Professional Documents
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F4 Revision Notes (Eng) - June 2017
F4 Revision Notes (Eng) - June 2017
F4 Revision Notes (Eng) - June 2017
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ACCA F4
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(English)
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Revision Notes
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F4 Revision Notes
Contents
Topic Page No
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Transportation and Payment of International Business Transactions 31
Agency Law 43
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Partnership ba 46
Company Formation 55
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Constitution of a Company 58
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Share Capital 63
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Fraudulent Behavior 99
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Economic Systems
Economic systems are the means by which countries and governments distribute resources and trade
goods and services.
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economy. Many economic decisions are made by free market forces but the government also plays a
role in the allocation and distribution of resources
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Political Systems
There are mainly two types of political systems:
a) Democratic Political System
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b) Dictatorial Political System
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• Two important factors in any political system are:
a) Rule of Law
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Dictatorial Systems - dominated by state made laws and individual freedom is subject to it
Democratic Systems - guarantee individual freedom and in a more traditional sense is a political
system that allows for each individual to participate. Citizens elect legislators who, in turn, make
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laws.
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b) Separation of Powers
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Legal Systems
Legal system refers to a procedure or process for interpreting and enforcing the law.
Law is a system of rules that govern a society with the intention of maintaining social order, upholding
justice and preventing harm to individuals and property.
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Types of Law
The major types of law prevailing in the world consist of:
• International Law: Body of legal rules governing interaction between sovereign states and the
rights and duties of the citizens of sovereign states towards the citizens of other sovereign states.
• National Law: Domestic law, which can also be called national law or municipal law, come from
legislature and customs and regulates rights and duties between individuals and the state.
• Conflict of Laws: A specialized branch of law which resolves cases which have an element of
conflicting foreign law.
• Common Law: Common law system developed in England. It arose out of traditional customs and
practices which latter turned out to be very rigid and unfair. Common law is based upon
amalgamating local customary laws into law of the land. Remedies under common law are monetary
such as damages.
• Sharia Law: It is the code of law derived from the Quran and from the teachings and examples of
Mohammed (P.B.U.H).
• Criminal Law: Criminal law involves penal consequences which may result in conviction resulting
in capital punishments or a specified time in prison. In criminal law the burden of proof rests with the
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prosecution which must prove its case beyond reasonable doubt. In jurisdiction of UK the
criminal case is referred to as R vs Smith in which R represents the Crown and “R” signifies Regina
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the Queen.
• Civil Law: Civil law governs private disputes between two or more persons. It does not entail any
penal consequences; rather liability is discharged by way of payment of damages or other appropriate
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remedy. In civil law the case must be proved on the balance of probabilities. Civil cases are
referred to by the names of the parties involved in the dispute, for example, Smith v Jones. In civil
law, a claimant sues (or ‘brings a claim against’) a defendant.
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Common Law
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• The common law is the body of law formed through court decisions, as opposed to law formed
through statutes or written legislation. A common law system is the system of jurisprudence
that is based on the doctrine of judicial precedent, the principle under which the lower courts
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must follow the decisions of the higher courts, rather than on statutory laws.
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• The common law legal system originated in England was later adopted in the United States and
Canada and is in place in most Commonwealth countries. While the English common law system
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has its roots in the 11th century, the present system has evolved over the past 350 years, with judges
basing their decisions on those made by predecessors.
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Statutory Interpretation:
It is the process of interpreting and applying legislation. In most cases, there is some ambiguity or
vagueness in the words of the statute that must be resolved by the judge. To find the meanings of statutes,
judges use various tools and methods of statutory interpretation.
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There are techniques of statutory interpretation:
• Literal Rule: Is a type of statutory interpretation, which dictates that Acts are to be interpreted
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using the ordinary meaning of the language of the Act.
• Purpose Approach: Is a theory of statutory interpretation that suggests that courts should
interpret legislation in light of the purpose behind the legislation keeping in view the ordinary, literal
and grammatical sense of the words.
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• Contextual Rule: Words in statute should be interpreted keeping in view their context.
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Presumptions of Statutory Interpretation:
a) Statue do not over ride existing law
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The civil law system is a codified system of law. It takes its origins from Roman law. Features of a civil
law system include:
• There is generally a written constitution based on specific codes (e.g., civil code, codes covering
corporate law, administrative law, tax law and constitutional law) protecting basic rights and duties;
administrative law is however usually less codified and administrative court judges tend to behave
more like common law judges.
• Only legislative enactments are considered binding for all. There is little scope for judge-made law
in civil, criminal and commercial courts, although in practice judges tend to follow previous judicial
decisions; constitutional and administrative courts can nullify laws and regulations and their
decisions in such cases are binding for all.
• In some civil law systems, e.g., Germany, writings of legal scholars have significant influence on the
courts.
• Courts specific to the underlying codes – there are therefore usually separate constitutional court,
administrative court and civil court systems that provide opinion on consistency of legislation and
administrative acts with and interpret that specific code.
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• Less freedom of contract - many provisions are implied into a contract by law and parties cannot
contract out of certain provisions.
A civil law system is generally more prescriptive than a common law system. However, a government will
still need to consider whether specific legislation is required to either limit the scope of a certain
restriction to allow a successful infrastructure project, or may require specific legislation for a sector.
Such systems also tend to operate with written constitutions, which provide a fundamental basis for legal
activity and allows the courts to challenge any legislation that they decide is contrary to the constitution.
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Sharia Law System:
It is the code of law derived from the Quran and from the teachings and examples of Mohammed
(P.B.U.H).
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Sources of Sharia law:
The main source of Sharia law is the Quran, which is accepted as the revealed dictate of Allah as revealed
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to his prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). In addition the Sunnah, which is derived from the sayings of the
Prophet (the Ahadith), is also a primary source of law in Sharia systems
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As secondary sources of law, Sharia systems refer to the Madhab, which is the opinions of leading early
jurists on the meaning and effect of Sharia law. Such systems also have written constitutions and these
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• In some Muslim countries they also appoint secular judges along with clerics.
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not dealt with directly in the Quran or the Hadith texts. This necessary process gave rise to the
development of the science of understanding and interpreting legal rulings known as fiqh.
• Fiqh in Arabic means ‘knowledge’, ‘understanding’ or ‘comprehension’.
• The scholars of fiqh generated a body of additional rulings. The tools involved in giving life to this
third body of rules were:
a) Ijma’ (consensus)
The universal consensus on religious issues of the scholars of the Muslim community as a whole
can be regarded as conclusive Ijma.
b) Istihsan (legal extrapolation)
Istihsan is a method of exercising personal opinion (ray) in order to avoid any rigidity and
unfairness that might result from literal application of law. Istihsan as a concept is close to equity
in western law.
c) Ijtihad (interpretation)
Ijtehaad is the process where the scholars of Islam strive to find a solution to an issue on which
the Quran and Sunnah are silent.
d) Qiyas (analogy)
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Qiyaas is a process whereby a clear ruling of the permissibility or impermissibility of an act or
thing is applied to an issue closest related to it.
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• The other methods of exercising ijtihad are:
a) Maslahah Mursalah
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Maslaha Al Mursalah is a concept in traditional Islamic Law. The world Maslaha is taken from the
root word “Saluha” or “Salaha” which means to be good or to repair or to do good. Istislah on the
other hand refers to the methods used by Muslim jurists to solve problems (a good deed) especially
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when there are no explicit guidance from the Qur’an and the Sunnah on such matters.
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b) Urf
ʿUrf is an Arabic Islamic term referring to the custom, or 'knowledge', of a given society. To be
recognized in an Islamic society, ʿurf must be compatible with the Sharia law. When applied, it
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c) Istishab
This term refers to a situation in Islamic jurisprudence where the jurist presumes that the
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situation or a fact continues or discontinues holding applicable until the contrary is proven. A
scholar can use the concept of istishab in deducing a ruling if other proofs are absent.
Ijtihad:
The requirements for ijtihad are:
1. Its exercise cannot be done on certain issues such as on the existence of Allah
2. Judge (Mutahid) must be qualified.
Pre-requisits to be a Mutahid:
a) Practicing Muslim
b) Honest and reliable person
c) Knowledge of Quran
d) Knowledge of Sunnah of Prophet (P.B.U.H)
e) Understanding of the principles of Ijma and Qiyas
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Taqlid
• Doctrine of Taqlid, requires the adherence to the legal principles established by the legal scholars of
the second and third centuries of Islam and the refusal to further develop through the use of itjihad.
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International Law
International law is the term commonly used for referring to laws that govern the conduct of independent nations in their
relationships with one another.
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• International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders
or territories. In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product
(GDP). However, countries enact laws to protect their domestic market and/or industry. These laws
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sometimes act as a barrier to the free international trade.
price of imported goods and services, making them more expensive to consumers
b) Quotas
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A quota is a government-imposed trade restriction that limits the number, or monetary value, of
goods that can be imported or exported during a particular time period. Quotas are used in
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A nontariff barrier is a form of restrictive trade where barriers to trade are set up and take a form
other than a tariff. Nontariff barriers include quotas, embargoes, sanctions, levies and other
restrictions and are frequently used by large and developed economies.
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UNITED NATIONS
• The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945. It is currently made up of
193 Member States. Each of the 193 Member States of the United Nations is a member of the
General Assembly. States are admitted to membership in the UN by a decision of the General
Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.
• The UN states that its member states should codify and develop international law. The two bodies
in the UN involved in drafting international law are The United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law and International Chamber of Commerce.
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• The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) is the core legal
body within the United Nations system in the field of international trade law.
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• It was established by the General Assembly in 1966 (Resolution 2205(XXI)).
• UNCITRAL was given the task of furthering the progressive harmonization and unification of
the law of international trade. This was to be achieved by: –
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i) Co-ordinating the work of organizations active in this field and encouraging co-
operation among them;
ii) Promoting wider participation in existing international conventions and wider
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acceptance of existing model and uniform laws;
iii) Preparing or promoting the adoption of new international conventions and
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trade;
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vi) Establishing and maintaining a close collaboration with the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development;
vii) Maintaining liaison with other United Nations organs (General assembly, Security
Council etc.) and specialised agencies concerned with international trade;
viii) Taking any other action it may deem useful to fulfill its functions.
• The Commission is composed of 60 Member States elected by the General Assembly. Members of
the Commission are elected for terms of six years, the terms of half the members expiring every
three years.
• The Commission carries out its work at annual sessions, which are held in alternate years at
United Nations Headquarters in New York and in Vienna.
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The following are some of the most important outcomes of the work conducted by UNCITRAL:
i. United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods
(Vienna, 1980). This Convention establishes a comprehensive code of legal rules governing
the formation of contracts for the international sale of goods, the obligations of the buyer and
seller, remedies for breach of contract and other aspects of the contract.
ii. United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea, 1978 (the ‘Hamburg
Rules’). This Convention establishes a uniform legal regime governing the rights and
obligations of shippers, carriers and consignees under a contract of carriage of goods by sea.
iii. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (1985). These
provisions are designed to assist States in reforming and modernising their laws on arbitral
procedure so as to take into account the particular features and needs of international
commercial arbitration.
iv. United Nations Convention on International Bills of Exchange and
International Promissory Notes (New York, 1988). This Convention provides a
comprehensive code of legal rules governing new international instruments for optional use
by parties to international commercial transactions.
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v. UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce. This Model Law, adopted in 1996, is
intended to facilitate the use of modern means of communications and storage of
information.
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vi. UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency. This Model Law seeks to
promote fair legislation for cases where an insolvent receivable (debtor) has assets in more
than one State.
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b) International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
• It was established in 1919.
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• The ICC aims to promote international trade, responsible business conduct and a global approach
to regulation through a unique mix of advocacy and standard setting activities—together with
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many of the world’s largest companies, SMEs, business associations and local chambers of
commerce.
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• It performs three primary activities: establishment of rules, resolution of disputes and policy
advocacy. The ICC also fights against commercial crime and corruption in order to boost
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economic growth, creation of jobs and steady employment, as well as overall economic prosperity.
Because members of the ICC, and their associates, take part in international business, the ICC has
unparalleled authority in setting rules that govern how business is conducted across all borders.
While these rules are voluntary, thousands of transactions on a daily basis operate by these ICC-
established rules, as part of regular international trade.
• The organization’s international secretariat was also established in Paris, and its International
Court of Arbitration was formed in 1923.
The WTO encourages free trade by applying the most favoured nation principle between its members,
where reduction in tariffs offered to one country by another should be offered to all members.
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The World Trade Organization is ‘member-driven’, with decisions taken by General agreement among all
member of governments and it deals with the rules of trade between nations at a global or near-global
level.
Key objectives
The WTO has six key objectives:
(1) To set and enforce rules for international trade
(2) To provide a forum for negotiating and monitoring further trade liberalization
(3) To resolve trade disputes
(4) To increase the transparency of decision-making processes
(5) To cooperate with other major international economic institutions involved in global economic
management
(6) To help developing countries benefit fully from the global trading system.
Structure
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Ministerial Conference
• Composed of all members of the WTO, which is to meet at least once every two years
• Top level decision-making body
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General Council
• Between sessions of the Ministerial Conference, its functions are exercised by the General Council,
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made up of the full membership of the WTO
• Two additional specific tasks: Dispute Settlement Body and as the Trade Policy Review Body
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• Committee on Trade and Development, the Committee on Balance-of-Payments Restrictions, and the
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Secretariat
• The WTO secretariat, based in Geneva, is headed by a Director-General.
• Main duties to supply technical support for the various councils and committees and the ministerial
conferences, to provide technical assistance for developing countries, to analyze world trade and to
explain WTO affairs to the public and media.
• The Ministerial Conference shall appoint the Director-General who will then appoint the members of
the staff of the Secretariat
• In the discharge of their duties, the Director-General and the staff of the Secretariat shall not seek or
accept instructions from any government or any other authority external to the WTO.
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forum of countries describing themselves as committed to democracy and the market economy,
providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seeking answers to common problems, identify
good practices and coordinate domestic and international policies of its members.
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International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT)
• The International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) is an independent
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intergovernmental organization established in 1926 based in Rome.
• Its purpose is to study needs and methods for modernizing, harmonizing and co-ordinating private
and, in particular, commercial law as between States and groups of States.
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• Membership of UNIDROIT is restricted to States complying with the UNIDROIT Statute. It has 63
Member States.
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• UNIDROIT’s basic statutory objective is to prepare modern, and where appropriate harmonised,
uniform rules of private law understood in a broad sense.
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• Uniform rules prepared by UNIDROIT are concerned with substantive law rules. The rules produced
by UNIDROIT assume one of three types:
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(i) Conventions These documents are designed to apply automatically in preference to a State’s
municipal law upon the completion of all the formal requirements of that State’s domestic law
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Structure of UNIDROIT:
a) Secretariat: Mainly responsible for the daily functioning and work of the organization.
b) Governing Council: Its main task is to supervise the policy of UNIDROIT and the work of the
secretariat. It has 25 elected members and a president.
c) General Assembly: It is the main decision making organ. It is responsible for approving budge,
work program and electing the governing council. The governing council has one member
representative.
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The system of courts differ according to the nature of the claim (whether a claim is civil or criminal in
nature) and also on the value of the claim (in civil cases).
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Civil Court Structure:
• The hierarchy of the civil courts is as follows:
a) Magistrate Courts mostly deals with small domestic matters
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b) County court deals with matters relating to contract and tort, equitable matters and all other
claims. Majority of the cases go to Count Court as it is the court of first instance. The presiding
officer/judge of the court is called Circuit Judge.
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c) High Court is presided by puisne judges and is further divided in three divisions
i. Queen’s Bench Division
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of the Court of Appeal hears appeals from County Court and High Court.
e) The Supreme Court/House of Lords is the highest court which hears appeals from the Court
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of Appeal and may hear cases directly from the High Court. The presiding judges are called
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• The essential criminal trial courts are the magistrates’ courts and Crown Courts. In serious offences,
known as indictable offences, the defendant is tried by a jury in a Crown Court. For less serious
offences, known as summary offences, the defendant is tried by magistrates; and for ‘either way’
offences, the defendant can be tried by magistrates if they agree, but the defendant may elect for jury
trial.
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• Establishment of judicial Precedent
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Cons:
• Expensive than arbitration
• Time taking and lengthy procedure than arbitration
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International Court:
International Courts play an important role in resolving the matters relating to conflicts of law and
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enforcement of settlements.
