INTRODUCTION TO

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Lars Drugge

KTH Vehicle Dynamics

Testing strategies

Problems occur which are dependent on several different factors,

some of these are:
• controllable
• observable
• unknown

Natural testing strategy, “one-factor-at-a-time”:

• Each variable is studied individually, while all others are held constant
• Very time consuming
• Information about possible interactions is lost

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 Design of Experiments

Multivariable testing methods – factorial experimental design:

• Several variables are varied simultaneously
• Shorter testing time
• Interactions between variables can be quantified
• Requires more planning, but gains greater efficiency

1. 2.

4. 3.

Example: Airbag test

• Development of airbags:
- Investigate the influence of airbag design on the
chest acceleration of a crash test dummy

• Three factor test with two levels for each factor:

Inflation speed S Low (-) High (+)

Airbag volume B Small (-) Large (+)
Vent area V Small (-) Large (+)

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 Test plan and results

Balanced test plan:

• Each factor is tested the same number of times (4) on
each level (2), and no test is repeated
Vent area constant

Trial

Subset

Subset of results
Trial

Denominator

Denominator = number of times each factor has been tested at respective level

Effect, ci = difference between the average value of all the results for i (+)
and the corresponding average value of the results for i (-)

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 Effect of factor S
Trial

Denominator

55.6  52.2 56.2  61.6

Effect of factor S: cs  
2 2
 56.2  55.6  61.6  52.2
Rewriting: cs   5.0m / s 2  S
2

Effect of factor B
Trial
Result vector

Coefficient vector
Denominator

Numerator = sum of the element-wise product of the coefficient vector

and the result vector

 56.2  55.6  61.6  52.2

Effect of factor B: cB   1.0m / s 2  B
2

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 Graphical representation

Inflation speed, S Airbag volume, B

Interaction effect
Trial

Denominator

Interaction effect, cS*B = half the difference between the effect of S when
B = B(+) and the effect of S when B = B(-)

(52.2  61.6)  (55.6  56.2)

cS  B   4.4m / s 2  SB
2
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 Interaction effect
56.2  55.6  61.6  52.2
Rewriting: cS  B   4.4m / s 2  SB
2

Coefficent vector = element-wise product of the coefficient vectors for

S and B

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Evaluation of subset of results

Orthogonal L4 design matrix
Trial

Denominator

• Inflation speed, S, is more important than airbag volume, B

• The interaction between them control the choice of airbag volume

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 Orthogonal design matrix

• Characterised by the fact that the scalar product of

each pair of column vectors is zero

• Lists of orthogonal test matrices available

• New test matrices can be generated:

for factors with two, three or more levels, as well as
combinations where some factors are tested on two
levels and others on three levels

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Result of orthogonal L8 matrix

Interaction effects
Introduce factor V

Trial

• =

Denominator

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 Pareto chart

• Absolute values of effects are arranged in order of magnitude

• Random experimental variations should appear as a straight line

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Prediction

The effects can also be used to predict the outcome of coming tests:

The prediction = ỹ + ½ . the scalar product of the Coefficient row and the Effect row.

Prediction => 55.1 + ½ (5.8 – 2.35 + 2.55 – 3.5) = 56.3 m/s2

Trial 1 = 56.2 m/s2

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 Full factorial design

A full factorial design where k factors are tested on p levels

requires that the total number of experiments N are

N = pk

k = 3, p = 2 gives N = 23 = 8

k = 7, p = 2 gives N = 27 = 128

• The number of trials grows exponentially with the number of

factors!

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Example: Vehicle handling

• Evaluate the influence of vehicle load and tyre pressure on

vehicle handling

• Analyse the vehicle steady state handling characteristics

• Determine the understeer gradient, Kus

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 Understeer gradient

• If Kus = 0 the vehicle is neutralsteered. This implies

that the steering wheel angle is constant, independent
on speed, when driving in a circle with radius R.

• If Kus > 0 the vehicle is understeered. As the speed increases

an increasing steering wheel angle is needed to keep the
vehicle on the circular path.

• If Kus < 0 the vehicle is oversteered. A decreasing steering

wheel angle is needed to keep the vehicle on the circular
path as the speed increases.

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Experimental design

• Two factors (k=2) are tested on two levels (p=2):

Factor Low level High level

Axle load (rear), Fz [kg] 0 183

Tyre pressure (rear), P [bar] 1.8 2.2

• Number of trials:
N = pk = 22 = 4
=> L4 orthogonal full factorial test matrix

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 Test plan and results
Trial Fz P Fz x P Kus
1 -1 -1 1 5.87 .10-3
2 1 -1 -1 4.35 .10-3
3 -1 1 -1 5.85 .10-3
4 1 1 1 4.83 .10-3

-1.28 .10-3 0.24 .10-3 0.26 .10-3 5.22 .10-3

Pareto chart
0.0014
0.0012
0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0
Fz P xxFz
Fz P P

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Graphical representation
Kus

High pressure

Low pressure

Fz
High Axle load Low

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 Graphical representation
Kus

Low axle load

High axle load

P
High Pressure Low

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Fractional factorial design

The principle of fractional factorial design:

• Give up the possibility to analyse one or more

interactions

• The corresponding column can instead be used for

an additional main factor

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 L8 matrix with four factors

Additional factor, D

c1. c2 = c3 c3 = c4. c7
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Full factorial design

Full factorial design with 7 factors on two levels

N = 27 = 128

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 Fractional factorial design

1/2 Fractional Factorial Experiment

1/4
1/8

N = 16
64
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(Trial boxes
boxes marked
marked in
inblack)
black)
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Resolution
Resolution = Ability to isolate main effects from two-
and multiple-factor interactions

• Resolution V:
- All main factors and two-factor interactions are isolated
from other two-factor interactions

• Resolution IV:
- All main factors are isolated from two-factor interactions,
while two-factor interactions can be mixed with other
two-factor interactions

• Resolution III:
- Main factors and two-factor interactions can be mixed

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 Example of resolutions

Resolution
Matrix III IV V
L8 7 4 3*
L16 15 8 5
L32 31 16 6
L64 63 32 8

* Full factorial design

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Resolution for an L16 matrix

Additional factor, E

Additional factors, E & F

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 Example: Roll-over stability

Increase knowledge regarding heavy vehicle

roll-over stability:

• For increased passive safety

• When developing active roll-over prevention

systems

Source: E. Dahlberg; ”Commercial Vehicle Stability - Focusing on Rollover”,

Doctoral Thesis, KTH Vehicle Dynamics, 2001.

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Roll-over threshholds

Steady state roll-over threshhold (SSRT)

• Maximum lateral acceleration

Dynamic roll-over threshhold (DRT)

• Worst case measure (kinetic energy)
=> minimum lateral acceleration

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 Vehicle parameters
• Five factors on three levels (low, intermediate, high)
• Parameters set by the vehicle manufacturer
• Simulation using MBS model in ADAMS

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Orthogonal test matrix

N = 35 = 243

Fractional factorial
design, L27
=> 27 tests

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 Results – SSRT vs DRT
Linearised effects

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Non-linear effects - DRT

Non-linear main effects Non-linear interaction effects

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