Analysis Report

Final year project Design of Axial flow teff thresher
1. BACKGROUND TO THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
"Over 80 percent of mankind's diet is provided by the seeds of less than a dozen plant species."
Over the years man has invented new machines and techniques to increase the amount and variety of
crop production. [ILCA, 1990]
The roots of farming began in the areas of present day Turkey and the Middle East about 10,000
years ago. [ILCA, 1990]

In the 1850's, the industrial revolution spilled over to the farm with new mechanized methods
which increased production rates. Early on, the large changes were in the use of new farm implements.
Most of these early implements were still powered by horse or oxen. These new implements combined
with crop rotation, manure and better soil preparation lead to a steady increase of crop yield in Europe.
[ILCA, 1990]
Ethiopia is endowed with abundant agricultural resources. Having an altitude ranging from 180
meters below sea level to 4,620 meters above sea level, the country is characterized with diverse
physical features that comprise 18 major agro-ecological zones and 62 sub-zones each having its own
physical and biological potential. Due to these facts, the country possesses one of the largest and most
diverse genetic resources in the world. [ILCA, 1990]
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy. The sector accounts currently for 90
percent of the total foreign exchange earning and 85 percent of employment. It also plays a crucial role
in providing raw materials to the local industry. Ethiopia, with an area of 112.3 million hectares, is the
ninth largest and third most populous country in Africa. [ILCA, 1990]
The Ethiopian agriculture is basically comprised of smallholder farming which accounts for
more than 90% of the agricultural production and 95% of the total area under crop. 94% of crop and
98% of coffee is produced by smallholders. The remaining 6% of crop and 2% of coffee is generated
from mechanized farms. [ILCA, 1990]
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The major crops grown are cereals, pulses and oil seeds in order of their importance. Considering
the 1992 smallholder farmers' production, cereals (teff, wheat, barely, maize and sorghum) accounted
for 89% of the total crop production and 81% of the crop land. In the same year, pulses contributed
about 10% of the total production, occupying 15% of the total land cultivated; while oil seeds
production accounted for 1% of the total production occupying 4% of the total land under
cultivation. [ILCA, 1990]
Agriculture is predominantly rain fed depending on two rainy seasons. These are the
short rain season, Belg, from mid-February to the end of April that contributes 5% of the
crop output, and the long rain season, Meher, covering the months of June to September
which accounts for 95%. For many years, crop production showed a fluctuating trend with
an average annual growth rate of 0.8%. It grew by 2% per annum during 1965-73, and at 0%
- 3% during 1974-91. It reached its lowest point of 0.5% in 1991/92. In 1992/93 it showed
an improvement by 6.2%. In 1993/94 it declined below zero by 4.5% due to severe droughts,
pest outbreaks, etc. After many years of stagnation, food production started peaking recently
with a record 8.7 million tones of cereal production in 1995/96 and about 10 million tones in
1996/97. [ILCA, 1990]
Presently, it is believed that one can improve productivity of the smallholder farmer be
in Ethiopia by using existing resources of land, labor and capital in better ways through
improved technology, be it biological, chemical or mechanical. [ILCA, 1990]
Agriculture has always been, and remains, the cornerstone of the Ethiopian economy, and small-
scale farm farming is the backbone of the sector. Small-scale production accounts for 96% of the
cropped area and 90-94 % of the cereals, pulses and oilseeds produced. Agriculture employs 80-85% of
the population. About 60% of agricultural output comes from crops, with livestock and forestry
producing 30% and 7%, respectively. According to the 1995/96 agriculture survey, cereals cover the
largest share of the cropped land (84.55%), followed by pulses (11.13%) and others (4.32%). [MOA,
1995]
Subsistence sector technology is largely traditional and rain fed, with very limited areas of
irrigation. Cereal yields are 0.8-1.0 t/ha for teff, 1.2-1.4 t/ha for wheat, 1.1-1.5 t/ha for barley and 1.6-2.0
t/ha for maize, as estimated by the Central Statistic Authority. [MOA, 1995]
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1.1 Food Crops
Ethiopia has rich soil and diversified climatic regions suitable for the production of food crops.