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• The Court of Justice interprets EU law to make sure it is applied in the same way in all EU
countries, and settles legal disputes between national governments and EU institutions.
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• It is the highest court of law for all European Union member states.
• Appeals from decisions of courts in the member states can also be filed in the ECJ.
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Arbitration
• Arbitration is a procedure in which a dispute is submitted, by agreement of the parties, to one or
more arbitrators who make a binding decision on the dispute.
• The solution can be in the form of compensation payment, behavioral change, apology etc.
Islamic Arbitration
• Arbitration in Islam is called Takhim
• Arbitrator is called Hakam
• Arbitrator must be muslim, well versed of sharia law and should be able to arbitrate.
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disputants to mediate a specific dispute
• Decisions are not legally binding
• In Islam mediation is called wasta and conciliation is called soth.
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Pro’s of Alternate Dispute Resolution:
• Takes far less time to reach a final resolution
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• Arbitrator of choice
• Cost of Arbitration is low.
• The parties can also have their dispute arbitrated or mediated by a person who is an expert in the
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relevant field.
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commercial contracts.
• According to Article 1 Arbitration can be categorized as international if parties conduct business in
different countries or the business is in the same country but arbitration is designated to be in a
different country and it is commercial if their business is commercial in nature.
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proceedings have been initiated. (UN CASE 57)
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Composition of Arbitral Tribunal (Article 10)
1. The parties are free to determine the number of arbitrators.
2. Failing such determination, the number of arbitrators shall be three.
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• Each party shall appoint one arbitrator within 30 days and the two appointed arbitrators shall
appoint the third arbitrator.
• Parties can agree upon a sole arbitrator. If the same cannot agree on the choice of person then the
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court can be requested to make the appointment.
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b) Upon failure of the parties to appoint an arbitrator court can be requested to do the same by any
party.
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c) If an arbitrator fails to fulfill his duties any party can apply to the court to take action.
d) The actions taken by court in relation to b and c shall not be appealable.
e) The arbitrator appointed shall be independent and impartial arbitrator.
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• If there is a failure of agreement on procedure of arbitration then the tribunal shall conduct the
proceedings.
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Other clauses of Law of Arbitration
• Article 20: Parties can choose place of arbitration otherwise the tribunal shall select the place
• Article 21:Parties can agree on commencement of proceedings or the proceedings shall start when the
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referral notice is received by the respondent
• Article 22: Language of proceedings can be agreed between the parties
• Article 26: Arbitral tribunal can appoint experts
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• Article 27: Court assistance in matters of evidence can be requested
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These statements shall be made in accordance with the time frame agreed between the parties or as
stipulated by the arbitral tribunal.
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• If the claimant fails to submit statement of claim within the time frame then the arbitral tribunal shall
terminate the proceedings. If the defendant defaults in submitting the statement of defence than this
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shall not be treated as admission of guilt by the tribunal and will continue the proceedings.
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Making of Award
• Article 28: Decision of the tribunal shall be based upon the rules of law chosen by parties
• Article 28: If rules not chosen by parties then the tribunal shall apply law it sees fit
• Article 29: Decision shall be reached by majority of the arbitrators
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Settlement
• Article 30: If, during arbitral proceedings, the parties settle the dispute, the arbitral tribunal shall
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terminate the proceedings.
i. A party to the arbitration agreement was under some incapacity; or the said agreement is not
valid under the law to which the parties have subjected it
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ii. The party making the application was not given proper notice of the appointment of an arbitrator
or of the arbitral proceedings or was otherwise unable to present his case; or
iii. The award deals with a dispute not expected by or not falling within the terms of the submission
to arbitration
iv. The composition of the arbitral tribunal was incorrect
v. The subject-matter of the dispute is not capable of settlement by arbitration under the law of this
State
vi. The award is in conflict with the public policy of this State
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If the court finds that:
i. The subject-matter of the dispute is not capable of settlement by arbitration under the law of this
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State; or
ii. The recognition or enforcement of the award would be contrary to the public policy of this State.
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Sales of Goods:
• A contract of sale of goods is a contract by which the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the
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property in goods to the buyer for a money consideration, called the price.
• Article 2: This Convention does not apply to sales:
a) Of goods bought for personal, family or household use, unless the
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seller, at any time before or at the conclusion of the contract, neither knew
nor ought to have known that the goods were bought for any such use;
b) By auction;
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c) On execution or otherwise by authority of law;
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d) Of stocks, shares, investment securities, negotiable instruments or money;
e) of ships, vessels, hovercraft or aircraft;
f) Of electricity.
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• Therefore the convention does not apply to sales of commodities for personal use.
• The Convention will not be applicable to the supply of services or where the essential obligation of one
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of the parties in the contract would be provision of labour. (Article 3) (UN Case 105)
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• The Convention will not be applicable when the buyer supplies substantial part of the materials for
manufacture or production. (Article 3)
• Article 4: This convention governs only the formation of the contract of sale and the rights and
obligations of the seller and the buyer arising from such a contract. In particular, except as otherwise
expressly provided in this Convention, it is not concerned with the contract’s validity or usage, or with
the effect of the contract on the property in goods sold.
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Convention Ratification
• The member states must ratify (approve) the convention; however, they can also declare to be not
bound by parts of convention but this declaration will make them a non-contracting state.
• Two or more contracting states which have the same or closely related legal rules on matters governed
by this Convention may at any time opt out of the convention in relation to each other or in relation to
persons whose place of business is in each other’s states. (Article 94)
• Contracting States whose national legislation requires contracts of sale to be concluded or evidenced
in writing may at any time dis-apply the convention which allows the contracts not to be in writing.
Offer
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• Article 14(1) of the UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods provides that:
‘A proposal for concluding a contract addressed to one or more specific persons constitutes an offer if
it is sufficiently definite and indicates the intention of the offeror to be bound in case of acceptance. A
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proposal is sufficiently definite if it indicates the goods and expressly or implicitly fixes or makes
provision for determining the quantity and the price.’
• Thus in order for a proposal for concluding a contract to constitute an offer:
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(i) It must be addressed to one or more specific persons. Consequently the offer cannot be made
to ‘the world at large’ as it can in common law jurisdictions.
(ii) It must be sufficiently definite.
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(iii) It must indicate that the offeror intends to be bound on those terms in the case of acceptance.
• The offer becomes effective when it reaches the offeree (Article 15).
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• Any communication which does not comply with the stated requirements for an offer is to be treated
as merely an invitation to make offers, or an invitation to treat in English law.
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Termination of Offer:
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• Offers may be terminated before acceptance and the consequent formation of a binding agreement, in
one of three distinct ways:
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a) Withdrawal: Article 15(2), which simply states that an offeror may withdraw their offer as long
as the withdrawal reaches the offeree before or at the same time as the offer.
b) Rejection: The offeree may reject the offer, in which case it comes to an end and cannot be
subsequently reactivated and accepted by the offeree.
c) Revocation: Offers may be revoked as long as any revocation reaches the offeree before he has
dispatched an acceptance. However, an offer cannot be revoked if:
• It indicates that it is irrevocable, which it may do by stating a fixed time for acceptance or otherwise.
• If it was reasonable for the offeree to rely on the offer as being irrevocable and the offeree has acted in
reliance on the offer. An offer becomes effective when it reaches the offeree.
• Even if the offer is irrevocable, it may be withdrawn if the withdrawal reaches the offeree before or at
the same time as the offer (Article 15(2)). Thus the difference between withdrawal and revocation is a
matter of time rather than intention.
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Acceptance
• Article 18 of the UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods provides that
acceptance takes place where the recipient of the offer indicates their agreement to its terms.
• Acceptance may occur in a number of ways:
a) By conduct
b) By words
• Silence or inactivity does not amount to acceptance.
Counter-offer:
• Article 19 provides that:
(1) A reply to an offer which purports to be an acceptance but contains additions, limitations or other
modifications is a rejection of the offer and constitutes a counter-offer.
(2) However, a reply to an offer which purports to be an acceptance but contains additional or
different terms which do not materially alter the terms of the offer constitutes an acceptance,
unless the offeror, without undue delay, objects orally.
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Communication of Acceptance:
• Where a time period has been fixed, acceptance must reach the offeror within that period of time. If
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no time period is fixed, then the acceptance must reach the offeror within a reasonable time.
• If the offeree can accept the offer by performing an act, without notice to the offeror, the acceptance is
effective at the moment the act is performed, provided it is done within any period of time laid down
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by the offeror.
• Where the offeror has fixed a period of time for acceptance in either a telegram or a letter, that period
begins to run from the moment the telegram is handed in for dispatch or from the date shown on the
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letter. If no date is shown on the letter, the time runs from the date shown on the envelope. A period
of time for acceptance fixed by the offeror by telephone, telex or other means of instantaneous
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communication, begins to run from the moment that the offer reaches the offeree.
Withdrawal of Acceptance:
A
ICC Incoterms:
• ‘Incoterms’ is an abbreviation of International Commercial Terms.
• Incoterms are frequently to be found in international contracts, and they seek to provide a common
set of rules for the most often used international terms of trade with the aim of removing confusion
over their interpretation.
• These terms have been published by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
since 1936.
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b) Free Carrier (FCA) means that the seller delivers the goods to the carrier or another person
nominated by the buyer at the seller’s premises or another named place. The parties are well
advised to specify as clearly as possible the point within the named place of delivery, as the risk
passes to the buyer at that point.
c) Carriage Paid To (CPT) means that the seller delivers the goods to the carrier or another
person nominated by the seller at an agreed place (if any such place is agreed between parties)
and that the seller must contract for and pay the costs of carriage necessary to bring the goods to
the named place of destination.
d) Carriage and Insurance Paid to (CIP) means that the seller delivers the goods to the carrier
or another person nominated by the seller at an agreed place (if any such place is agreed between
parties) and that the seller must contract for and pay the costs of carriage necessary to bring the
goods to the named place of destination.
e) Delivered at Terminal (DAT) means that the seller delivers when the goods, once unloaded
from the arriving means of transport, are placed at the disposal of the buyer at a named terminal
at the named port or place of destination. “Terminal” includes a place, whether covered or not,
such as a quay, warehouse, container yard or road, rail or air cargo terminal. The seller bears all
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risks involved in bringing the goods to and unloading them at the terminal at the named port or
place of destination, including payment of any import duty or customs charges.
f) Delivered at Place (DAP) means that the seller delivers when the goods are placed at the
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disposal of the buyer on the arriving means of transport ready for unloading at the named place of
destination. The seller bears all risks involved in bringing the goods to the named place.
g) Delivered Duty Paid (DDP) means that the seller delivers the goods when the goods are
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placed at the disposal of the buyer, cleared for import on the arriving means of transport ready for
unloading at the named place of destination. The seller bears all the costs and risks involved in
bringing the goods to the place of destination and has an obligation to clear the goods not only for
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export but also for import, to pay any duty for both export and import and to carry out all customs
formalities.
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ship nominated by the buyer at the named port of shipment. The risk of loss of or damage to the
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goods passes when the goods are alongside the ship, and the buyer bears all costs from that moment
onwards.
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• Free On Board (FOB) means that the seller delivers the goods on board the ship nominated by the
buyer at the named port of shipment or procures the goods already so delivered. The risk of loss of or
damage to the goods passes when the goods are on board the vessel, and the buyer bears all costs
from that moment onwards.
• Cost and Freight (CFR) means that the seller delivers the goods on board the vessel (ship). The
risk of loss of or damage to the goods passes when the goods are on board the vessel. The seller must
contract for and pay the costs and freight necessary to bring the goods to the named port of
destination.
• Cost, Insurance and Freight (CIF) Seller clears the goods for export and delivers them when they
are onboard the vessel at the port of shipment. Seller bears the cost of freight and insurance to the
named port of destination. Seller's insurance requirement is only for minimum cover. Buyer is
responsible for all costs associated with unloading the goods at the named port of destination and
clearing goods for import. Risk passes from seller to buyer once the goods are onboard the vessel at
the port of shipment.
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Delivery Obligations:
• Article 30 states that the seller must deliver the goods, hand over any documents relating to
them and transfer the property in the goods, as required by the contract and the United Nation
Convention for the Contract on international Sale of Goods (UNSIGS).
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a) If the contract of sale involves carriage of the goods—in handing
the goods over to the first carrier for transmission to the buyer;
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b) If the parties are aware that goods would be in a particular place then the seller discharges the
obligation by placing the good at the buyer’s disposal at that place.
c) If the above situations do not apply then the seller discharges his duty of delivery by placing the
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goods at the place where the seller had their business at the time contract was concluded.
• The mode of transportation of goods selected by the seller must be reasonable and in accordance with
the usual terms.
A
• If the seller is not bound to insure the goods then he must at the buyer’s request provide all the
information to the buyer to enable him to insure the goods.
AC
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a) are fit for the purposes for which goods of the same description would ordinarily be used;
b) are fit for any particular purpose expressly or impliedly made known to the seller at the time
of the conclusion of the contract, except where the circumstances show that the buyer did not rely,
or that it was unreasonable for him to rely, on the seller's skill and judgment;
c) possess the qualities of goods which the seller has held out to the buyer as a sample or model;
d) are contained or packaged in the manner usual for such goods or, where there is no such
manner, in a manner adequate to preserve and protect the goods
• The seller is not liable under above paragraphs a-d for any lack of conformity of the goods if at the
time of the conclusion of the contract the buyer knew or could not have been unaware of such lack of
conformity.
• There is no obligation on the seller to sell goods in conformity with all the provisions in force in
the buyer’s state unless:
a) The same provisions are applicable in the seller’s state
b) The buyer made the seller aware about the provisions
c) The seller was aware of the provisions
• The seller is liable for any lack of conformity which exists at the time when the risk passes to the
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buyer, even though the lack of conformity becomes apparent only after that time.
• The seller is also liable for any lack of conformity which occurs after the time indicated in the
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preceding paragraph and which is due to a breach of any of his obligations.
destination.
• The seller must deliver goods which are free from any right or claim of a third party, unless the buyer
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agreed to take the goods subject to that right or claim. However, if such right or claim is based on
industrial property or other intellectual property, the seller's obligation is governed by article 42.
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Intellectual Property:
• Intellectual property is any product of the human intellect that the law protects from unauthorized
use by others.
• Intellectual property is traditionally comprised of three categories: patent, copyright and trademark.
• The seller has the obligation of delivering the goods to the buyer which are free from any claim of a
third party based on industrial or intellectual property. However, if the goods are subject to such
claim then the buyer must have agreed to receive such goods. (Article 42)
Breach of Contract:
• A breach of contract committed by one of the parties is fundamental if it results in such dtermiment to
the other party as substantially to deprive him of what he is entitled to expect under the contract,
unless the party in breach did not foresee and a reasonable person of the same kind in the same
circumstances would not have foreseen such a result. (Article 25).
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obligations, if he can do so without unreasonable delay and without causing the buyer unreasonable
inconvenience or uncertainty. However, the buyer retains any right to claim damages as provided for
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in this Convention.
• The seller can do the above by sending notice to the buyer as a request to let him know whether late
performance would be acceptable.
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Early & Excess Delivery by Seller (Article 52):
• If the seller delivers the goods before the date fixed, the buyer may take delivery or refuse to take
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delivery.
• If the seller delivers a quantity of goods greater than that provided for in the contract, the buyer may
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Avoidance:
A
Reduction of Price:
• Buyer is entitled to reduce price in proportion to the lack of conformity of goods.
• The above remedy can be exercised if the seller does not correct the non-conformity of goods or this
correction is not accepted by the buyer.
Obligation of Buyer:
• The buyer must pay the price for the goods and take delivery of them as required by the contract.
(Article 53)
• The buyer's obligation to pay the price includes taking such steps and complying with such formalities
as may be required under the contract. (Article 54)
• If parties concluded the contract without determining the price then the parties are deemed to have
concluded the price which is generally charged at the time of conclusion of contract. (Article 55)
• If the price is fixed according to the weight of the goods, in case of doubt it is to be determined by the
net weight.(Article 56)
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• If the place of payment of price has not been specified in the contract then:
a) Price will be paid at seller’s place of business or
b) If the payment is to be made at the time of handing over the goods and documents then the place
and time when goods and documents are handed over.
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1. The buyer has committed fundamental breach
2. Buyer has failed to make payment or accept goods in the additional time provided
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3. Buyer has declared not to accept the goods or make payment in the time
• The right of avoidance will be lost if the buyer paid for the goods.
fix a reasonable time within which the buyer may make a different specification.
