such aircrafts, baggage handling, Security, ticketing…etc,
we can observe the general characteristics which distinguish
SoSs from Systems which are : Autonomy, Belonging ,
Connectivity, Diversity and Emergence.5 Those previous
characteristics could be seen as forces that cause the
difference between the characteristics of SoSs and Systems
as shown in the below figure ( Figure 4).

CURRENT STATE OF THE ART

Recent advancements in systems engineering relate
to having the user think like a system, as opposed to Figure 4: Contrasting the characteristics of SoS vs
using systems engineering tool and process. 2 The Systems.5
availability of robust systems engineering tools and
processes are described, along with examples of issues that Understanding the concept of System of Systems (SoS)
arose in the development of aeronautical products despite within aerospace context is not sufficient for effective
the application of systems engineering. There is recognition management of its various aspects. Gorod, Sauser and
that after decades of system engineering implementation, Boradman4 implemented a network management
issues still arise and things must change for next step methodology called “FCAPS” (Fault, Configuration,

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Accounting, Performance and Security) to manage systems
of systems (e.g. airports). Those principals were originally
created by ISO to manage information technology network
systems. Basically, Fault Management (FM) is created to
maintain and examine errors within the SOS, while offering
tracing and correction of these errors. The purpose of
Configuration Management (CM) is to collect information
and identifies best practises related to the “Continuous
operation” of the “open systems” that constitute the SoS.
Thirdly, Accounting Management (AM) analyzes, examines
and provides solutions regarding the “right” balance between
costs and resources within the SoS. The fourth component
Which is, Performance Management(PM), enables the use of
resources within the SoS and creates specific evaluation
method for assessing communications between the different
types of hierarchies of the SoS. Finally, Security
Management (SM) enables the enforcement of different
security policies. The implementation of “FCAPS” to SoS
provides an effective management methodology that focuses
on the following Areas: Risk Management, Configuration
Management, Performance and Reliability Management,
policy Management , and Business Management.
The concept of thinking of people, process, and tools
emerges where all three elements must be considered for
optimum results. Behaviors of the users must be changed as
required to be integral with systems engineering, and not just
as a user of such system. Moreover, humans are object
oriented , while systems engineering benefits from a purpose
of use perspective.
The effect of external environment on not only the
system, but the people, process, and tools is considered.
Additionally, it is noted that to fully understand the
behaviors of the system being designed , these elements(i.e.
people , processes and tools) must be treated as dynamic,
and subject to change over the whole design-development-
operation life cycle.
In presenting examples of why organizations fail with
systems engineering, a major lesson learned is that how
systems are sub divided into hierarchy when developing the
systems engineering model is a critical process. Rather than
dividing systems into elements, instead a design approach
should be considered where the function of the component is
replaced with the notion of what is the purpose required.
This allows greater flexibility and does not immediately tie
in the design constrained to pre-identified component
purpose, mechanical, electrical, physical, etc attribute.
Additional enhancement relate to making more robust
system models that better cater for system sensitivities.
Future efforts should focus on interconnection of the already
optimized sub systems and relooking at the systems with a
purpose mindset instead of function.
FUTURE WORK
Considering the enhanced complexity of engineering
systems, as people try to achieve more difficult and broader
goals , the ability of the systems engineering to accurately
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capture and visualize the problem statement in a manner that
can be easily comprehended, is ever challenging. It is worth
mentioning that future opportunities to enhance the
effectiveness of system engineering can be seen within the
context of the wealth and depth of available data , as well as
the need to better the human cognitive mindset during design
and development, robust knowledge management processes.
Interestingly, this need was identified and discussed two
decades earlier 5 and yet the problem still exists.
Issues with cultural adoption of engineering systems,
difficultly to implement systems engineering software in a
timely manner that has sufficient flexibility to ensure user
friendliness, are some of the issues identified. Additionally,
there exists the mindset of at what point does standardization
and compartmentalization of systems stifle the innovative
ability of the designer to create a something new.
Significant attention must be paid to avoid the process of
defining the solution, rather than just limiting options s as an
optimization aid.
A second enhancement deals with visualization
techniques to easily show the systems engineering the scope
of the activity and the sensitivity analysis to various
parameter variances. A number of visual and interactive
tools are described which show pictorially and in multi
dimensions data, which classically had been shown in
tabular format. These techniques provide simple visual
indictors as to pros and cons of varying parameters on the
system being investigated. The point is also made that
different visualization techniques are more suited to different
stages of the design and development process, that the tools
should be used where they are most applicable and
efficiently employed.