About 146 types of crops are grown. The major food crops grown in the country are cereals, pulses and
oil seeds. The main cereal groups include teff, barely, wheat, maize and sorghum. Among those cereals
let’s have a not about teff. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
1.2 Teff
1.2.1 Center of origin and diversity

The fact that the genetic diversity for teff exists no where in the world except in Ethiopia,
indicates that teff originated and was domesticated in Ethiopia. The only country outside Ethiopia where
teff has become an important crop is South Africa. . Teff was introduced to South Africa in 1886. On the
basis of linguistic, historic, geographic and botanical notes, teff is assumed to have originated in
northeastern Africa. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
1.2.2 Geographic distribution In Ethiopia (Agronomy)
In Ethiopia, teff is cultivated in much the same way as wheat and barley. Depending on the
location and maturity period of the cultivar, it is grown during the main growing season between July
and November, and also during the small rainy season between March and June. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
Most of the Ethiopian farmers use traditional landraces of teff and these are distributed all over
the country. Local cultivars such as GeaLamie, Dabi, ShewaGimira, Beten and Bunign, which are early
maturing varieties (<85 days), are widely used in areas that have a short growing period due to low
moisture stress or low temperature. The same varieties are also used in areas with adequate rainfall. In
the regions of Gojam and Shewa, which are located in the central highlands of Ethiopia and are also the
largest and major teff production areas in the country, modern varieties are used as well as traditional
landraces and local cultivars. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
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1.2.3 Uses
In Ethiopia, teff is traditionally grown as a cereal crop. The grain is ground to flour which is
mainly used for making a popular pancake -- like the local bread called enjera -- and sometimes for
making porridge. The grain is also used to make local alcoholic drinks, called tela and katakana. Teff
straw, besides being the most appreciated feed for cattle, is also used to reinforce mud and plaster the
walls of tukuls and local grain storage facilities called gotera.. The other health related benefit of teff is
the high fiber content of the grain. This is particularly important in dealing with diabetes and assisting
with blood sugar control.. In achieving blood glucose control among the Ethiopian immigrant population
in Seattle, understanding the content and variety of grains used locally to make enjera is critical. It
contains 11% protein, 80% complex carbohydrate and 3% fat. It is an excellent source of essential
amino acids, especially lysine, the amino acid that is most often deficient in grain foods. Teff contains
more lysine than barley, millet, and wheat and slightly less than rice or oats. Teff is also an excellent
source of fiber and iron, and has many times the amount of calcium, potassium and other essential
minerals found in an equal amount of other grains. When teff is used to make enjera, a short
fermentation process allows the yeast to generate more vitamins.
[http://www.wam.umd.edu/tes/teff/injera.html] Teff is nearly gluten-free, and is gaining popularity in
the whole food and Health food industry in the U.S. as an alternative grain for persons with gluten
sensitivity. Teff may also have applications for persons with Celiac Disease. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
Enjera made from teff is traditionally consumed with wot. The traditional way of consuming teff
with wot provides a well balanced diet. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
1.3 Types of teff
There are several varieties of teff, each with characteristics best suited to specific conditions. It is
not in the scope of this paper to discuss the details about all the different varieties of this grain. In
general, there are three main types of teff: white, red and brown. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
White teff: is the preferred type but only grows in certain regions of Ethiopia and does not grow in
Eritrea. White teff grows only in the Highlands of Ethiopia, requires the most rigorous growing
conditions, and is the most expensive form of teff. Just like white bread has been a status symbol in the
United States, white teff was reserved for the wealthiest and most prestigious families in Ethiopia. The
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prestige associated with consuming white teff, as well as its more stringent growing conditions,
contributes to the increased cost of white teff. The shelf life of Enjera is extended with the use of white
teff. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
Red teff: the least expensive form and the least preferred type, has the highest iron content. In persons
living in areas of the country where consumption of red teff is most prevalent, hemoglobin levels were
found to be higher with a decreased risk of anemia related to parasitic infection. As studies of the
increased health benefits associated with high iron contents in red teff become elucidated, there is more
acceptance of this grain in society. Today in Ethiopia, red teff is becoming more popular related to its
increased iron content. The data composition tables available were not able to differentiate the iron
content between red and white teff. Studies indicate that the level of iron in the teff is related to the
threshing of the grain on the soil. To our knowledge, no studies investigating the iron content of the soil
and its possible effect on the iron contents of the grain have been conducted. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
1.4 Demand for teff
It would seem that because of its superior nutritional qualities, teff would be available to all
persons in Ethiopia to make enjera. However, while it is the preferred grain in making enjera, its
availability is limited by its high cost. Teff is currently the most expensive grain to purchase in Ethiopia
as it requires labor-intensive harvesting and processing techniques (threshing), and produces especially
low yields. Although teff covers the greatest land space in Ethiopia, it has the lowest yield per hectare,
an average of 910kg/ha. In 1996-1997, teff covered 31% of the total landmass, as compared to 17% and
13% for corn and wheat respectively. The total yield for the teff grown in that year was only 26-28%.