Damages:
A
• Damages for breach of contract by one party consist of a sum equal to the loss, including loss of profit,
suffered by the other party as a consequence of the breach. (Article 74)
C
• Damages may not exceed the loss which the party in breach foresaw or ought to have foreseen at the
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time of the conclusion of the contract, in the light of the facts known.
• If the contract is avoided and if, within a reasonable time after avoidance, the buyer has bought goods
in replacement or the seller has resold the goods, the party claiming damages may recover the
difference between the contract price and the price in the substitute transaction as well as any further
damages recoverable.
• If, however, the party claiming damages has avoided the contract after taking over the goods, the
current price at the time of such taking over shall be applied instead of the current price at the time of
avoidance.
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Breach of Contract:
• One party's failure to fulfill any of its contractual obligations is known as a "breach" of the contract.
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documents.
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Fundamental Breach (Article 72):
• A fundamental breach is a breach of contract where the offending party fails to complete a contractual
term that was so fundamental (hence the name of the breach) to the contract that another party was
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prevented from fulfilling their own responsibilities.
• If prior to the date for performance of the contract it is clear that one of the parties will commit a
fundamental breach of contract, the other party may declare the contract avoided.
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• If time allows, the party intending to declare the contract avoided must give reasonable notice to the
other party in order to permit him to provide adequate assurance of his performance
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Installment Contract:
• If the failure of one party to perform any of his obligations in respect of any installment constitutes a
A
fundamental breach of contract the other party may declare the contract avoided with respect to that
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installment.
• If one party's failure to perform any of his obligations in respect of any installment gives the other
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party good grounds to conclude that a fundamental breach of contract will occur with respect to
future installments, he may declare the contract avoided for the future.
• A buyer who declares the contract avoided in respect of any delivery may, at the same time, declare it
avoided in respect of deliveries already made or of future deliveries if, by reason of their
interdependence.
Interest:
• If a party fails to pay the price or any other sum that is in arrears, the other party is entitled to interest
on it.
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• If the party's failure is due to the failure by a third person whom he has engaged to perform the whole
or a part of the contract, that party is exempt from liability only if:
a) He is exempt under article 79(1); and
b) The person whom he has so engaged would be so exempt if the provisions of that paragraph were
applied to him.
• The party who fails to perform must give notice to the other party of the impediment and its effect on
his ability to perform. If the notice is not received by the other party within a reasonable time after the
party who fails to perform knew or ought to have known of the impediment, he is liable for damages
resulting from such non-receipt.
• Nothing in this article prevents either party from exercising any right under this Convention other
than to claim damages.
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consequent upon the avoidance of the contract.
• Avoidance does not affect the right of a party to claim restitution from the other party of whatever the
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first party has supplied or paid under the contract.
• The buyer loses the right to declare the contract avoided if it is impossible for him to make restitution
of the goods. (Article 82)
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Preservation of Goods:
• A party which has possession of the goods belonging to the other party, it is under a duty to preserve
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them.
• Following are the situations in which the duty to preserve the goods arises:
G
a) If the buyer has delayed in taking the delivery of the goods or, where payment of the price and
delivery of the goods are to be made concurrently, if he fails to pay the price, and the seller is
either in possession of the goods or otherwise able to control their disposition, the seller must
A
take such steps as are reasonable in the circumstances to preserve them. He is entitled to retain
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them until he has been reimbursed his reasonable expenses by the buyer. (Article 85)
b) If the buyer has received the goods and intends to exercise any right under the contract or this
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Convention to reject them, he must take such steps to preserve them as are reasonable in the
circumstances. He is entitled to retain them until he has been reimbursed his reasonable expenses
by the seller. (Article 86)
c) If goods dispatched to the buyer have been placed at his disposal at their destination and he
exercises the right to reject them, he must take possession of them on behalf of the seller.
d) A party who is bound to take steps to preserve the goods may deposit them in a warehouse of a
third person at the expense of the other party provided that the expense incurred is not
unreasonable. (Article 87)
e) A party who is bound to preserve the goods in accordance with article 85 or 86 may sell them by
any appropriate means if there has been an unreasonable delay by the other party in taking
possession of the goods or in taking them back or in paying the price or the cost of preservation,
provided that reasonable notice of the intention to sell has been given to the other party.
f) If the goods are subject to rapid deterioration or their preservation would involve unreasonable
expense, a party who is bound to preserve the goods must take reasonable measures to sell them.
To the extent possible he must give notice to the other party of his intention to sell.
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Passing of Risk:
• Loss of or damage to the goods after the risk has passed to the buyer does not discharge him from his
obligation to pay the price, unless the loss or damage is due to an act or omission of the seller.( Article
66)
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contract. However, if the circumstances so indicate, the risk is assumed by the buyer from the time
the goods were handed over to the carrier who issued the documents expressing the contract of
carriage.
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• If at the time of the conclusion of the contract of sale the seller knew or ought to have known that the
goods had been lost or damaged and did not disclose this to the buyer, the loss or damage is at the risk
of the seller.
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Situations not involving Transit or Carriage:
• The risk passes to the buyer when he takes over the goods or, if he does not do so in due time, from
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the time when the goods are placed at his disposal and he commits a breach of contract by failing to
take delivery.
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• If the buyer is bound to take over the goods at a place other than a place of business of the seller, the
risk passes when delivery is due and the buyer is aware of the fact that the goods are placed at his
disposal at that place.
A
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which exists at the time when the risk passes to the buyer, even though the lack of conformity
becomes apparent only after that time.
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c) Through Bill of Lading – refers to a contract for transporting goods covering both the
domestic and international transport of export goods between specified points.
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d) Air Waybill – refers to a contract for transporting goods by way of domestic and international
flights to a specified destination. The air waybill is a non-negotiable document and only serves as
a receipt for the shipper.
• A bill of lading has a threefold purpose:
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a) Formal receipt by the ship-owner for goods;
b) Evidence of the contract of carriage; and
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c) Document of title to goods.
• Bills of lading can be either negotiable or non-negotiable.
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• In relation to negotiable bills of lading, ownership to the goods and the right to re-route the
shipment are with the person who has legal ownership of the bill of lading properly issued or
negotiated to it. Negotiable bills of lading are issued to shipper’s order, rather than to a specific,
A
named consignee. If the bill of lading is in negotiable form, the carrier will hold the goods until it
receives an original bill of lading that has been endorsed by the shipper (seller). The exporter must
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endorse the bill of lading and deliver it to the bank in order to receive payment.
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• As regards non-negotiable bills of lading, the carrier is required to deliver the goods only to the
consignee named in the bill of lading. The person to whom the goods are being sent normally needs to
show the bill of lading in order to obtain the release of the goods
Modes of Payment:
• International sales payments are made by International Bank Transfers, Bills Of Exchange and
Letters of Credit.
• International Bank Transfers: Buyer directs his bank in his country to transfer funds to the
seller’s bank in another country. This is done electronically.
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payment order. A payment order issued for the purpose of effecting payment for such an order is
considered to be part of a different credit transfer.
• Article 2 of the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Credit Transfers contains the following
definitions:
1. Originator means the issuer of the first payment order in a credit transfer and may include the
sender and the sender’s bank.
2. Sender means the person who issues a payment order, including the originator and any
intermediary bank involved in the passage of the credit transfer.
3. Receiving bank means a bank which receives a payment order and may include the
beneficiary’s bank or any intermediary bank involved in the series of transactions facilitating the
credit transfer.
• Payment order means an unconditional instruction, in any form, by a sender to a receiving bank to
place at the disposal of a beneficiary a fixed or determinable amount of money if:
1. The receiving bank is to be reimbursed by debiting an account of, or otherwise receiving payment
from, the sender, and
2. The instruction does not provide that payment is to be made at the request of the beneficiary.
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Article 3 - Conditional instructions
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• When an instruction is not a payment order because it is subject to a condition but a bank that has
received the instruction executes it by issuing an unconditional payment order, it then becomes a full
credit transfer.
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Applicability of Model law:
• According to Article 4 the applicability of the Model law in relation to the rights and obligations of
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parties in relation to credit transfers may be varied by their agreement. Therefore the application of
Model Law is not mandatory.
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accepts it, but payment is not due until the beginning of the execution period.
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• What this provides is that if the bank accepts a transfer after carrying reasonable authorization
procedures, then the sender will be required to honour the payment.
• The assumption is that, in the case of an electronic payment order, the receiving bank decides the
authentication procedures it is prepared to implement. Consequently, the bank bears all the risk of an
unauthorised payment order where it has not required and operated ‘commercially reasonable’
authentication procedures. Article 5(3) goes on to provide that the protection offered to the sender
cannot be avoided by any agreement to the contrary.
• Article 5.4 of the model law considerably narrows the protection afforded to the receiving bank by
providing that it does not apply where the supposed sender can prove that the payment order did not
originate from either:
1. A present or former employee of theirs, or
2. A person whose relationship with them enabled that person to gain access to the authentication
procedure.
• If the receiving bank can show that the authentication procedure was revealed to the unauthorized
sender through the fault of the sender themselves, then once again the purported sender will be liable
to honour the payment.
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Article 6 - Payment to receiving bank:
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• Payment of the sender's obligation under article 5(6) to pay the receiving bank occurs by making debit
to the account of the sender held by the receiving bank.
• In another case an account of the sender bank is maintained by the receiving bank and the payment
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can be made by the sending bank by crediting the receiving bank account.
• Receiving bank can also net the obligations of the sending bank with other obligations. This can be
done by a bilateral netting agreement between the receiver and the sender bank.
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• A receiving bank that accepts a payment order is obligated under that payment order to issue a
payment order, within the time required by article 11, either to the beneficiary's bank or to an
intermediary bank that is consistent with the contents of the payment order. (Article 8(2))
A
• The beneficiary's bank is, upon acceptance of a payment order, obligated to place the funds at the
C
disposal of the beneficiary or otherwise to apply the credit, in accordance with the payment order.
Article 10(1)
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• Payment order may be accepted by the receiving bank in some other way before it executes it:
a) The payment order is accepted when it is received by the receiving bank.
b) The receiving bank upon accepting the payment order will debit the account of the sender.
• A receiving bank that is obligated to execute a payment order is obligated to do so on the banking day
it is received. If it does not, it shall do so on the banking day after the order is received. (Article 11).
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Bills of Exchange:
A bill of exchange is an order in writing by one person to another to pay a specified sum to a specified
person or bearer on a particular date. A bill of exchange is a substitute for money. Consequently, a bill of
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exchange can be understood as a form of commercial credit instrument, or IOU, used in international
trade. A bill of exchange may be stated to be payable on demand or at a given time on presentation. A
cheque is a bill of exchange drawn on a banker, payable on demand.
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The following terms apply:
a) The person making the order or drawing the bill is known as the drawer.
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b) The person to whom the bill is addressed is the drawee (for example a bank).
c) The person to whom the bill is payable is the payee.
d) The person to whom a bill is transferred by indorsement is called the indorsee.
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e) The generic term ‘holder’ includes any person in possession of a bill who holds it either as payee,
endorsee or bearer.
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f) A bill which in its origin is payable to order becomes payable to bearer if it is indorsed in blank
• If the drawee assents to the order, he is then called the acceptor. An acceptance must be in writing
and must be signed by the drawee.
A
• The mere signature of the drawee is sufficient. By the acceptance of a bill, the drawee becomes the
C
principal debtor on the instrument and the party primarily liable to pay it.
• Acceptance may be either general or qualified.
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• As a qualified acceptance is so far a disregard of the drawer’s order, the holder is not obliged to
take it; and if he chooses to take it, he must give notice to antecedent parties, acting at his own
risk if they dissent.
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a) Contains an unconditional order whereby the drawer directs the drawee to pay a definite sum
of money to the payee or to their order;
b) Is payable on demand or at a definite time;
c) Is dated;
d) Is signed by the drawer.
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• It should be noted that the Convention does not apply to international cheques.
• If there exists an error in the amount to payable in words or in figures then the one expressed
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in words is deemed to payable by instrument. (Article 8(1))
• If the bill states that interest is to be paid with sum and the exact date of the payment of
interest is not mentioned then the interest is to be paid from the date of the bill. (Article 8(4))
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Payment of Bill:
• A bill is said to be payable on demand if it is payable at sight or presentation or demand or even if no
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time of payment is mentioned.
• The time for payment is the date on which the bill is presented for payment.
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• A bill may be accepted before, at or after maturity, or after it has been dishonoured by non-
acceptance or by non-payment. (Article 42)
• An acceptance must be unqualified. An acceptance is qualified if it is conditional or varies the
terms of the bill. (Article 43)
• If the drawee stipulates in the bill that his acceptance is subject to qualification (Article 43):
a) He is nevertheless bound according to the terms of his qualified acceptance;
b) The bill is dishonored by non-acceptance.
• A bill may be presented for acceptance. (Article 49 (1))
• A bill must be presented for acceptance: (Article 49 (2))
a) If the drawer has stipulated in the bill that it must be presented for acceptance;
b) If the bill is payable at a fixed period after sight; or
c) If the bill is payable elsewhere than at the residence or place of business of the drawee, unless
it is payable on demand.
• A bill is duly presented for acceptance if it is presented in accordance with the following rules
(Article 51):
a) The holder must present the bill to the drawee on a business day at a reasonable hour;
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b) Presentment for acceptance may be made to a person or authority other than the drawee if
that person or authority is entitled under the applicable law to accept the bill;
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c) If a bill is payable on a fixed date, presentment for acceptance must be made before or on that
date;
d) A bill payable on demand or at a fixed period after sight must be presented for acceptance
within one year of its date;
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e) A bill in which the drawer has stated a date or time-limit for presentment for acceptance must
be presented on the stated date or within the stated time-limit.
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• If a bill which must be presented for acceptance is not so presented, the drawer, the endorsers
and their guarantors are not liable on the bill.(Article 53(1))
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• Failure to present a bill for acceptance does not discharge the guarantor of the drawee of liability
on the bill. (Article 53(2))
• Article 54: A bill is considered to be dishonoured by non-acceptance:
A
a) If the drawee, upon due presentment, expressly refuses to accept the bill or acceptance cannot
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be obtained with reasonable diligence or if the holder cannot obtain the acceptance to which
he is entitled under this Convention.
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The Guarantor:
1. Payment of an instrument, whether or not it has been accepted, may be guaranteed, as to the whole or
part of its amount, for the account of a party or the drawee. A guarantee may be given by any person,
who may or may not already be a party. (Article 46(1))
2. A guarantee must be written on the instrument or on a slip affixed thereto ("allonge"). (Article 46(2))
3. A guarantor may specify the person for whom he has become guarantor. In the absence of such
specification, the person for whom he has become guarantor is the acceptor or the drawee in the case
of a bill, and the maker in the case of a note. Article 46(5)
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4. Article 47: The liability of a guarantor on the instrument is of the same nature as that of the party for
whom he has become guarantor.
5. Article 48(2): The guarantor who pays the instrument may recover from the party for whom he has
become guarantor and from the parties who are liable on it to that party the amount paid and any
interest.
Endorsement:
• Endorsement relates to the way in which international bills of exchange are transferred and in effect it
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allows the original payee of the instrument to transfer the benefit of it to some other party by signing
it.
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• Article 13 of the UN Convention on International Bills of Exchange and International Promissory
Notes provides a bill of exchange is transferred either by:
a) endorsement and delivery of the instrument by the endorser to the endorsee; or
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b) mere delivery of the instrument if the last endorsement is in blank.
• By virtue of Article 14, an endorsement must be written on the instrument attached to it. Any such
endorsement may be:
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a) in blank, that is, by a signature alone or by a signature accompanied by a statement to the effect
that the instrument is payable to a person in possession of it;
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b) special, that is, by a signature accompanied by an indication of the person to whom the
instrument is payable.
• A signature alone, other than that of the drawee, is an endorsement only if placed on the back of the
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instrument.
• An endorsement must be unconditional and in the light of any conditional endorsement, the bill of
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exchange will still be transferred whether or not the condition is fulfilled (Article 18).
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• An endorsement must relate to the entire sum of the bills or it is ineffective (Article 19). If there are
two or more endorsements, it is presumed, unless the contrary is proved, that each endorsement was
made in the order in which it appears on the instrument (Article 20).
• An instrument may be transferred in accordance with Article 13 after maturity, except by the drawee,
the acceptor or the maker (Article 23).
