WARSAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

INSTITUTE OF VEHICLES

Andrzej Reński

VEHICLES
Handling and stability

2018
ACKERMAN TURNING
GEOMETRY
l12
tg 1 
R

For small steer angle 1 :

l12
1 
R

Theoretical steer angle

- Ackerman angle δA:
l12
A 
R
ACKERMAN TURNING
GEOMETRY
Wheels of the car rotate
during turning without
lateral slip, when axis of
all wheels intersect each
other in one point O

Relation between sterer

angles of the inner
wheel w and the steer
angle of the outer
wheel z :
b
ctg  z  ctg  w 
l12
 Maneuverability

D – Minimum turning circle diameter

D1 – Outside diameter of minimum
turning circle
D2 - Inside diameter of minimum
z max
turning circle

2 l12
D
sin  z max
z max
Maneuverability

s - gangway clearance for

turning
 Maneuverability

Regulation No. 107:

Uniform provisions concerning the approval of category M2 or M3 vehicles
with regard to their general construction
 Maneuverability

Regulation No. 107: When the vehicle moves from a straight line
approach into the circular area, no part of it shall move outside of that
vertical plane by more than 0.60 m
Maneuverability
HIGH SPEED CORNERING
Forces loaded the wheel:
Fz – vertical load,
Fx – longitudinal force,
Fy lateral force,
road reactions:
X – longitudinal,
Y – lateral,
Z – normal,
M - driving or braking moment.

 - slip angle - angle between

wheel direction of heading
(wheel symmetry plane) and its
direction of travel (velocity v)
TYRE CORNERING
CHARACTERISTICS

Tyre cornering
force Fy as a
function of slip
angle α and normal
load Fz
(tyre 175HR14)
 TYRE CORNERING CHARACTERISTICS

Influence of the camber angle  on the tyre cornering

characteristics
 TYRE CORNERING CHARACTERISTICS

Influence of longitudinal force Fx on slip angles α caused by

lateral force Fy
 Tyre-road
contact area
Tyre side stresses

 - slip angle
Tyre side stresses
Tyre aligning moment

Deformation
Slip area
area
Tyre aligning moment

Slip angle
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING

l12
 1   1   2
R

l12
1   1   2
R

1   A   1   2

oversteer
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING
l12
 1   1   2
R

l12
1   1   2
R

1   A   1   2

understeer
 UNDERSTEER GRADIENT

Understeer gradient GS – 1 dH d A

GS  
gradient of the steer angle iuk da y da y
versus lateral acceleration

where:
H - steering wheel angle,
H
iuk  - steering ratio,
1
ay - lateral acceleration
 Comparison of over- and understeer

understeer oversteer

Understeer gradient GS > 0 GS < 0

Slip angles 1 > 2 1 < 2

Steer angle 1 > A 1 < A

Radius of turn l12 l12

R> R< 
1 1
Comparison of over- and understeer

Oversteer (a) and understeer (b)

cars under side wind

Wind
 Camber change

Influence of the camber angle  on the tyre cornering

characteristics
 Camber change
a b

The effect of camber change can be

c utilise to obtain understeer characteristic
of the car, when the suspension, which
gives camber angles coherent to the
body roll angle (a), will be used on the
front axle and on the rear axle the
dependent suspension (c) or the
suspension, which gives camber angles
opposite to roll angle of the body (b).
Roll moment
distribution

Without roll moment

Side force =
2 · 3300 N = 6600 N

With roll moment

Side force =
3000 N + 3500 N = 6500 N
Roll moment distribution

The moment transferred

k 1
M1  M
by the front suspension Mφ1 k 1  k  2

and by the rear suspension Mφ2 k 2

M 2  M
k 1  k  2
HIGH SPEED CORNERING
Equations of motion:

K1  K 2 K 1 l1  K 2 l2  m v 2
m y  y    Fy  K 1 1  K 2  2
v v
K 1 l12  K 2 l22 K l K l
J
    1 1 2 2 y  Mz  K 1 l1 1  K 2 l2  2
v v
Mechanika ruchu krzywoliniowego
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING
Equation of forces in y-axis direction

-Fby + Y1 cos1 + Y2 cos2 + Fy = 0

Equation of moments

-Mb + Y1 cos1 l1 - Y2 cos2 l2 + Mz = 0

Inertia force Fby is a sum of centrifugal force Fr = m v 

and a force of inertia caused by vehicle acceleration v

Fby = m v 
 cos + m v sin = m x  + m y
Equations of motion:

-m (x   y ) + Y1 + Y2 + Fy = 0
-J  + Y1 l1 - Y2 l2 + Mz = 0
HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Y1 = K1 α1
l1 
1  1   
x
y

x
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Y2 = K2 α2
l2  
y
 2  2   
x x
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING

-m (x   y ) + Y1 + Y2 + Fy = 0
-J  + Y1 l1 - Y2 l2 + Mz = 0

 y l1    y l2  
 m x   y   K1  1     K 2  2     Fy  0
 x x   x x 
 y l1    y l2  
 J
  K1 l1  1     K 2 l2   2     Mz  0
 x x   x x 
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING
 y l1    y l2  
 m x   y   K1  1     K 2  2     Fy  0
 x x   x x 
 y l1    y l2  
 J
  K1 l1  1     K 2 l2   2     Mz  0
 x x   x x 

x  v  const

K1  K 2 K 1 l1  K 2 l2  m v 2
m y  y    Fy  K 1 1  K 2  2
v v
K 1 l12  K 2 l22 K 1 l1  K 2 l2
J
    y  Mz  K 1 l1 1  K 2 l2  2
v v
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING
K1  K 2 K 1 l1  K 2 l2  m v 2
m y  y    Fy  K 1 1  K 2  2
v v
K 1 l12  K 2 l22 K 1 l1  K 2 l2
J
    y  Mz  K 1 l1 1  K 2 l2  2
v v

For steady state motion: δ2 = 0, δ1 = const, y = const,  = const,

y  0, 
  0
K1  K 2 K 1 l1  K 2 l2  m v 2
y    Fy  K 1 1
v v
K 1 l1  K 2 l2 K 1 l12  K 2 l22
y    Mz  K 1 l1 1
v v
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING
K1  K 2 K 1 l1  K 2 l2  m v 2
y    Fy  K 1 1
v v
K 1 l1  K 2 l2 K 1 l12  K 2 l22
y    Mz  K 1 l1 1
v v

For Fy = 0, Mz = 0 K1 K 2 l12 v
  1
K1 K 2 l12  m v K1 l1  K 2 l2 
2 2

or v
  1
2 m  l1 l2 
l12  v   
l12  K 2 K1 
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING
Otherwise  l12 m  l1 l2 
1   v    
v l12  K 2 K 1 
 1
With  and v 
  ay
v R
l12 m  l1 l2 
1   a y   
R l12  K 2 K 1 

Steering wheel angle: δH = δ1 iuk; where iuk – steering system ratio

l12
Ackerman’s angle: A 
R
1 m  l2 l1 
H   A  a y   
iuk l12  K 1 K 2 
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING

1 m  l2 l1 
H   A  a y   
iuk l12  K 1 K 2 

1 dH d A
Understeer gradient according to ISO 4138: GS  
iuk da y day

For steady state motion: δH = const, δA = const, ay = const

1 m  l2 l1 
H   A  a y GS GS    
iuk l12  K 1 K 2 
 HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Movement of a car at constant Movement of a car in a circle with

speed over circles with different constant radius with various constant
radius R speeds v

1 – understeering vehicle, 2 – neutral, 3 – oversteering,

4 – vehicle with variable steering characteristics