Third enhancement involves managing complex
systems and system of systems in aerospace, such as airports
. It is safe to say that system of systems can be looked at as
a network. Therefore, further efforts are required regarding
the implementation of oadditional network management
methodologies on SoSs.
Fourth enhancement would be to build a body of
knowledge for SoS, as it is does not yet exist. We also have
to develop new management framework that would make
our understanding of complex systems easier and faster.
The emergence of serious issues such as global
warming, noxious emissions and noise pollution coupled
with a requirement to reduce the overall cost of aircraft is
driving the need for radical new paradigms1. In order to
develop the solutions to the complex environmental
sustainability issues, there is a need to recognize a balance
between the society needs and the social responsibilities.
The importance of fuel efficiencies and its rapid rise in the
cost, necessitated finding alternative sources of fuel or other
solutions such as biomass to liquid, sustainable aviation fuel.
These energy sources can be made from the waste of
organisms, some of these fuels come from plants
( like jatropha, algae, camelina) or land resources such as
bio-jet fuel, which could provide up to one-third of
all commercial aviation jet fuel by 2030, if sources can
produce sufficient quantities. The growing of algae to make
jet fuel is a promising but still emerging technology. A fuel
cell can contribute to reductions in emissions and noise. The
water produced from it can also be used by the aircraft’s
water and waste systems, reducing the amount of water an
aircraft would need on board. This would contribute to
reduced weight, which could further decrease fuel
consumption and emissions. The solar energy can be used to
provide electricity aboard airliners once they reach cruise
altitude. Further research is being done on an alcohol-to-
jet pathway where alcohols such as ethanol or butanol are
de-oxygenated and processed into jet fuels 6.The future fuel
should be cost efficient, carbon neutral, improve
performance & meet the standards.
The focus will be on enhancing the range & fuel
efficiency while lowering the engine maintenance cost and
noise. The light weight composite structures & aerodynamic
improvement such as winglets can reduce fuel consumption.
More advancement in the aerospace industry will be seen in
the areas such as blended wing body design. In defense
greater emphasis is given on data fusion and electronic
attack. The most important investment that airlines, airports
can make to address the rising cost of fuel involves a
technology known as RNP (Required Navigation
Performance). It allows air traffic controllers to safely
reduce the spacing between aircraft, thereby minimizing the
number of planes wasting fuel as they circle while waiting to
land.8
The aerospace industry is also working on the
technology to get more powerful engine which requires less
fuel, produce less noise, emits less CO2, and less cost to
maintain.1 The biggest challenge in this suite of problems is
the consideration of the wider systems in which aircraft
operate. General Electric Company is working with NASA
to devise methods to re-engineer ORE (Open rotor engines)
which promises the greatest fuel burn reductions of any
engine by 20 to 30 percent but it has been mostly neglected
because of restrictions on engine noise. If they succeed, open
rotor could become a popular technology.1 The engineers
and scientist are also working on Ionic wind thruster engine
that use ionized air to provide thrust more efficiently and E-
thrust engines that would result in reducing the
environmental issues. Laminar flow technology
(nacelle/wing) offers potential benefits in meeting ACARE
targets in reducing fuel consumption and noise.1 The
airplanes of the future can be double or even triple decker
etc. Power electronics is a pervasive technology in the MEA.
The More-Electric-Airplane (MEA) is a technology enabler
for energy generation, storage and conversion systems and
technologies. MEA contributes to lower operating costs and
reduces fuel use, emissions and noise. Power Electronics,
Intelligent power systems and alternative sources plays a
significant role for future MEA.[9]
Reducing aircraft weight can also make a significant
difference in fuel consumption. There are significant
opportunities to aggressively incorporate new composite
technologies to minimize weight. The advanced design
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elements like the use of winglets, a near vertical extension of
a plane’s wing tips, an optimized drag profile for existing
aircraft types helps reduce fuel burn, emissions, minimize
aerodynamic noise and reducing airport congestion. The
Next Generation Air Transportation System, which NASA
and the Federal Aviation Administration plan to introduce
by 2025, will replace today's fixed routes and controller-to-
aircraft voice communication with zones of free-flowing
traffic, and will automatically connect ground-based flight
control computers to aircraft avionics via data uplink.
Instead of telling a pilot where to go, air traffic control will
simply send the data straight to the cockpit display.10
Biomimicry will play a vital role as researchers and
engineers are looking for ways to make airplanes more like
birds with the ability to change the shape of the wing.7
Learning from nature as large birds sometimes flying
together to save energy, the aircraft wings creates the same
effect which we call trailing vortexes. Military pilots often
use the same formation flying techniques to reduce the
amount of energy and fuel burn. The wings will be made of
material that can withstand and undergo sudden and
reversible changes. Use of the Vertical dimension take offs
technology that will reduce the need of possible runways. A
solution for long-distance routes in 2050 may be the use of
large aircraft carriers with smaller jetliners docked to them
so instead of operating dozens of separate flights, perhaps
airlines could have giant aircraft carriers. The future aircraft
industry needs to focus on the fuel burn improvements, noise
reduction, improve capacity and performance, Maintenance
cost and environmental issues. A technology needs to be
finding in which the takeoffs and landing of the plane can be
made by switching off the engine & rolling over by other
means e.g. electric engines.