• Under Article 17(1), a bill cannot be transferred if the bill or an endorsement on the bill contains
words such as not negotiable/not transferable/not to order/pay x only.
• Under Article 25, if an endorsement is forged, the person whose endorsement is forged, or a party
who signed the instrument before the forgery, has the right to recover compensation for any damage
which they may have suffered because of the forgery.
• This right may be exercised against: (a) the person who forged the endorsement; (b) the person to
whom the instrument was directly transferred by the forger; (c) a party or the drawee who paid the
instrument to the forger directly or through one or more endorsees for collection.
• However, an endorsee for collection is not liable if they have no knowledge of the forgery:
a) at the time they pay the principal or advises them of the receipt of payment; or
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b) at the time they receive payment, if this is later, unless their lack of knowledge is due to their
failure to act in good faith or to exercise reasonable care.
The endorser
• Article 44: The endorser engages that upon dishonour of the instrument by non-acceptance or by
non-payment, and upon any necessary protest, he will pay the instrument to the holder, or to any
subsequent endorser or any endorser's guarantor who takes up and pays the instrument.
• Article 45(1): Unless otherwise agreed, a person who transfers an instrument, by endorsement and
delivery or by mere delivery, represents to the holder to whom he transfers the instrument that:
a) The instrument does not bear any forged or unauthorized signature;
b) The instrument has not been materially altered;
c) At the time of transfer, he has no knowledge of any fact which would impair the right of the
transferee to payment of the instrument against the acceptor of a bill or, in the case of an
unaccepted bill, the drawer, or against the maker of a note.
Holder: The holder of a bill of exchange, promissory note, or check is the person who has legally
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acquired the possession of the same, from a person capable of transferring it, by indorsement or delivery,
and who is entitled to receive payment of the instrument from the party or parties liable to meet it.
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• Article 15(1): A person is a holder if he is:
a) The payee in possession of the instrument; or
b) In possession of an instrument which has been endorsed to him, or on which the last
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endorsement is in blank, and on which there appears an uninterrupted series of endorsements,
even if any endorsement was forged or was signed by an agent without authority.
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• (Article 16)The holder of an instrument on which the last endorsement is in blank may:
a) Further endorse it either by an endorsement in blank or by a special endorsement;
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b) Convert the blank endorsement into a special endorsement by indicating in the endorsement that
the instrument is payable to himself or to some other specified person; or
c) Transfer the instrument by delivery: Article 13(b)
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Rights of holder:
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• The holder of an instrument has all the rights conferred on him by this Convention against the parties
to the instrument.
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• The holder may transfer the rights in accordance with article 13.
• Article 31:The transfer of an instrument by a protected holder vests in any subsequent holder the
rights to and on the instrument which the protected holder had.
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• If an instrument is not duly presented for payment, the drawer, the endorsers and their guarantors
are not liable on it.(Article 57)
Protest:
Article 60:A protest is a statement of dishonour drawn up at the place where the instrument has been
dishonoured and signed and dated by a person authorized in that respect by the law of that place. The
statement must specify:
a) The person at whose request the instrument is protested;
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b) The place of protest;
c) The demand made and the answer given, if any, or the fact that the drawee or the acceptor or the
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maker could not be found.
• A protest may be made on the instrument or on a slip affixed thereto ("allonge"); or on a separate
document.
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• Article 61: Protest for dishonour of an instrument must be made on the day on which the
instrument is dishonoured or on one of the four business days which follow.
• Article 63: If an instrument which must be protested for non-acceptance or for non-payment is
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not duly protested, the drawer, the endorsers and their guarantors are not liable on it.
• Article 64: The holder, upon dishonour of an instrument by non-acceptance or by non-payment,
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entitled to receive it, he is liable for any damages which that party may suffer from such failure.
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Amount payable
• Article 69(1). The holder may exercise his rights on the instrument against any one party, or several or
all parties, liable on it and is not obliged to observe the order in which the parties have become bound.
Any party who takes up and pays the instrument may exercise his rights in the same manner against
parties liable to him.
• Article 70: After maturity the amount payable to holder of the instrument is the amount with interest,
if interest has been stipulated for, to the date of maturity at the rate stipulated for plus any interest
expenses of protest.
• The bill which on which the amount is paid before maturity often entails discount from the date
payment was made to the date of maturity.
• Article 71: A party who pays an instrument and is thereby discharged in whole or in part of his liability
on the instrument may recover from the parties liable to him:
a) The entire sum which he has paid;
b) Interest on that sum from the date on which he made payment;
c) Any expenses of the notices given by him
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• Article 75: An instrument must be paid in the currency in which the sum payable is expressed.
• Article 72: A party is discharged of liability on the instrument when he pays the holder, or a party
subsequent to himself who has paid the instrument and is in possession of it, the amount due:
a) At or after maturity; or
b) Before maturity, upon dishonour by non-acceptance.
Letters of Credit
• A letter of credit is an undertaking by a bank to make a payment to a named beneficiary within a
specified time, against the presentation of documents which comply strictly with the terms of the
letter of credit.
• The parties to a letter of credit are:
i. the buyer (the applicant)
ii. the buyer’s bank (the issuer)
iii. the beneficiary (the seller/payee)
iv. the beneficiary’s bank.
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• A letter of credit is opened by an importer (applicant). The terms of the underlying sales contract may
be made conditions of the letter of credit, in order to ensure that the seller has performed as required
under that contract before they can receive payment
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• The issuing bank has two main roles. First it provides security for the seller. Thus, it promises the
seller that if compliant documents are presented, the bank will pay the seller the amount due.
However, it also provides a measure of security for the buyer as it undertakes to examine the
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documents, and only pay if they comply with the terms and conditions set out in the letter of credit.
• The main advantage of letters of credit in international trade is that they provide security to both the
exporter and the importer.
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• The risk of non-payment by the buyer rests with the issuing bank.
• As far as the exporter is concerned the letter of credit, apart from cash in advance, is the most secure
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method of payment in international trade as long as the terms of the credit are met.
• Most letters of credit are subject to the terms of the International Chamber of Commerce’s Uniform
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Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (UCP 500), which are the universally recognized set of
rules governing the use of the documentary credits in international trade.
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Revocable:
• A revocable letter of credit can be amended or cancelled at any time by the importer without the
exporter’s agreement.
Irrevocable:
• An irrevocable letter of credit cannot be amended or cancelled without the agreement of all
parties to the credit.
Unconfirmed
• An unconfirmed letter of credit is forwarded by the advising bank directly to the exporter without
adding its own undertaking to make payment or accept responsibility for payment at a future
date, but confirming its authenticity.
Confirmed
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• A confirmed letter of credit is one in which the advising bank, on the instructions of the issuing
bank, has added a confirmation that payment will be made as long as compliant documents are
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presented, even if the issuing bank or the buyer fails to make payment.
• This type of letter of credit is used where there are regular shipments of the same commodity to
the same importer and is used to avoid the need to be continually opening or amending letters of
credit.
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• A transferable letter of credit is one in which the exporter has the right to request the paying, or
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negotiating, bank to make either all or part of the payment due to a third party who was not a
party to the original contract, for example the actual supplier of the goods that are the subject of
the international contract.
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Letters of Comfort
• A parent company may be unable or unwilling to guarantee the borrowings of its subsidiary but it
might be prepared to issue a “comfort letter” to the lenders.
• A comfort letter is normally a letter given by a parent company to a lender whereby the parent
company undertakes certain limited responsibilities but it falls short of being a guarantee. Sometimes
comfort letters specifically provide that they are not intended to be legally binding. However absent
such a provision, in a commercial context there will normally be little doubt that a comfort letter is
intended to create legal relations. Accordingly, in establishing what avenues of recourse are available
to the lenders in the event of a breach of the undertaking in the comfort letter by the parent, the
question will normally be one of interpretation as to what the comfort letter means.
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A
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Agency Law
The law of agency is an area of commercial law dealing with a set of contractual, quasi-contractual and
non-contractual relationships that involve a person, called the agent, that is authorized to act on behalf of
another (called the principal) to create a legal relationship with a third party.[1]. This branch of law
separates and regulates the relationships between:
• Agents and principals;
• Agents and the third parties with whom they deal on their principals' behalf; and
• Principals and the third parties when the agents purport to deal on their behalf.
A asks B to get car repaired. B acts as A’s agent in making a contract between A and the garage person.
Types of Agent:
a) Partners: Partners in a partnership firm at as agents of each other.
b) Company Directors: They work on behalf of the company as its agent.
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c) Promoters: Person who undertakes to form a company.
d) Factor: A person who buys or sells goods on behalf of another person. Also called a mercantile agent.
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e) Brokers: They are intermediaries who arrange contracts or meeting foe commission as payment.
f) Auctioneers: Person who act as agents to auction another person’s property.
ii) Agent by Estoppel: An agency that is not created as an actual agency by a principal and an
agent but that is imposed by law when a principal acts in such a way as to lead a third party to
reasonably believe that another is the principal's agent and the third party is injured by relying on
and acting in accordance with that belief
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A principal has a duty to correct a third party's mistaken belief in an agent's authority to act on
the principal's behalf. If the principal could have corrected the misunderstanding but failed to do
so, he or she is estopped from denying the existence of the agency and is bound by the agent's acts
in dealing with the third party. To rely on agency by estoppel, there must have been a
representation by the principal as to the authority of the agent (Freeman and Lockyer v
Buckhurst Park Properties Ltd (1964)) and the party seeking to rely on it must have relied
on the representation.
iii) Agent by Necessity: The usual situation which gives rise to agency by necessity occurs where
the agent is in possession of the principal’s property and, due to some unforeseen emergency, the
agent has to take action to safeguard that property.
• In order for agency by necessity to arise, there needs to be a:
a) Genuine emergency (Great Northern Railway Co v Swaffield (1874)) and
b) There must also be no practical way of obtaining further instructions from the
principal (Springer v Great Western Railway Co (1921)).
c) The person seeking to establish the agency by necessity must have acted bona fide in the
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interests of the principal (Sachs v Miklos (1948)).
d) The person acting as an agent of necessity must have some existing contractual
relationship with the principal.
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Authority of the Agent
•
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Agreement binding only if the agent acts within the limits of his authority.
• Three kinds of Agent’s Authority:
i) Express Authority:
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Express actual authority means an agent has been expressly told he or she may act on behalf
of a principal.
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being reasonably necessary to carry out his express authority. As such, it can be inferred by
virtue of a position held by an agent. For example, partners have authority to bind the other
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• Watteau v Fenwick
The manager, bought cigars from a third party who later sued the owners for payment as
the manager’s principal. It was held that the purchase of cigars was within the usual
authority of a manager of such an establishment and that for a limitation on such usual
authority to be effective it must be communicated to any third party
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b) Where the principal has revoked the agent’s authority but the third party has not had
notice of this: Willis Faber & co v Joyce.
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i) Principal or agent dies
ii) Principal or agent becomes insane
iii) Principal or agent becomes bankrupt
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• Third parties are allowed to enforce contracts made later by agent until they are actively or
constructively informed of the termination of the agency relationship.
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Personal Liability of Agent:
It arises in three situations:
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a) Where he intended to take personal liability
b) Where there exists common practice or custom that he would be personally liable.
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• An agent who enters into a contract with a third party (for and on behalf of a principal) by implication
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warrants that he or she has the authority to do so. If this is not the case, the third party has the right
to sue the agent for breach of warranty of authority.
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Partnership
Definition of Partnership:
• “It is the relation which subsists between persons carrying on business in common with a view of
profit.”
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it the following advantages:
i) It overrides the implied terms of the Partnership Act.
ii) It can include the clause of the expulsion of partners.
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Authority and Liability of Partners in Relation to Partnership Activity:
• Partners are jointly liable for all the partnership debts that result from the contracts made by other
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partners which bind the firm. Each Partner is agent of the firm and partners are jointly liable for the
acts of their fellow partners so far as they bind the firm unless the partner so acting
i) Has no authority to act for the firm
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ii) The third party knows that he has no authority
• Furthermore the act specifically states that where the partner of the firm specifically pledges the
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credit of the firm for a purpose which has no connection with the firm’s ordinary business, the firm
will not bound unless he has express authority to do so.
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• If authority of the partner is terminated, it will only be effective if the third party has had notice of it.
• Authority of the partner mostly depends upon the perception of the third party.
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• New partner is only liable for the debts of the firm incurred after his inclusion.
• A retiring partner remains liable for the debts of the firm even after he has retired.
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Partner’s Liability:
a) New Partners: Partner is only liable for the debts of the partnership firm which are incurred after
his date of admission as a partner.
b) Retired partners: A retiring partner is only liable for debts which were incurred while he was a
partner.
Partnership Charge:
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• Partnership cannot grant floating charge but I can grant fixed charge or mortgage.
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• Limited liability partnership (LLP) is a partnership in which some or all partners (depending on
the jurisdiction) have limited liability. ba
• LLP’S are created under Limited Liability Partnership Act 2000. LLp’s are similar to limited
companies in that they have a separate legal identity and unlimited liability for debts but the liability
of the individual partners is limited to the amount of their capital contribution.
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• The main difference between an LLP and companies is that the former have less statutory rules and
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they require no board of directors. All contracts with the third parties will be with the LLP.
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i) Formation: LLP can be formed by anyone but it must be incorporated in order for it to
come into existence. LLP’s have an unlimited number of partners.
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ii) External Relationships: Every member agent of the LLP. Where the member has
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LLP will not be bound where: A member has no authority and ceased to be a member
and third party is aware of these facts.
iii) How can a Limited Liability Partnership brought to an End?: LLp does not dissolve
when the member leaves or dies. LLP must be wound up when the time has come for it to be
dissolved.
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• Has limited resources. Banks are reluctant to grant loans to single proprietorship considering its
small assets and high mortality rate.
• Unlimited liability for business debts. The single owner is responsible for paying all debts and
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damages of his business.
• If the firm fails, creditors may force the sale of the proprietor's personal property as well as his
business property to satisfy their claim.
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The Concept of Company’s Separate Legal personality Legal Identity
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• Legal personality (also artificial personality, juridical personality, and juristic personality) is the
characteristic of a non-living entity regarded by law to have the status of personhood.
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• A legal person (Latin: persona ficta) (also artificial person, juridical person, juristic person, and body
corporate) has a legal name and has rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities, and liabilities
under law, just as natural persons (humans) do. The concept of a legal person is a fundamental legal
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fiction.
• Liability of the members to contribute to the debts of the entity is significantly limited.
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Types of Corporations:
1. Corporation Sole:
Public office (created usually by an act of parliament) or ecclesiastical office (usually the owner of
church land) that has a separate and continuing legal existence, and only one member (the sole
officeholder).
2. Chartered Corporations:
These are charities or bodies formed by the Royal Charter.
3. Statutory Corporations:
The statutory companies are also known as statutory corporations or public corporations,
these are actually public bodies established and operated by Statute.
4. Registered Companies:
Companies formed under the Companies Act 2006.
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5. Community Interest Companies:
These are formed by social enterprises for the benefit of the community. These are established by
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the Companies (Audit, Investigations and Community Enterprise) Act 2004 and regulated by
The Community Interest Company Regulations 2005.
Types of Companies:
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a) Liability Limited by Shares
• "Limited by shares" means that the company has shareholders, and that the liability of the
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shareholders to creditors of the company is limited to the capital originally invested, i.e. the
nominal value of the shares and any premium paid in return for the issue of the shares by the
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company.
• A shareholder's personal assets are thereby protected in the event of the company's insolvency,
but money invested in the company will be lost.
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• A guarantee company does not usually have a share capital or shareholders, but instead has
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members who act as guarantors. The guarantors give an undertaking to contribute a nominal
amount (typically very small) in the event of the winding up of the company.
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• Private company which is converted into a public company will not be permitted to trade until it
has a allotted minimum share capital of 50,000 pounds out of which only a quarter of its nominal
has to be paid and whole of its premium.
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ii) Dealing in Shares
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Public company can obtain listing for its shares on the stock exchange.
iii) Accounts:
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a) Pubic company has six months to produce its statutory audited accounts and private company has
nine months.
b) Listed public company must publish its full accounts and reports on website.
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c) Public companies must lay their accounts before the general meeting annually but no such
requirement for private company.