Research is currently under way to improve the yield of this cereal crop both in Ethiopia and in the U.S.
[Ketema, Seyfu, 1996].
1.5 Limitations and Prospects for Improving Teff
The small size of teff seed poses problems during sowing, and indirectly during weeding and
post-harvesting (threshing). The plants stand unevenly after germination and have a nutrient efficiency
use of the crop and crop yield. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
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Landraces and current cultivars give low yield. At present the national average grain yield of teff
is 910 kg/ha. Improved varieties of teff give a grain yield of 1700-2200 kg/ha on farmers' fields and
2200-2800 kg/ha on research managed large farms. However, no compressive work is done on
improving this amount to a better yield. [Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
Threshers or combine harvesters are used to thresh teff. However, seed loss is incurred because
teff seed is very small and light and gets blown away with the chaff. Harvesting of the crop is difficult
because of lodging. Since teff lodges heavily it is not advisable to use higher rates of fertilizer to
increase yield. The current landraces and cultivars used are not lodging resistant and the development of
genetically lodging-resistant cultivars is essential. Landraces and current cultivars give a low yield.
[[Ketema, Seyfu, 1996; IARO, 1993 ; Ketema, Seyfu, 1996]
By comparison to other grain crops, no regional or international research network exists and
improvement work is mainly confined to Ethiopia. The progress in improvement work on teff has not
been as rapid as on other major cereals consumed worldwide. This is mainly due to the fact that teff is
only consumed in Ethiopia at present. Hence, contrary to wheat, maize or rice, the combined research
funds in billions of dollars and the efforts of thousands of scientists from different nations have not been
oriented to its improvement. At present, Ethiopia is the only country providing the major input for both
research funds and the scientists who work towards its improvement. Therefore, the lack of rapid
progress in research is not due to the fact that the crop cannot be improved, but only because of
limitations in funds and research personnel. Even with the limited amounts of funds and research
personnel made available, progress in both basic as well as applied research so far is encouraging
[Seyfu, 1997].
1.6 Agricultural Machineries and Farm Implements
The use of modern tractors, combine harvesters and related heavy machineries is still very
limited in Ethiopia. The Nazareth Tractor Factory, with its limited capacity, is the only company that
assembles tractors in the country. On the other hand, a rising trend in the import of tractors and
harvesters is being observed as of recent years. Small-scale farmers on their part are looking more into
the use of small mechanically-powered equipment both for crop production and post-harvest activities.
Thus, great opportunities lie in the importation, assembly, manufacture and distribution of agricultural
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heavy machineries as well as of small-powered equipment such as irrigation pumps, sprayers, mowers,
bailers, sellers, threshers, flour mills, powered fishing boats, etc. . [MOA, 1995]
Furthermore, agricultural hand tools and traditional ploughs still constitute the major means of
agricultural production by Ethiopian farmers. Artesian production, the main supplier of hand tools and
implements, is showing a declining trend mainly due to shortage and rising cost of raw materials. The
current industrial production of these implements is believed to be far below the present and future
needs of farmers. Consequently, the manufacture, for instance, of improved agricultural tools and
implements is very much encouraged. [MOA, 1995]
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2. INTRODUCTION
Cereals are the first cultivated grasses belonging to the Poaceae family. The popular cereal crops
of the world include wheat, barley, oats, rice, maize, sorghum, and millets, but the major cereals of the
developing countries are maize, rice, sorghum, and millet. However in Ethiopia the popular cereal crop
is teff. [Okaka 1997].