Airbus hypothesizes how the industry, aircraft and
passengers might change by 2050 while highlighting
potential steps to meet the needs of tomorrow. By 2050,
70% of the world's population will want and need to travel
where aviation will be the principal mode of transportation
by demanding more in terms of quality and services so the
future cabin experience will be catering to those needs. The
technology development needs to combine different
technologies into one concept. The future aircraft could be
built using a bionic structure that mimics the bone structure
of birds as it is both light and strong. It will reduces the
aircraft's weight and fuel burn, but also makes it possible to
add features like oversized doors for easier boarding and
panoramic windows. This structure will be coated with a
biopolymer membrane, which controls the amount of natural
light, humidity and temperature, providing opacity or
transparency by eliminating the need for windows. This
smarter structure will make the aircraft lighter and more
fuel-efficient while giving passengers 360 degree views of
the sky. Some of the energy sources for example harvesting
body heat instead of producing energy, which would simply
collect energy from a passenger's seat, and redirect it to
power certain aircraft functions such as the cabin lights. The
morphing material that change shape and return to their
initial form will sense the body allows them to adapt to the
shape of the passengers' needs. The self reliant material that
will have the functionalities to repair themselves or self-
cleaning will be found on the fabric of seats and the carpets.7
The fact that many aerospace projects are late, over budget
and often failing to deliver their design intent presents a
compelling case for Systems Engineering as the approach in
the twenty-first century. The correct application of Systems
Thinking, Systems Approaches and System Engineering can
provide the necessary change.2 The final goal is to integrate
all the identified needs and solutions to the problems in a
design tool capable of better dealing with the design of
complex engineering systems, with increased support for
concurrent engineering and multidisciplinary optimization
processes, and support for knowledge base development. A
broad discussion is still underway to assess the possibility of
using visualization as part of the solution during the whole
process rather than just a way of presenting results.11
CONCLUSIONS AND REFLECTIONS
Aerospace vehicle design production and operation by
its nature requires consideration of a large number of
integrated sub systems, each having different layers of
complexity as well as differing sensitivities to outside
influence. This can range from evaluation sophisticated
electrical and mechanical integration optimization with
deterministic boundaries to higher-level studies involving
stochastic effects such as manufacturing variance and
economic considerations to manufacturing and operating
costs. The trade space lends itself well to application of
systems engineering with several decades of experience
obtained to date. However powerful systems engineering is,
it is noted that human behavior and cultural attitudes can
strongly affect the outcome. Regardless the availability and
recognition of sophisticated tools and processes, designers,
developers and users may tend to follow their own preferred
path and not fully employ systems engineering in their work.
Implementation of expert systems in aerospace
engineering is a paramount. However, its implementation is
abundant with operational and development related obstacles
,only solved by the implementation of the methodologies
and life cycles of systems engineering, such as requirement
definitions , system integration and requirement verification
methods.7
Using the Network related management methodology
has proven to be very efficient in managing systems of
systems (SoS), which is exemplified in the implementation
of FCAPS principles on Aerospace systems of systems.
As a result of this literature review , it is becoming
increasingly important to study human factors engineering
and training regarding workforce implementation of systems
engineering.
The key contribution of the paper is to review the
current state of art in SE approach to aircraft design and
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identify some of the major challenges, the current state of
the art, the latest knowledge, new technology and visions
for the future. The field is so broad that it will be difficult to
address everything. The challenge in Aerospace
Engineering, in the next two decades is to meet the targets of
reduction of nitric oxide emission by 80%, carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide both by 50%, reduce noise by 50% and
of course with reduced cost and improved safety.1 The
airplane of the future will be stronger, safer and smarter with
refuse-to-crash technology and radical new flight controls
with the help of advanced System Engineering. Growth is
predicted to continue over the next 15 years at
approximately 5% per annum with corresponding impacts on
revenue, the air transportation systems and the environment.
The next step towards the final goal must focus on
determining adequate new technologies to implement. In a
nutshell it is a challenge as a whole to achieve these game
changing steps, more work need to be done in the future to
find the engineering solutions to improve the performance
and making it reliable, safe and eco-efficient means of
transportation.
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