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Additional Classifications:
• Parent ( Holding) and subsidiary companies:
A company will be a parent company of its subsidiary if:
i) It holds majority voting rights
ii) It has majority in the subsidiary and can exercise dominant control over the subsidiary
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Salmon v Salmon
The Claimant S had carried on his business. He decieded to form a limited company to purchase the
business so he and six other members of his family each subscribed for shares of the company. The
limited company then purchased Claimants business for 38,782 pounds. The Claimant was paid 8,782
pounds in cash by the company. Further, 1 pound of 20,000 shares were issued to him and debentures of
10,000 pounds were also issued.The company did not prosper and its liabilities exceeded its assets. The
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liquidator stated that company’s business was still in actual claimants and he himself should bear the
liabilities of the debts and payments of debentures to him should be postponed until the company’s
creditors are paid.
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House of lords held that the business was owned by and its debts were liabilities of the company. The
claimant was under no liability to the company or its crediotrs, his debentures were validly issued and the
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security created by them over the company’s assets was effective. This was because company was a legal
entity separate and distinct from S.
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What is a Veil of Incorporation and its purpose?
• As a result of the Salmon’s case a veil of incorporation is said to be drawn between the members and
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the company separating them for the purposes of liability and identification.
• The main instances for lifting veil are to enforce law, prevent evasion of obligations.
Under UK insolvency law,[1] wrongful trading occurs when the directors of a company have continued to
trade a company past the point when they:
a) "knew, or ought to have concluded that there was no reasonable prospect of avoiding insolvent
liquidation"; and
b) they did not take "every step with a view to minimising the potential loss to the company’s creditors".
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• Wrongful trading is an action that can be taken only by a company's liquidator, once it has gone
into insolvent liquidation. (This may be either a voluntary liquidation - known as Creditors
Voluntary Liquidation, or compulsory liquidation). It is not available to the directors of a
company while it continues in existence, or to other insolvency office-holders such as an
administrator. Court may order such directors to make a contribution to the company’s assets sec
214 of the Insolvency Act 1986.
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• Directors who are disqualified under the Directors disqualification Act 1986 and still participate in the
affairs of the company’s management will be jointly liable along with the company for the company’s
debts.
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How can Directors be held Liable for Abusing the Company Names:
• It is a criminal offence under the Insolvency Act sec 217 and directors are held personally liable
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where; they are a director of a company that goes into solvent liquidation and they become involved
with the directing, managing or promoting of a business which has an identical name to the original
company or a name similar enough to suggest a connection.
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stipulated (clause 9) not to solicit customers of the company if he were to leave employment of Gilford
Motor Co. Mr. Horne was fired, thereafter he set up his own business and undercut Gilford Motor Co's
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prices. He received legal advice saying that he was probably acting in breach of contract. So he set up a
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company, JM Horne & Co Ltd, in which his wife and a friend called Mr. Howard were the sole
shareholders and directors. They took over Horne’s business and continued it. Mr. Horne sent out fliers
saying,
“ Spares and service for all models of Gilford vehicles. 170 Hornsey Lane, Highgate, N. 6. Opposite
Crouch End Lane... No connection with any other firm. ”
The company had no such agreement with Gilford Motor about not competing, however Gilford Motor
brought an action alleging that the company was used as an instrument of fraud to conceal Mr Horne's
illegitimate actions.
Held. An injunction requiring observance of the covenant would be made both against the defendant and
the company which he had formed as a mere cloak or sham.
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Avoidance of Tax:
Pubic Interest:
If in times of war with the enemy the court may life the viel of incorporation to determine if the company
is being controlled by aliens.
Quasi Partnership:
Many small companies are regarded by the law as 'quasi-partnerships' - in other words, they are, in effect,
small partnerships of a limited number of individuals which, although operating as a limited company,
are in practical terms run as if they were a partnership between those individuals at the helm.
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Concept of Separate legal Personality in Group Companies and Lifting the
Veil in Group Situations
Companies even in groups retain their status of separate legal personalities. In the case of Adams v Cape
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Industries Plc three situations were stated under which the courts would consider the group as one and
then lift the veil of incorporation. The three reasons are:
1. The subsidiary is acting as the agent of the holding company
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2. The group is to be treated as a single economic entity
3. The corporate structure is sham or façade.
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• Some of the major distinction between partnership and a company are as follows:
1. Regulating Act: A company is regulated by Companies Act, 2006, while a partnership firm is
governed by the Partnership Act, 1890.
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2. Registration: A company cannot come into existence unless it is registered, whereas for a
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3. Liability: In case of company the liability of shareholders is limited (except in case of unlimited
companies) to the extent of face value of shares or to the extent of guarantee, whereas, in case of
partnership the liability of partners is unlimited.
4. Management: The affairs of a company are managed by its directors. Its members have no right
to take part in the day to day management. On the other hand every partner of a firm has a right
to participate in the management of the business unless the partnership deed provides otherwise.
5. Capital: The share capital of a company can be increased or decreased only in accordance with
the provisions of the Companies Act, whereas partners can alter the amount of their capital by
mutual agreement.
6. Legal Status: A company has a separate legal status distinct from its shareholders, while a
partnership firm has no legal existence distinct from its partners.
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7. Transfer of Interest: Shares in a public company are freely transferable from one person to
another person. In private company the right to transfer shares is restricted, while a partner
cannot transfer his interest to others without the consent of other partners.
9. Winding up: A company comes to an end only when it is wound up according to the provisions
of the Companies Act. A firm is dissolved by an agreement or by the order of court. It is also
automatically dissolved on the insolvency of a partner.
10. Books: The provisions of Companies Act, 2006 have their bearing on the preparation of accounts
books of a company but in case of firm there is no specific legal direction to this effect.
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case of a firm.
12. Authority of Members: A shareholder is not an agent of a company and has no power to bind
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the company by his acts. A partner is an agent of a firm. He can enter into contracts with
outsiders and incur liabilities so long as he acts in the ordinary course of firm’s business.
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13. Commencement of Business: A company has to comply with various legal formalities and has
to file various documents with the Registrar of Companies before the commencement of business
while a firm is not required to fulfill legal formalities.
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Company Formation
Definition of a Promoter
Person who forms a company is called a promoter. It includes anyone who makes business preparations
for the company.
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company, provided they disclose it.
b) Wrongful profit is when the promoter enters into and makes a profit personally in a contract as a
promoter. Promoters are in breach of their fiduciary duty if they make wrongful profit.
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How can a Promoter Claim Pre-Incorporation Expenses?
• The expenses in preparations such as drafting and legal documents cannot be obtained as an
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automatic right but they may agree with company that it shall reimburse them.
• Pre-incorporation contract cannot be ratified by the company as a company cannot ratify a contract
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made on its behalf before it was incorporated.
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Contracts
Various ways for promoters to avoid liability for a pre-incorporation contract:
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Concept of an Off the Shelf Company and its Advantages and Disadvantages
It is a company which was created and left with no activity - metaphorically put on the "shelf" to "age".
The company can then be sold to a person or group of persons who wish to start a company without going
through all the procedures of creating a new one.
Disadvantages:
i) Directors may have to amend the model articles
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ii) They may want to change the name of the company
iii) The subscriber shares will need to be transferred and the transfer recorded in the register of
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members. Stamp duty will be payable
iii) If the share capital of a public company falls below 50,000 pounds then it must re-register as a
private company.
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• Public companies must obtain a registrar’s trading certificate before commencement of business.
• Private company can commence its business immediately after obtaining certificate of incorporation.
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Statutory Records
Statutory Books
Some documents including the constitution, register of members, charges and directors must be kept at
its registered office or at single alternative inspection location.
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It must contain:
i) Details of fixed or floating charges
ii) Description of property charged
iii) Amount of charge
iv) Name of person entitled to charge
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Where a company is a Director, the Register of Directors must Contain:
i) The corporate or firm name
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ii) Its registered or principal office
sets out the basis for the director's employment by the company, and regulates his role
as a director. Examples of common executive director posts, in respect of which this director service
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contract template may be suitable for use, include finance directors, operations directors and
managing directors.
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Accounting Records:
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• Company is required to keep accounting records sufficient to show and explain the company’s
transactions. At any time it should be possible to disclose the companies financial position within six
months and for directors to ensure that any accounts required to be prepared comply with the Act.
• Accounting records to be kept for 3 years in case of private company and six years in case of public
company.
• Accounting records should be kept at company’s registered office.
Annual Accounts
Public companies must file their annual accounts with six months of their financial year end and the
period for private companies is nine months.
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Constitution of a Company
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ii) Resolutions and Agreements that it makes that affects the constitution.
Articles of Association
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• The Articles of Association is a document that contains the purpose of the company as well as the
duties and responsibilities of its members defined and recorded clearly. It is an important document
which needs to be filed with the Registrar of companies.
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Models of Articles
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• The Secretary of State provides its own model articles which can be incorporated provided a company
fails to register its own articles. Different models are available for different types of company; most
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• The amendment is the articles can only be allowed if it is for the benefit of the company as a whole.
• The articles may be amended by a special resolution i.e 75 percent. Copies of the amended articles
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must be sent to the Registrar within 15 days of the amendment taking effect.
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ii) Minority is entitled to protection against an alteration which is intended to benefit the
majority rather than the company and which is unjustifiable discrimination against the
minority.
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Expulsion of Minorities ba
Expulsion cases are concerned with;
a) Alteration of articles for the purpose of removing a director from office
b) Alteration of the articles to permit a majority of members to enforce a transfer to themselves of a
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shareholding of a minority
• The action to achieve expulsion will be treated as valid even if discriminatory if it is
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beneficial for the company. However, if the majority blatantly seeks to secure an
advantage to themselves by their discrimination, the alteration made to the articles
by their voting control of the company will be invalid.
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• Shuttleworth v Cox Bros & Co Held: Expulsion of director who had failed to account for the
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• Sidebottom v Kershaw, leese & Co The company's articles were changed to allow for the
compulsory purchase of shares of any shareholder who was competing with the company. One
shareholder was competing with the company and challenged the alteration.Held: The Court of
Appeal held that the article alteration was clearly valid, and very much for the benefit of the
company. The important question was whether the alteration for the benefit of the company as a
whole.
• Brown v British Abrasive Wheel Co The company needed to raise further capital. The 98%
majority were willing to provide this capital if they could buy up the 2% minority. Having failed to
effect this buying agreement, the 98% purposed to change the articles of association to give them
the power to purchase the shares of the minority. The proposed article provided for the
compulsory purchase of the minority’s shares on certain terms. However, the majority were
prepared to insert a provision regarding price which stated that the minority would get a price
which the court thought was fair.Held; That the alteration was invalid since it was merely for the
benefit of the majority.
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Filing of Alteration
• Any alteration made to the articles the copy of altered articles must be delivered to the Registrar
within 15 days together with the signed copy of the special resolution making the alteration.
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Capacity and Ultra Vires
• If directors permit an act which is restricted by the company’s objects then the act is ultra vires.
• Ashbury Railway Carriage & Iron co ltd v Riche Held: Constructing a railway was not within the
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company’s objects so the company did not have the capacity to enter into the contract.
memorandum.
This section provides safeguards for a person dealing with a company in good faith and restates
section 35A and 35B of the 1985 Act. The power of the directors to bind the company, or authorise
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others to do so, is deemed not to be constrained by the company’s constitution. This means that a
third party dealing with a company in good faith need not concern itself about whether a company is
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• Whether or not the contract is avoided, the party and any authorizing director is liable to repay any
profit they made or make good any losses that result from such a contract.
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In England and Wales and Northern Ireland it is of the nature of an ordinary contract debt.
Company name:
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Name of the Company must comply with the following rules:
a) It should end with the words Plc or ltd
b) Company must not have a name similar to any other company
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c) No company must have a name which is offensive, sensitive or depicts a criminal offence
d) Approval if required if the name of the company is similar to that of the government department.
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How can a company Change its Name:
Can change its name by:
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i) Passing a resolution
ii) By any other means provided in the articles
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• A company can be prevented by an injunction issued by the court in a passing-off action from using its
registered name.
• Ewing v Butter Cup Margarine: Claimant traded as The Butter Cup Dairy Co and the Defendant as
Buttercup Margarine Co ltd. It was held that an injunction would be granted to restrain the
defendants from the use of its name since the Claimant had an established connection under the
Buttercup name.
• If two companies business is different confusion is not likely to occur. Injunction will not be granted.(
Dunlop Pnemumatic Tyre Co ltd v Dunlop Motor Co Ltd)
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Share Capital
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subscribe to the shares of the company as a trustee of the deceased or bankrupt member of the
company.
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Ceasing of the Membership
Following are methods in which an individual’s membership can be brought to an end:
i) If the member dies
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ii) The company ceases to exist
iii) Member transfers his shares to another person
iv) Member surrenders his shares to the company
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v) Company forfeits the Members shares
vi) Shares of the bankrupt member are registered in the name of the trustee
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• Public and Private companies must have a minimum of one member. Where the issue is regarding a
single member company then the quorum required for general meetings is also one.
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Share:
• As defined in Borland’s Trustees v Steel (1901) a share:
It is the interest of a shareholder in the company measured by a sum of money
Types of Capital:
• The concept of ‘capital’ refers to the financial resources raised by companies to finance their
operation. The essential distinction in company law is between share capital, that is provided by the
members of the company, and loan capital, which the company borrows from outsiders.
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What is Loan Capital?
• Capital generated through borrowing is called loan capital. It comprises of debentures and other long
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term loans.
Types of Shares
If constitution of the company states that there are no different shares, then they are all presumed to be
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ordinary shares.
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Ordinary Shares
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• This term is used to refer to the shares which are not given any special rights. If the company issues shares
which all enjoy uniform rights, they will be ordinary shares.
• These are not preferred shares and do not have any predetermined dividend amounts. An ordinary
share represents equity ownership in a company and entitles the owner to a vote in matters put before
shareholders in proportion to their percentage ownership in the company.
• Ordinary shares are also called equity shares.
• Ordinary shareholders are entitled to receive dividends if any are available after dividends on
preferred shares are paid. They are also entitled to their share of the residual economic value of the
company should the business unwind; however, they are last in line after bondholders and preferred
shareholders for receiving business proceeds.
• If the company is profitable, not only will they enjoy dividend payments but the market value of their
shares will go up. On the other hand if the company does not do well, they may well not receive any
payment and the value of their shares will diminish.
• As members of the company, ordinary shareholders are entitled to attend and vote at general
meetings. One of their most important rights is to elect and dismiss the directors of the company who
are involved in its day-to-day running for the general benefit of those members.
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• Ordinary shares usually carry rights of pre-emption, which entitles the holders to have first call on
any new shares issued by the company.
Class Rights
• The right which is enjoyed by a particular type of shareholder is a class right. Different special rights
with respect to shares are: Dividends (Return on Capital Employed), redemption of capital, voting
and the right to appoint or remove a director.
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• It is not a variation of class rights to issue shares to new members, to subdivide shares or to create a
new class of preference shareholders.
• Greenhalgh vs Arderne Cinemas ltd: It was held by the court that by dividing the 50p shares in
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five 10p shares did not vary the rights of original 10p shares since they still had one vote per share as
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Rights of a Minority in Cases of Unfair Prejudice
• A minority not in favor of the variation, holding at least 15 percent or more of the issued shares, can
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apply to the court within 21 days to have the variation cancelled.
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Preference Shares
• Preference shares represent a more secure form of investment than the ordinary shares. The reason
for this is that preference shares receive a fixed rate of dividend before any payment is made to the
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ordinary shareholders and usually they enjoy priority over ordinary shares with regard to repayment
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of capital (in case of liquidation). The actual rights enjoyed by the preference will be stated in the
company’s articles of association.
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• Preference shareholders cannot insist on receiving a dividend payment, but as their dividend rights
are usually cumulative, any failure to pay the dividend in one year has to be made good in subsequent
years, subject to the company’s profitability.
• Company law enforces the strict rule that dividends, whether on ordinary or preference shares, cannot
be paid out of the company’s capital. In case of liquidation, the company has no obligation to pay
previously accrued cumulative preference dividend. The exceptions to this are that the dividend has
been declared but not yet paid or when the articles explicitly state otherwise.
Redeemable Shares
• These are shares issued on terms that they may be bought back by the company in future.
Treasury Shares
• Treasury shares or reacquired stock are the shares which are bought back by the issuing
company, reducing the amount of outstanding capital in the open market.
• Plc can purchase its own shares listed on the stock exchange.
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Allotment of Shares
• Allotment of shares means an appropriation of a certain number of shares to an applicant in response
to his application for shares. Allotment means distribution of shares among those who have
submitted written application.