Threshing and Harvesting constitutes a major operation among agricultural activities and differs
according to the part of the plant to be harvested. A number of small, medium, and large threshers have
been in existence for quite a long time, but due to low or poor performance in comparison with the
traditional methods, they have not been adopted to a significant extent. Some are hand-held threshers.
Threshing is a major aspect that is usually carried out after harvesting of grain crops. This involves the
beating of the grains from the stalk [Nkama 1992].
We have recently revamped reports on an axial type of teff thresher. This report collects together
a bunch of stuff and has two purposes: the technical drawings and the photos should give ideas to people
working or thinking of working on the same kind of stuff; and the other purpose we guess is nostalgia.
There is some stuff here which is effectively obsolete, and other bits which are still to some extent valid.
Threshing is the action of separating the grain, for example of cereals, grain legumes or grasses,
from the stalk of the plant. One traditional method of threshing is that of beating the plants with a
wooden stick or with a hinged wooden flail, with the heads of the plant inside a sack, or with the
unenclosed heads lying on a mud or concrete threshing floor. Another traditional method is to drive
cattle repeatedly over the plants so that threshing occurs by the action of the hooves. An improvement
on that technique is to use an animal-drawn threshing sledge or threshing rollers. The main problems of
these types of animal-powered threshing are fouling, burying or cracking of the grain. These human and
animal-powered methods of threshing are still widely used.
It is more or less stated in chapters one and two that why we are designing the thresher for teff.
All the necessary information is provided in the late chapters. Basically we start from scratch, that there
was no any thing done on the teff threshing machine. But we try to compromise with the works done
more on the rice thresher.
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3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT
The General objective of the project is to Design low-priced and efficient teff thresher which is
used for substitution of labor intensive traditional way of threshing of teff by mechanical means with
affordable price for farmers.
3.1 Limitation
 There is a distinct lack of design data relating to crops such as teff.
 Lack of specific reference material
 Limitation of time
 Uncertainties on design parameters due to lack of experimental data on field test
3.2 Scope
 Verifying the mechanism, main dimensions, weight, materials and accessories of the thresher.
3.3 Methodology
Throughout our project work, we’ use both primary and secondary resourc
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Primary resources:
 Surveying on existing machine Secondary resource:
 Interviewing technical person.  Books and manuals
 Copies of literatures
 Internets
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Mekelle university Design of Axial flow teff Thresher
4. LITERATURE REVIEW
4.1 Definition of Threshing
Threshing consists of separating the grains from the stocks. This separation, done by hand or
machine, is obtained by threshing, by friction or by shaking the products; the difficulty of the
process depends on the varieties grown, and on the moisture content and the degree of maturity of
the grain.
4.2 Threshing and Winnowing
Threshing: is separating the grain from the stalks. In early days this was accomplished by men
hitting it with a flail. After separation, it would be tossed into the air to separate it from the chaff
known as winnowing. In some countries the grain was spread on the floor and threshed by animal
pulled heavy sleds drawn over the grains. After the grain is separated from the straw it would be
again winnowed.
Threshing operations follow the harvest and whatever pre-drying of the crop is undertaken.
These operations may be carried out in the field or on the farm, by hand or with the help of animals
or machines. Depending on the influence of agronomic, economic and social factors, threshing is
done in different ways:
 threshing by hand, with simple tools;

 threshing with the help of animals or vehicles;
 mechanical threshing, with simple machines operated manually;
 Mechanical threshing, with motorized equipment.
The operations of harvesting and threshing or shelling can be carried out simultaneously, by
combine-harvesters. Whatever the system used, it is very important that threshing be done with care.