• The issue of shares is when the company formally issues the share certificate to the allotee.
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existing holding. Section 565 specifically exempts pre-emption rights where non-cash consideration is
involved.
• As it is not always cost effective to offer new shares to all existing members, pre-emption rights can be
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waived by provision in the articles of association or by a special resolution of shareholders.
• Pre-emption rights may also be included in a company’s articles of association.
• Private Company can exclude the statutory right of first refusal.
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• Any company can exclude the pre-emption rights by passing a special resolution.
• A rights issue is the procedure through which a company raises new capital by offering new shares to
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its existing members. As the shares are offered to the existing shareholders in proportion to their
existing holding, it can be seen as respecting and giving effect to the shareholders’ pre-emption rights.
• Once again there is no compulsion to participate in the rights issue and often the rights to participate
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in the allotment of new shares are usually tradeable securities in themselves. Consequently
shareholders who do not want to buy the new shares themselves may sell the rights to a third party.
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• The offer of rights issue should specify a period of not less than 21 days for the offer to be accepted.
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Ooregum Gold Mining Co of India v Roper [1892] Held: A company while allotting shares can
give discount in the premium value of shares but cannot give discount in the nominal value of the
shares.
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• Sec 588 of the Companies Act 2006 states that if shares are allotted to the allotee at a discount to their
nominal value, the allottee will still be bound to pay the remaining nominal value of the share to the
company.
Payment for shares in a public company must, in most instances, be for cash. However, if shares are
allotted in a public company for a non- cash consideration, the consideration for the shares is subject to
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an independent valuation in most cases.
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• At least 25% of the nominal value and the whole of any premium on shares in a public company must
be paid on allotment,
• A public company cannot accept an undertaking to do work or perform services as consideration for
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the allotment of shares.
• Within two years of receiving its trading certificate, a public company may not receive a transfer of
non-cash asset.
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• A public company should not accept non-cash consideration for the payment of shares if it contains
an undertaking that such consideration may be performed later than 5 years after the allotment.
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equal to the aggregate amount or value of the premiums on those shares must be transferred to an
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• The statement of capital and initial shareholdings is essentially a ‘snapshot’ of a company's share
capital at the point of registration.
• Section 10 CA 2006 requires the statement of capital and initial shareholdings to contain the
following information:
The total number of shares of the company to be taken on formation by the subscribers to the
memorandum;
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• The statement must contain such information as may be required to identify the subscribers to the
memorandum of association. With regard to such subscribers it must state:
The number, nominal value (of each share) and class of shares to be taken by them on formation;
and
The amount to be paid up and the amount (if any) to be unpaid on each share.
Where a subscriber takes shares of more than one class of share, the above information is
required for each class.
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Borrowing:
• Companies have an inherent power to borrow money.
• Contract to repay money is unenforceable where:
i) Borrowing is for an ultra vires purpose and the lender has knowledge of it
ii) Directors breach their borrowing power.
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What is Loan Capital?
• It is the capital generated through borrowing.
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• Loan capital may be obtained from a bank or finance company as long-term loans, or from debt-
equity investors in the form of debentures or preferred stock (preference shares), and is usually
secured by a fixed and/or floating charge on the company's assets.
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What is a Debenture?
• Debentures are documents that acknowledge a company’s borrowing, although the term has been
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extended to cover the loan itself.
• As debenture holders lend money to the company they are its creditors, they are not members.
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• As creditors they are entitled to receive interest, whether the company is profitable or not. It may even
be necessary to use the company’s capital to pay the debenture interest.
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i) Single Debenture: To create charge and giving the bank various safeguards for the loan.
ii) Debentures issued as a series and registered: It is the number of debentures issued to
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different lenders who provide different amounts and each lender receives a debenture in identical
form in respect of his loan. Registered debenture is one which is registered in the name of a
holder in the books of the company. It is transferable in the same way as a share.
iii) Debenture Stock: Public companies usually use this method to offer its debentures to the
public. Public companies usually issues number of debentures at one time through this method.
Only this form requires a debenture trust deed.
• A company must maintain a register of all debenture holders and register an allotment within
2 months.
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Advantages:
i) The Trustee will deal with all correspondence regarding your debt.
ii) Trustee has powers to intervene in case the borrow defaults.
iii) Security for the debenture stock in the form of charges over property can be given to a single
trustee.
iv) Trustee has the power to call the meeting of the debenture holders and obtain a decision
acceptable to all.
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Common:
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i) Both are transferable securities
ii) The procedure of issuance of both the securities is almost similar
iii) The procedure of the transfer of both the securities is almost similar.
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Differences:
Shareholder Debenture holder
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i) Is the owner of the company Is the creditor of the company
ii) Has the power to vote May not vote
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iii) Share cannot be issued below nominal value. Debentures may be issued below nominal.
iv) Dividends paid out of profits. Interest must be paid.
v) Restrictions on redeeming. No restrictions on redeeming.
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Definition of Charges
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• The term used to describe any right established over a borrower's property to secure a debt or
performance of an obligation.
Fixed Charges:
• In this situation a specific asset of the company is made subject to a charge in order to secure a debt.
Once the asset is subject to the fixed charge the company cannot dispose of it without the consent of
the debenture holders.
• The asset most commonly subject to fixed charges is land, although any other long-term capital asset
may also be charged.
• It would not be appropriate, however, to give a fixed charge against stock-in-trade, as the company
would be prevented from freely dealing with it without the prior approval of the debenture holders.
Such a situation would obviously prevent the company from carrying on its day-to-day business.
• If the company fails to honor the commitments set out in the document creating the debenture, such
as meeting its interest payments, the debenture holders can appoint a receiver who will if necessary
sell the asset charged to recover the money owed. If the value of the asset that is subject to the charge
is greater than the debt against which it is charged then the excess goes to pay off the rest of the
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company’s debts. If it is less than the value of the debt secured then the debenture holders will
become unsecured creditors for the amount remaining outstanding.
• Fixed charges take priority over floating charges.
Floating Charges:
• The floating charge is most commonly made in relation to the ‘undertaking and assets’ of a company
and does not attach to any specific property whilst the company is meeting its requirements as stated
in the debenture document.
• The security is provided by all the property owned by the company, some of which may be
continuously changing, such as stock-in-trade. Thus, in contrast to the fixed charge, the use of the
floating charge permits the company to deal with its property without the need to seek the approval of
the debenture holders. However, if the company commits some act of default, such as not meeting its
interest payments, or going into liquidation, the floating charge is said to crystallize.
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without the prior approval of the debenture holders.
• Floating charge permits the company to deal with its property without the need to seek the approval
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of the debenture holders. However, charge over assets will not be registered as fixed if it allows the
company to deal with the charges assets without obtaining pripor consent of the chargee.
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Right of British Columbia v Federal Business Development Bank
Bank had a fixed charge over the property and specific mortgage charge. A term allowed the company to
making sales until notified in writing by the bank to stop doing so. Held the charge was created as floating
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not a fixed charge.
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i) Liquidation of company
ii) Cessation of company’s business
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Negative Pledge Clause:
• Floating charge holder can include a negative pledge clause in his agreement with the company which
prohibits the company from creating a fixed charge over the same property.
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• If the above agreement is breached the fixed charge holder will only obtain priority if he did not have
knowledge about the prohibition created over the property.
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Disposing off or Selling off a Charged Asset:
If a charged property is sold to a third party by the company then:
• The charge will be transferred with the property.
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• The property will only have floating charge attached to it if the third party while purchasing it had
knowledge about it.
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• Failure to register the charge as required has the effect of making the charge void, i.e. ineffective,
against any other creditor, or the liquidator of the company.
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• The charge, however, remains valid against the company, which means in effect that the holder of the
charge loses their priority as against other company creditors.
• In addition to registration at the Companies Registry, companies are required to maintain a register
of all charges on their property. Although a failure to comply with this requirement constitutes an
offence, it does not invalidate the charge.
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Capital Maintenance
• Every company is required to maintain capital for the protection of its creditors.
• As shareholders in limited companies, by definition, have the significant protection of limited liability
the courts have always seen it as the duty of the law to ensure that this privilege is not abused at the
expense of the company’s creditors. To that end they developed the doctrine of capital maintenance,
the specific rules of which are now given expression in the Companies Act (CA) 2006.
• There are a number of specific controls over how companies can use their capital, but perhaps the two
most important are the rules relating to capital reduction and company distributions.
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• Section 641 sets out three particular ways in which the capital can be reduced by:
a) Removing or reducing liability for any capital remaining as yet unpaid. In effect the company is
deciding that it will not need to call on that unpaid capital in the future.
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b) Cancelling any paid up capital which has been lost through trading or is unrepresented by in the
current assets. This effectively brings the balance sheet into balance at a lower level by reducing
the capital liabilities in recognition of a loss of assets.
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c) Repayment to members of some part of the paid-up value of their shares in excess of the
company’s requirements. This means that the company actually returns some of its capital to its
members on the basis that it does not actually need that level of capitalisation to carry on its
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business.
• Limited companies can without restriction cancel unissued shares.
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It may do so if:
i) It has power in the articles
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• The procedures through which a company can reduce its capital are laid down by ss.641–653
Companies Act 2006.
• Section 641 states that, subject to any provision in the articles to the contrary, a company may reduce
its capital in any way by passing a special resolution to that effect. In the case of a public company any
such resolution must be confirmed by the court. In the case of a private company, however, it is also
possible to reduce capital without court approval as long as the directors issue a statement as to
the company’s present and continued solvency for the following 12 months (ss.642 &
643). It is also called declaration of solvency.
• The special resolution, a copy of the solvency statement, a statement of compliance by the directors
confirming that the solvency statement was made not more than 15 days before the date on which the
resolution was passed, and a statement of capital must be delivered to the registrar within 15 days of
the date of passing the special resolution. The methods of reduction of share capital have been
discussed above.
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Reasons for Reduction of Share Capital
• Share Capital can be reduced by the company for any of the below mentioned grounds:
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i) To bring the value of assets in line with the capital, if the assets had suffered any impairment
loss.
ii) The company makes a complex arrangement to change its financial structure by replacing
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share capital with loan capital.
iii) The company plans to completely extinguish a particular class of shares.
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Rules of Dividends
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Paying a dividend is the usual way for a company to distribute a share of its profits among the
shareholders. There are detailed statutory rules as to distributions in CA 2006, sec829 to sec853.
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Dividends are the return received by shareholders in respect of their investment in a company. Subject to
any restriction in the articles of association, every company has the implied power to apply its profits in
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the distribution of dividend payments to its shareholders. The long-standing common law rule is that
dividends must not be paid out of capital (Flitcroft’s case 1882). The current rules relating to the payment
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of dividends are to be found in part 23 Companies Act (CA) 2006. The Act governs, and imposes
restrictions on distributions made by all companies, both public and private. Section 829 defines
distribution as any payment, cash or otherwise, of a company’s assets to its members, except for the
categories stated in the section, which include the issue of bonus shares, the redemption of shares,
authorised reductions of share capital, and the distribution of assets on winding up.
Dividend Declaration
• Dividends can be declared by the following methods:
• In a public company, the usual practice is for the directors to declare and pay an interim dividend
based on the accounts for the first six months of the company's financial year.
• The directors recommend a final dividend to the Annual General Meeting based on the profits made
in the full year, and the AGM then passes a resolution declaring that dividend.
• In private companies the practice varies widely. If the company is making profits there are essentially
two ways in which those profits can be paid over to the people who own and run the company. One is
for the directors (or others, e.g. family members) to be paid salaries or fees for the work they have
done for the company. The other way of taking money out of the company is for the company to pay
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dividends. These are paid to shareholders (rather than directors) and (unless the company has special
articles) will be paid in accordance with the rights of the respective shareholders.
Distributable Profit
• Section 830 goes on to provide the basic condition for distribution, applying to all companies, which,
in essence, is that they must have ‘profits available for that purpose’. This term is defined in the
section as accumulated realised profits less accumulated realised losses, with profit or loss being
either revenue or capital in origin.
• It is important to note that the use of the term accumulated means that any previous years’ losses
must be included in determining the distributable surplus, and that the requirement that profits be
realised prevents payment from purely paper profit resulting from the mere revaluation of assets.
Section 841 provides that all losses are to be treated as realised except where a general revaluation of
all fixed assets has taken place.
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• The foregoing realised profits test applies to both private and public companies, but public companies
face an additional test in relation to distributions, in that s.831 requires that any distribution of
dividend must not reduce the value of the company’s net assets below the aggregate of its total called
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up share capital and undistributable reserves (share premium, capital redemption reserve, unrealized
profits’ reserve or any other capital reserve).
• The effect of this rule is that public companies have to account for changes in the value of their fixed
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assets, and are required to apply an essentially balance sheet approach to the determination of profits.
replace any such payments made. The fact that the shareholders might have approved the distribution
did not validate the illegal payment (Aveling Barford Ltd v Perion Ltd (1989)).
A
• Directors are held responsible since they either recommend to members in a general meeting that a
dividend should be declared or they declare interim dividends.
C
a) The payment of dividend out of capital was done in the complete knowledge of directors.
b) The dividend was declared without the complete preparation of financial statements and
subsequently resulted in payment out of capital.
c) Declaration of unlawful dividend by misinterpretation or wrongful application of law and
constitution.
Responsibilities of members:
i) If members have knowledge of unlawful dividend, they can obtain an injunction to stop the
company from making the payment.
ii) Members cannot knowingly approve payment of an unlawful dividend at AGM.
Liabilities of members:
i) Section 847 Companies Act 2006 restates the common law rule, providing that shareholders, who
either know or have reasonable grounds for knowing that any dividend was paid from capital
(unlawful dividend), shall be liable to repay any such money received to the company.
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ii) The shareholders may have the option to indemnify the directors for payments they might have
already received it (Moxham v Grant (1900)).
iii) To the extent that the distribution is made in excess of the distributable profits as determined by
properly prepared accounts, any liability of the director extends to the repayment of part which is
unlawful. Similarly, any shareholder who either knew or had reasonable grounds for knowing that
the dividends were improperly paid will have to recompense the company to the extent that their
dividends were overpaid.
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A
C
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Director:
Section 250 of the Companies Act 2006, defines a director as including ‘any person occupying the position
of a director, by whatever name called.’
Kinds of Directors:
i) De Jure director
It is person who is formally and legally appointed or elected as a director in accordance with the
articles of association of the firm, and gives written consent to hold the office of a director. He or
she enjoys full rights and privileges of a director, and is held individually and collectively (with
other directors) liable for the acts and/or negligence of the firm.
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Whether or not such a person fulfills the qualifications of a director, or enjoys the rights and
privileges of a director, he or she is generally held liable as a de jure director.
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iii) Shadow Director
• The concept of a shadow director is introduced in s.251 CA 2006.
• A shadow director is a person who, although not actually appointed to the board, instructs the
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directors of a company as to how to act. It is a person’s function rather than their title that
defines them as a director. Such individuals are subject to all the rules applicable to ordinary
directors. A person is not to be treated as a shadow director if the advice is given in a purely
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professional capacity.
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Thus, a business consultant or a company doctor (another title given to someone called in to give
advice to companies in trouble), would not be liable as a shadow director for the advice they
might give to their client company.
A
C
v) Non-Executive Director
• Non-executive directors or outsider directors do not usually have a full-time relationship with
the company; they are not employees and only receive directors’ fees. The role of the non-
executive directors, at least in theory, is to bring outside experience and expertise to the board
of directors. They are also expected to exert a measure of control over the executive directors
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to ensure that the latter do not run the company in their, rather than the company’s, best
interests.
• It is important to note that there is no distinction in law between executive and non-executive
directors and the latter are subject to the same controls and potential liabilities as are the
former.
Role of Chairman
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• Article 12 of the model articles of association for public limited companies provides for the board of
directors to appoint one of their members to chair their meetings. The UK Corporate Governance
Code explains that the chairman is responsible for leadership of the board and ensuring its
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effectiveness on all aspects of its role. The chairman is responsible for setting the board’s agenda and
ensuring that adequate time is available for discussion of all agenda items, in particular strategic
issues.
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• The chairman should ensure effective communication with shareholders. In relation to general
meetings, although s.319 provides that any member may act as chair, this is subject to the provision of
the articles and Model Article 31 states that if the directors have appointed a chairman, the chairman
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shall chair general meetings.
• The chairman conducts the meeting and must preserve order and ensure that it complies with the
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provisions of the companies’ legislation and the company’s articles. He or she is under a general duty
at all times to act bona fide in the interests of the company as a whole, and thus must use his or her
vote appropriately.
A
C
conferred on them under the articles, to such person or committee as they think fit and any such act
of delegation may authorize further delegation of the directors’ powers by any person to whom they
are delegated.
• In this way, the board may appoint one or more managing directors or chief executives who will have
the authority to exercise all the powers of the company and to further delegate those powers as they
see fit. Article 5 also makes provision for the board of directors to revoke any delegation in whole or
part, or alter the terms and conditions under which it may be operated.
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• Any non-contractual compensation for the loss of office can only be paid to the director after the same
has been approved by the members in the general meeting.
• Approval is not required where the company is contractually bound to make payments
Remuneration Report
Quoted companies are required to include a Director’s remuneration report as part of their annual report,
which is also audited. The report must cover the following:
• The details of each individual directors’ remuneration package
• The company’s remuneration policy
• The role of the board and remuneration committee in deciding the remuneration of directors
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iii) Dissolution of Company
iv) Not contesting for re-election
v) Disqualification
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vi) Removal of office by an ordinary resolution after giving a special notice
least 10% of the paid up share capital or 10% of the voting rights where the company does not
have shares.
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ii) A director can also use his own voting rights (as a member) and can defeat a resolution of his
removal
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iii) Class rights agreement can be drafted that each class must be present at a general meeting to
constitute a quorum.
Disqualification of Directors
The Company Directors Disqualification Act (CDDA) was introduced in an attempt to prevent the
misuse of the company form by unscrupulous individuals looking to hide behind the corporate personality
of the company to avoid personal liability for their actions. Directors can be disqualified on one of the
following grounds:
i) Bankrupt
ii) Unsound Mind
iii) Absent for board meetings for a period of three consecutive months without leave
iv) Convicted of an indictable offence
v) Person has been persistently in default of legislation
vi) Guilty of crime of fraud in the operation of company
vii) Liable for fraudulent trading
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• The period of disqualification depends upon the seriousness of the offense. The individual concerned
may be disqualified from acting as a company director for a maximum period of 15 years. Sec.13
makes it a criminal offence for anyone to act in contravention of a disqualification order. Any such
person is liable for the following penalties:
• Imprisonment for up to two years and/or a fine, on conviction on indictment, and
• Imprisonment for up to six months and/or a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, on summary
conviction.
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Powers of Directors
• Directors’ powers are stated in the articles of the company
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• They must exercise their powers in the best interest of the company and for the benefit of the
company. ba
Members’ Control of Directors
• They can appoint or remove directors vide an ordinary resolution
•
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Articles can allow members to pass special resolution to make directors act in a particular manner
• Members have a power to ratify any act of the director which would otherwise be regarded as a
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breach.
• He can enter into contracts with the third parties on behalf of the company
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Freeman &Lockyer v Buckhurst Park Properties: It was held that the company was bound by the
contract as the other directors by their actions had represented that the managing director had the
authority to enter into contracts on behalf of the company.
Director Duties
Directors have seven major duties under the companies act 2006:
i) Duty to act within the powers for the best interest of the company.
Section 171 CA replaces existing similar common law duties and requires directors to act in
accordance with the company’s constitution. Section 17 of the Act provides that a company’s
constitution includes not only the company’s articles of association but the resolutions and
agreements specified in s.29, which includes special resolutions passed by the company and any
resolutions or agreements that have been agreed to, or which otherwise bind classes of
shareholders.
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Directors are also required to use powers only for the purposes for which they were conferred.
This is a restatement of the long-standing ‘proper purposes doctrine’.
Howard Smith v Ampol Petroleum: It was held that the allotment of shares was invalid as
directors had breached their fiduciary duty (duty of trust) for the purpose of destroying an
existing majority.
ii) Duty to promote the success of the company for the benefit of members as a whole
Section 172 CA 2006 replaces the previous common law duty on directors to act in good faith in the
best interest of the company. In the course of making their decisions under Part 1 of the section,
then, directors are now required to have regard to each of the following list of matters:
• the likely consequences of any decision in the long term,
• the interests of the company’s employees,
• the need to foster the company’s business relationships with suppliers, customers and others,
• the impact of the company’s operations on the community and the environment,
• the desirability of the company maintaining a reputation for high standards of business
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conduct, and
• the need to act fairly as between members of the company.
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The above list is non-exhaustive and directors must also have regard to other non-specific matters.
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iii) Duty to exercise independent judgment. They should not delegate their decision
making powers to anyone else.
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iv) Duty to exercise reasonable skill, care and diligence while exercising their duties
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Section 175 CA 2006 reflects the long-standing common law rule that directors, as fiduciaries,
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must respect the trust and confidence placed in them and should do nothing to undermine or
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abuse their position as fiduciaries. The practical effect of the rule is that any conflict of interest
must be authorized by the members of the company, unless some alternative procedure is
properly provided. In the case of a private company, a conflict can be authorized by the other
directors of the board unless the company’s constitution provides to the contrary. The position is
the same for public companies, except that the constitution must expressly permit authorization
by the board.
Regal Hastings v Gulliver: held that the defendants had made their profits “by reason of the
fact that they were directors of Regal and in the course of the execution of that office”. They
therefore had to account for their profits to the company.
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vi) Directors have a duty not to accept benefit from the third parties which creates a
conflict of interest.
Under s.176, a director must not accept a benefit from a third party, which is conferred by reason
of (a) his being a director or (b) his doing (or not doing) anything as director. This duty is an
aspect of the previous general duty to avoid conflicts of interest, but it has been stated separately
in order to ensure that the obtaining of a benefit from a third party by a director can only be
authorized by members of the company rather than by the board.
vii) Directors have a duty to declare interest in any proposed or existing transaction
by written notice, general notice or verbally at a board meeting.
Under s.177 CA 2006 a director must declare to the other directors any situation in which they are
in any way, directly or indirectly, interested in a proposed transaction or arrangement with the
company. Again this further emphasizes the duty to avoid a conflict of interests by ensuring that
directors are transparent about personal interests, which could, even remotely, be seen as
affecting their judgment.
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Remedies against Directors
Several remedies exist for the breach of duty by the director:
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i) Account for personal gain
ii) Indemnify the company for the loss
iii) Rescission of the contract
iv) Court can declare an act as ultra vires
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Company can ratify a director’s breach of duty by passing a resolution or by altering its articles.
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ii. Where directors of company have unlimited liability by reason of the articles
iii. Directors can have personal liability o creditors in situations where they extend their personal
guarantee for the repayment of loan.
iv. If the directors commit wrongful or fraudulent trading they will be held personally liable.
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Company Secretary
• It is mandatory for a public company to have a company secretary but private companies are not
required to have one.
• Every public company is required to have a secretary, who is one of the company’s officers for the
purposes of the Companies Act 2006 and who, in addition, may, or may not, be a director of the
company.
• Private companies are no longer required to appoint company secretaries, although they still can do
so if they wish.
Appointment
Section 1173 Companies Act (CA) 2006 includes the company secretary amongst the officers of a
company. Every public company must have a company secretary and s.273 of the CA requires that the
directors of a public company must ensure that the company secretary has the requisite knowledge and
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experience to discharge their functions. Section 273(2) & (3) sets out the following list of alternative
specific minimum qualifications, which a secretary to a public limited company must have:
• They must have held office as a company secretary in a public company for three of the five years
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preceding their appointment to their new position;
• They must be a member of one of a list of recognized professional accountancy bodies, including
ACCA;
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• They must be a solicitor or barrister or advocate within the UK;
• They must have held some other position, or be a member of such other body, as appears to the
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directors of the company to make them capable of acting as company secretary.
Duties
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The duties of company secretaries are set by the board of directors and therefore vary from company to
company, but as an officer of the company, they will be responsible for ensuring that the company
A
complies with its statutory obligations. The following are some of the most important duties undertaken
by company secretaries:
C
• To ensure that the necessary registers required to be kept by the Companies Acts are established and
properly maintained;
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• To ensure that all returns required to be lodged with the Companies Registry are prepared and filed
within the appropriate time limits;
• To organize and attend meetings of the shareholders and directors;
• To ensure that the company’s books of accounts are kept in accordance with the Companies Acts and
that the annual accounts and reports are prepared in the form and at the time required by the Acts;
• To be aware of all the statutory requirements placed on the company’s activities and to ensure that the
company complies with them;
• To sign such documents as require their signature under the Companies Acts.
Powers
Although old authorities, such as Houghton & Co v Northard Lowe & Wills (1928) suggest that
company secretaries have extremely limited authority to bind their company, later cases have recognized
the reality of the contemporary situation and have extended to company secretaries potentially extensive
powers to bind their companies. As an example consider Panorama Developments Ltd v Fidel is
Furnishing Fabrics Ltd (1971). In this case the Court of Appeal held that a company secretary was
entitled ‘to sign contracts connected with the administrative side of a company’s affairs, such as
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employing staff and ordering cars and so forth. All such matters now come within the ostensible authority
of a company’s secretary.’
Company Auditor
• The corporate governance structure specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities among
different participants in the corporation, such as, the board, managers, shareholders and other
stakeholders, and spells out the rules and procedures for making decisions on corporate affairs.
Auditors have an extremely important role to play in that regard: they are appointed to ensure that
the interests of the shareholders in a company are being met.
• Their key function is to produce independent and authoritative reports confirming, or otherwise, that
the accountancy information provided to shareholders is reliable.
Qualifications
• The essential requirement for any person to act as a company auditor is that they are eligible under
the rules, and a member of, a recognized supervisory body. This in turn requires them to hold a
professional accountancy qualification.
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‘Supervisory bodies’ are ones established in the UK to control the eligibility of potential company auditors
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and the quality of their operation. The recognized supervisory bodies are:
a) The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales;
b) The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland;
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c) The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland;
d) The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants; and
e) The Association of Authorized Public Accountants.
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The first four bodies mentioned above are also recognized as ‘qualifying bodies’, meaning that
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accountancy qualifications awarded by them are recognized professional qualifications for auditing
purposes.
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employee); and/or
b) a partner or employee of a person in (a) above, or is in a partnership of which such a person is a
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partner.
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explanations. However, it is not an offence for them to fail to provide any information or explanation
that the auditors require of them.
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• Auditors are entitled to receive notices and other documents in connection with all general meetings,
to attend such meetings and to speak when the business affects their role as auditors. Where a
company operates on the basis of written resolutions rather than meetings, then the auditor is entitled
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to receive copies of all such proposed resolutions as are to be sent to members.
• Auditors are required to make a report on all annual accounts laid before the company in a
general meeting during their tenure of office. They are specifically required to report on certain
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issues:
a) whether the accounts have been properly prepared in accordance with the Act; and
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b) whether the individual and group accounts show a true and fair view of the profit or loss and state
of affairs of the company and of the group, so far as concerns the members of the company;
c) whether the information in the Directors' Report is consistent with the accounts presented.
A
a) Whether the company has kept proper accounting records and obtained proper accounting returns
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from branches.
b) Whether the accounts are in agreement with the records; and state:
1. whether they have obtained all the information and explanations that they considered necessary;
2. whether the requirements concerning disclosure of information about directors’ and officers’
remuneration, loans and other transactions have been met; and rectify any such omissions.
Audit Exceptions
• Usually small companies are totally exempted from audit if its turnover is less than £6.5 million and
balance sheet is not more than £3.26 million having 50 or less employees.
• This exemption does not apply to a public company, banking or insurance companies.
• Members holding 10% or more capital of any company can veto the exemption
Indemnification of Auditors:
• Any agreement between the auditor and the company which seeks to indemnify the auditor for their
negligence or breach of duty is void. However, auditor liability can be limited vide an agreement.
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Company Meetings
• The decision making power in the company mainly vests with the Members.
• The decisions reached in the meetings are binding only if the meetings are convened in accordance
with the rules and procedures prescribed.
General Meetings:
• Directors and the Members of the company have the power to call a general meeting
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• Directors have the power under the articles of association to call the general meeting
• Members can make a requisition to the directors to call the general meeting under sec 303 of the
Company’s Act 2006.
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Procedure of Notice:
14 days clear notice must be given to the members in advance of the meeting
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Procedure for Members Requisitioning a Meeting:
i) The members of companies must hold at least 5% of the paid up share capital holding voting
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rights.
ii) A signed requisition stating the objects of meeting must be sent to the registered office of the
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company.
iii) Directors should send a notice to convene a meeting within 21 days of the requisition
iv) The meeting must be held within 28 days of the notice
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v) If the directors fail to call a meeting within 21 days then the members may convene the meeting
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Role of Court:
• Court upon an application of a director or a member can order to hold a meeting and can also rule on
the quorum
Kinds of Resolutions:
Under the provisions of the Companies Act (CA) 2006 there are three main types of resolutions: ordinary
resolutions, special resolutions and written resolutions.
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members, of a company, as a resolution that is passed by a simple majority.
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• A special resolution is required for major changes in the company such as the change in name,
reduction of share capital or winding up of the company.
• A special resolution of the members (or of a class of members) of a company means a resolution
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passed by a majority of not less than 75%, determined in the same way as for an ordinary
resolution (CA s.283). If a resolution is proposed as a special resolution, it must be indicated as
such, either in the written resolution text or in the meeting notice.
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• Where a resolution is proposed as a special resolution, it can only be passed as such although
anything that may be done as an ordinary resolution may be passed as a special resolution
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(s.282(5)). There is no longer a requirement for 21 days’ notice where a special resolution is to be
passed at a meeting.
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• Private limited companies are no longer required to hold meetings and can take decisions by way
of written resolutions (s.281 CA 2006). The CA 2006 no longer requires unanimity to pass a
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written resolution. It merely requires the appropriate majority of total voting rights, a simple
majority for an ordinary resolution (s.282(2)) and a 75% majority of the total voting rights for a
special resolution (s.283(2)).
• By virtue of s.288(5) CA 2006 anything which in the case of a private company might be done by
resolution in a general meeting, or by a meeting of a class of members of the company, may be
done by written resolution with only two exceptions:
• The removal of a director; and
• The removal of an auditor.
Both of these procedures still require the calling of a general meeting of shareholders.
A written resolution may be proposed by the directors or the members of the private company (s.288 (3)).
Under s.291 in the case of a written resolution proposed by the directors, the company must send or
submit a copy of the resolution to every eligible member. This may be done as follows:
• Either by sending copies to all eligible members in hard copy form, in electronic form or by means of
a website;
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• By submitting the same copy to each eligible member in turn or different copies to each of a number
of eligible members in turn;
• By a mixture of the above processes.
The copy of the resolution must be accompanied by a statement informing the members both how to
signify agreement to the resolution and the date by which the resolution must be passed if it is not to lapse
(s.291 (4)). It is a criminal offence not to comply with the above procedure, although the validity of any
resolution passed is not affected.
Agreement to a proposed written resolution occurs when the company receives an authenticated
document, in either hard copy form or in electronic form, identifying the resolution and indicating
agreement to it. Once submitted, agreement cannot be revoked.
The resolution and accompanying documents must be sent to all members who would be entitled to vote
on the circulation date of the resolution. The company’s auditor should also receive such documentation
(s.502 CA 2006).
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• Members holding 5% of the voting rights may request a written resolution.
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• The default period for agreement on a written resolution is 28 days.
Timings of Notices
•
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Members have the authority to waive the required notice period by the following method:
i) In public companies all members must consent in respect of AGM
ii) In other cases members holding 90% of the issued shares or voting rights must consent.
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However, 95% is required by a public company
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Special Notice:
• Special Notice is a notice of 28 days before the meeting
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• This notice is given when a resolution concerns the removal or appointment of the auditor or the
director.
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The members of a private company may require the company to circulate a resolution:
• If they control 5% of the voting rights (or a lower percentage if specified in the company’s articles).
• Resolution must be in hardcopy and should be sent at least 6 weeks before the AGM or General
meeting.
• They can also require a statement of not more than 1,000 words to be circulated with the resolution
(s.292)
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Quorum of Meetings
It is the number of members of a company required to be present to transact the business legally
• Two members must be present to complete the quorum. However both the persons may not be
members. Proxies can also be appointed.
Rules of appointment
• Any member can appoint proxy
• The proxy does not necessarily have to be member
• They have the right to speak at the meetings
• They have the right to vote at the meetings
• They have the right to demand a poll
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• Notice of proxy appointment must be given to the company at least 48 hours before the meeting to the
company.
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Methods of Voting:
i) Show of hands:
Show of hands is a method of voting in which every member has one vote irrespective of his number
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of shares. Chairman has the authority to call the votes by show of hands unless the other method is
demanded.
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rights.
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ii) Members representing not less than one tenth of the total voting rights
iii) Members holding shares which represent not less than one tenth of the paid up capital.
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Minutes of Meetings
• Minutes of the meeting must be signed by the chairman.
• The record of the minutes of the meeting must be kept with the company for 10 years.
• All the members have the right to inspect the record of the minutes of the meeting.
Class Meetings:
• Class meetings are held for either the shareholders holding shares in different classes or under
arrangement with creditors.
• If the company has more than one class of share, it may be necessary to call a meeting of that class to
approve a proposed variation of the rights attached to their shares.
• The Quorum for class meeting is fixed at two persons (holding at least one third of nominal value of
issued share capital) unless the class only consists of one person.
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Liquidation:
• Winding up, or liquidation, is the process whereby the life of the company is brought to an end. It is a
formal and strictly regulated procedure through which the company’s assets are realized and
distributed to its creditors and members. The procedure is governed by the Insolvency Act (IA) 1986.
• The directors, creditors or the members can initiate the process of liquidation.
Liquidator:
• A liquidator is the officer appointed when a company goes into winding-up or liquidation who has
responsibility for collecting in all of the assets of the company and settling all claims against the
company before putting the company into dissolution.
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ii) Dealing in shares is not allowed
iii) Changes in members is not allowed
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iv) Company documents and website must state that the company is in liquidation
Kinds of Liquidation:
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There are two kinds of liquidation:
i) Voluntary
ii) Compulsory
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Voluntary Liquidation
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of Declaration of Solvency by the Directors of the company with the Registrar. Creditors’ winding-up,
on the other hand, is resorted to by insolvent companies or by application to court.
2. In members’ voluntary winding-up there is no need to have creditors’ meeting (as it is assumed that
their debts will be paid in full). But, in the case of creditors’ voluntary winding-up, a meeting of the
creditors must be called immediately after the meeting of the members.
3. Liquidator, in the case of members’ winding-up, is appointed by the members. But in the case of
creditors’ voluntary winding-up, if the members and creditors nominate two different persons as
liquidators, creditors’ nominee shall become the liquidator.
4. In the case of Creditor’s voluntary winding-up, if the creditors so wish, a ‘Liquidation Committee’
comprising of up to five representatives of the creditors may be appointed. In the case of Members’
voluntary winding-up, there is no provision for any such Committee.
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Statutory Declaration:
• A declaration of solvency is a statutory declaration made by the directors of the company, to the
Registrar, which lists the assets and liabilities of a firm, and seeks the voluntary bankruptcy to show
that the entity is capable of repaying what it owes within 12 months.
• It is a criminal offence if a director makes a statutory declaration without having reasonable grounds.
• The declaration must be made not more than 5 weeks before the resolution to windup is passed and
it must be delivered to the registrar within 15 days after the meeting of the members in which the
resolution of winding up is passed.
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• The formal process of a Creditors Voluntary Liquidation means that an insolvent company can be
closed in an official and professional manner.
• If the directors fail to make a statutory declaration of solvency then the winding up is converted into
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the creditors’ voluntary winding up. Where a voluntary liquidation proceeds by way of creditor's
voluntary liquidation, a liquidation committee may be appointed.
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Procedure:
• Directors convene a general meeting of members to pass a special resolution
• Creditors meeting must also be convened within 14 days of the members meeting.
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Creditors can appoint a liquidator of their choice in their meeting and their choice will prevail over the
members’ choice. However, if the creditors decide not to appoint a liquidator then the members’
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Re Centre Binding ltd 1966: In this case the liquidator appointed by the members had disposed of the
assets before the creditors could make their appointment. The court held that the liquidator had the
power to act from when he was appointed until the creditors’ meeting and so could dispose of the
company's assets in the meantime.
However, the powers of the members’ liquidator in the creditor’s winding up have now been restricted to:
i) Taking control of the company’s property
ii) Disposing of perishable goods
iii) Doing things which are necessary for the protection of company’s assets.
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iv) The member’s liquidator will require the leave of the court if he decides to perform any act other
than those listed above.
Compulsory Liquidation:
• A compulsory winding up is a winding up ordered by the court under s.122 IA 1986 and has to be
distinguished from the voluntary winding up procedures, either a members’ voluntary winding up or a
creditors’ voluntary winding up, neither of which involve the court action to initiate them.
• The seven grounds under which a registered company may be wound up by the court under s.122
Insolvency Act 1986 (IA), are as follows:
(i) the company has passed a special resolution that it be wound up by the court;
(ii) it is a public company which has not within a year since its registration obtained a trading
certificate with the share capital requirements;
(iii) it is an ‘old public company’ which has failed to re-register;
(iv) it has not commenced business within a year from its incorporation or has suspended its
business for a whole year;
(v) (except in the case of a private company limited by shares or by guarantee) the number of
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members is reduced below two;
(vi) the company is unable to pay its debts;
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(vii) the court is of the opinion that it is just and equitable that the company should be wound up.
The creditor, in order to establish that the company is unable to pay its debts, must prove by one
of the following three ways mentioned under Section 123:
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a) If a company with a debt exceeding £750 fails to pay it within 21 days of receiving a written
demand from the creditor and the company neglects it, then it is deemed unable to pay its
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debts.
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b) Court has passed a judgment in favor of the creditor and against the company and the
creditor is unable to enforce the judgment because the company has no assets to satisfy the
judgment.
c) If the creditor satisfies the court that the company’s assets are less than its liabilities and the
company is unable to pay its debts as they fall due.
Re German Date Coffee 1882: The Company was formed only with the objective to acquire German
patent for the production of coffee. Unfortunately the patent was not obtained and the company started to
manufacture coffee with substitutes. It was held that the company be wound up on just and equitable
grounds as the purpose for which the company was formed was no longer pursued.
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i) The main causes of the company’s failure
ii) Business dealing of the company
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If he finds any irregularities, he can report the same to the court and he can:
a) Require public examination of the alleged persons
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b) Apply to the court for public examination where half the creditors or three quarters of the
shareholders request.
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Mode of Payments after Liquidation:
The liquidator after liquidation follows the following order in distributing the assets of the company:
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v) Deferred debts: Interest accrued and dividends declared but not paid
vi) Members: Any surplus left is distributed to the members
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Note: Official receiver can also apply to the registrar for an early dissolution of the company, if its
realizable assets will not cover his expenses and no further investigation is required.
Administration:
• Administration, on the other hand, is a means of safeguarding the continued existence of business
enterprises in financial difficulties, rather than merely ensuring the payment of creditors.
Administration was first introduced in the IA 1986. The aim of the administration order is to save the
company, or at least the business, as a going concern, by taking control of the company out of the
hands of its directors and placing it in the hands of an administrator. Alternatively, the procedure is
aimed at maximizing the realized value of the business assets.
• Once an administration order has been issued, it is no longer possible to commence winding up
proceedings against the company or enforce charges, retention of title clauses, or even hire-purchase
agreements against the company.
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c) Company
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By virtue of the Enterprise Act 2002, which amends the previous provisions of the Insolvency Act
1986, floating charge holders no longer have the right to appoint administrative receivers, but must
now make use of the administration procedure as provided in that Act. As compensation for this loss
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of power the holders of floating charges are given the right to appoint the administrator of their
choice.
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A floating charge holder can appoint an administrator if:
i) He has given a two day notice to other floating charge holders
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Upon the expiry of two day notice period, the floating charge holder will have to submit a list of
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documents in the court such as notice of appointment of administrator, his statement of consent and
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Company or its directors in order to appoint an administrator out of court must give a notice to the
floating charge holder having a right to appoint an administrator.
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c) Creditors
d) Justice and chief executive of the Magistrates Court due a default committed by the company on
payment of the fine imposed by the court.
Consequences of Administration:
Administration has the following effects on the company:
a) Management powers are granted to the administrator
b) Moratorium over the debts of the company
c) Any pending petitions of winding up are dismissed
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b) Initiation or continuation of legal proceedings against the company
c) To repossess the goods held under hire purchase
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d) To conduct forfeiture by the landlord by peaceable entry
e) All the business documents of the company must bear the name of the administrator
f) He must manage all the affairs of the company
g) Prepare his proposals and send the same to the registrar and to the creditors
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The administrator must within 8 weeks set out his proposals for saving the company. He must call a
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meeting of the creditors within 10 weeks of his appointment to approve the proposals.
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Tenure of Administrator
• The administration period is usually 12 months, although this may be extended by six months with
the approval of the creditors, or longer with the approval of the court.
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Following can also bring an end to the administrator’s tenure:
a) Purpose of administration has been achieved. A notice to this effect is sent to the creditors, the court
and the companies registry.
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b) Period of 12 months has elapsed
c) Ulterior motive of the administration has been discovered
d) A creditor petition’s in the court to end the administration
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e) If the administrator forms the opinion that none of the purposes of the administration can be
achieved, the court should be informed and it will consider ending the appointment.
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Advantages of Administration
1. It keeps the company alive.
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Fraudulent Behavior
Insider Dealing:
Definition:
Insider dealing is dealing in shares, on the basis of access to unpublished price sensitive information.
Such activity is unlawful and is governed by part V of the Criminal Justice Act 1993 (CJA).
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Following is the explanation of the above mentioned elements:
(i) Section 54 specifically includes shares amongst the securities
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(ii) Dealing is defined in s.55, as acquiring or disposing of securities, whether as a principal or agent,
or agreeing to acquire securities. ba
Inside Information:
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Section 56 defines ‘inside information’ as:
(i) Relating to particular securities;
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Who is an Insider?
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Section 57 states that a person has information as an insider only if they know it is inside information and
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they have it from an inside source and covers those who get the inside information directly through either:
(i) Being a director, employee or shareholder of an issuer of securities ( primary insider); or
(ii) Having access to the information by virtue of their employment, office or profession.
• If a person receives information either directly or indirectly from the primary insider, that
person is called a secondary insider.
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Market Abuse
In essence, market abuse may occur when investors have been unreasonably disadvantaged, directly or
indirectly, by others who:
have used information that is not publicly available to trade in financial instruments to their
advantage (insider dealing);
have distorted the price-setting mechanism of financial instruments; or
have disseminated false or misleading information
Directors can also be held personally liable for the public announcements made by them. (R v Bailey)
Money Laundering:
• Money laundering refers to the attempt to disguise the origin of money acquired through criminal
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activity in order to make it appear legitimate. The aim of the process is to disguise the source of the
property, in order to allow the holder to enjoy it free from suspicion as to its source.
• Sec 3 of the Criminal Justice Act: defines criminal property as any property which the person
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knows or has suspicion that it relates to a criminal conduct.
The Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 seeks to control money laundering by creating three categories of
criminal offences in relation to the activity.
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(i) Laundering:
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The first category of principal money laundering offences relates to laundering the proceeds of
crime or assisting in that process and is contained in ss.327–329. Under s.327, it is an offence to
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conceal, disguise, convert, transfer or remove criminal property from England and Wales,
Scotland or Northern Ireland. Concealing or disguising criminal property is widely defined to
include concealing or disguising its nature, source, location, disposition, movement or ownership
or any rights connected with it. These offences are punishable on conviction by a maximum of 14
years imprisonment and/or a fine.
Every person who has knowledge of money or laundering or suspects the same must report it to the
Money Laundering Reporting Officer or to Serious Organized Crime Agency.
(ii) Layering involves the transfer of money from business to business, or place to place in order to
conceal its initial source.
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(iii) Integration is the culmination of the previous procedures through which the money takes on the
appearance of coming from a legitimate source.
• Need to have a risk assessment in place, and conduct their client due diligence on the basis of that
assessment including:
• Simplified due diligence
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identity in place for all clients, even those which have been on the books for many years.
• Need to monitor their firm's compliance with the regulations
Bribery:
Bribery is defined as ‘giving someone a financial or other advantage to encourage that person to perform
their functions or activities improperly or to reward that person for having already done so. So this could
cover seeking to influence a decision-maker by giving some kind of extra benefit to that decision-maker
rather than by what can legitimately be offered as part of a tender process.’ (Ministry of Justice Guide to
the Bribery Act 2010)
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associated with it bribes another person intending to obtain or retain business, or to obtain or
retain an advantage in the conduct of the business, for the organization. This could take place
outside the UK. Section 8 defines associated persons as someone who performs services for – or
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on behalf of – the commercial organization, and, therefore, could be an employee, agent or
subsidiary ba
Defences for Bribery
If an individual is charged with bribery he can raise the following defences:
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a) The act was of an intelligence agency
b) It was related to armed forces
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full defence against any such allegation. Thus, a commercial organization will have a defence if it can show
that adequate procedures have been put in place to prevent persons associated with it from engaging in
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bribery. This defence also serves the purpose of ensuring that commercial organizations have developed
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Although no definition of ‘adequate procedures’ is provided, Ministry of Justice guidance indicates six
principles which underpin the defence of adequate procedures.
(v) Communication
The organization should ensure its bribery prevention policies and procedures are embedded and
understood throughout the organization through internal and external communication, including
training, proportionate to the risks it faces. Communication and training enhances awareness and
helps to deter bribery.
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(vi) Monitoring and review
The organization should monitor and review procedures designed to prevent bribery and make
improvements where necessary. The risks an organization faces may change and, therefore, an
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organization should evaluate the effectiveness of its anti-bribery procedures and adapt where
necessary. The question of whether an organization had adequate procedures in place to prevent
bribery is a matter that will be determined by the courts by taking into account the circumstances
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of the case. The onus will, however, be on the organization to prove it had adequate procedures in
place. If an organization is charged with bribery it can raise the defence that it had adequate
procedures designed to prevent it.
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b) Fraudulent Trading: This offence is committed If the company has carried on its business with the
intent to defraud the creditors of the company. Fraudulent trading can also be a civil offence but it
only applied if the company is in liquidation.
c) Wrongful Trading: According to the Insolvency Act 1986, wrongful trading refers to companies
that continued to carry on their daily business trading insolvent, that is, unable to pay their debts as
they fall due. It is usually a case of hoping that things will improve even though they continue to spiral
downward. In wrongful trading there is no intent to defraud the company’s creditors but merely a
case of poor judgment or the failure of directors to carry out their responsibilities. A judgment of
wrongful trading carries with it potential disqualification as a director for up to 15 years, plus other
financial fines and penalties. Being held personally liable for company debts is also a possibility.
Although not considered a criminal offence, wrongful trading is a civil offence which is taken very
seriously by the courts.
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d) Director while being disqualified: A person who continues to act as a director even after being
disqualified under the company director disqualification Act 1986 will be personally liable for the
company’s debts.
e) Phoenix Companies: A phoenix company is where the assets of one Limited Company are moved
to another legal entity. Often some or all of the directors remain the same and in some cases, the new
company has the same or a similar name to the failed business. The phoenix company will operate in
the same sphere as its predecessor. It is a criminal offence to create such a company within 5 years of
the original company being liquidated.
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default. It is a defence for a person charged to show that he acted honestly and that in the
circumstances in which the company's business was carried on the default was excusable.
c) False Information: An offence is committed if a director's report containing the statutory
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statement is approved but is false. Every director who either knew that the statement was false, or was
reckless to as to whether it was false and failed to take reasonable steps to prevent the report from
being approved commits the offence.
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d) Filling of Accounts: If the company fails to file accounts after the end of its financial year then it
will be liable to fine.
e) Annual Return: Failure by the officers of the company to deliver the return on time will also be an
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offence under the Company’s Act 2006.
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for himself or another, or to cause loss to another, or to expose another to a risk of loss.
b) Failure to Disclose information: A person commits an offence of failing to disclose information if
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he dishonestly fails to disclose information to another person information which he is under a legal
duty to disclose and he intends, by failing to disclose the information, to make a gain for himself or
another, or to cause loss to another, or to expose another to a risk of loss.
c) Abuse of Position: Fraud by abuse of position is committed where a person occupies a position in
which he is expected to safeguard, or not to act against, the financial interests of another person, and
he dishonestly abuses that position and intends, by means of the abuse of that position, to make a
gain for himself or another, or to cause loss to another, or to expose another to a risk of loss.