Otherwise, these operations can cause breakage of the grains or thus reducing the product's quality
and fostering subsequent losses from the action of insects and moulds. Transport of the product from
the field to the threshing place must also be handled with special care, since it can bring about severe
losses.
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4.2.1 Hand threshing
One of the simplest systems for threshing teff is to pick up the sheaf of teff and strike the
panicles against a hard surface. Another frequently-used method of threshing teff is to trample it
underfoot. Threshing of teff, as well as of sorghum, beans and groundnuts can be done by striking
sheaves spread out on a threshing-floor with a flail or stick. The threshing-floors on which the
sheaves are spread must have a hard, clean surface. By using one of these methods of hand-
threshing, a worker can obtain 15 to 40 kg of product per hour.
4.2.2 Threshing with animals or vehicles
If draught animals are available and there are large quantities of teff, threshing can be done
by driving the animals (harnessed, in that case, to threshing devices) over a layer of sheaves about 30
cm thick. This operation, which is also called "treading out", can equally well be accomplished with
vehicles. This method of threshing teff is adopted in some Asian countries, using a tractor for power
instead of draught animals. Paddy is obtained by running the tractor twice over sheaves of teff that
are spread in layers on a circular threshing-floor 15-18 m in diameter. The sheaves must be turned
over between the two passages of the tractor.
4.2.3 Threshing with hand-driven machines
Machines driven by a manual device or a pedal are often used to improve yields and working
conditions during threshing. By means of the handle or pedal, a big drum fitted with metal rings or
teeth is made to rotate. The teff is threshed by hand-holding the sheaves and pressing the panicles
against the rotating drum. The speed of the threshing-drum must be kept at about 300 revolutions per
minute (rpm).The hand-held sheaves must all be of the same length with the panicles all laid in the
same direction, and the grains must be very ripe and dry. The machine must be continuously and
regularly fed, but without introducing excessive quantities of product. If the paddy obtained contains
too many unthreshed panicles and plant residues, a second threshing must be followed by an
effective cleaning of the product. Use of these threshing machines may require two or three workers.
Depending on the type of machine, the skill of the workers and organization of the work, yields can
be estimated at a maximum of 100 kg/in.
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4.2.4 Threshing with motorized equipment
In describing operations of threshing with motorized equipment, the principal reference will
be to motorized threshing-machines. Although they are gradually being replaced by combine-
harvesters, these machines still have an important place in the post-harvest production process,
especially for their convertibility. By the simple replacement of a few accessories and the
appropriate changes in settings, these machines can treat different kinds of grain (e.g. rice, maize,
sorghum, beans, sunflowers, wheat, soybeans, etc.).Equipped with a rotating threshing-drum (with
beaters or teeth) and a stationary counter-thresher, these machines often have devices to shake out
the straw and to clean and bag the Brain. Whether self-propelled or tractor-drawn, these threshers are
often mounted on rubber tyred wheels for easy movement to the field. The use of motorized
threshers may require two or three workers. Yields depend on the type of machine, the nature and
maturity of the grain, the skill of the workers and organization of the work, and they can vary from
100 to 5000 kg/in.
Just as a guide, the following table shows the principal technical features of the multipurpose
motorized thresher.
Table 1, Threshing speed and yield of different grains
FEATURES GRAINS
MAIZE RICE SORGHUM BEAN
Threshing speed (rpm) 800 800 1200 600
Yields (kg/h) 1500 to 2000 450 to 600 450 to 600 450 to 600
4.3 Threshing Machines
The thrashing machine, or, in modern spelling, threshing machine (or simply thresher), was
first invented by Scottish mechanical engineer Andrew Meikle for use in agriculture. It was invented
(1784) for the separation of grain from stalks and husks. For thousands of years, grain was separated
by hand with flails, and was very laborious and time consuming. Mechanization of this process took
much of the drudgery out of farm labor. http://www.patentec.com/data/class/460.html
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Threshing is of course just one process in getting cereals to the grinding mill and customer. The teff
needs to be grown, cut, stocked (bundled}, hauled, threshed, and then the grain hauled to an elevator
and the chaff baled. For many years each threshing machine from 1881of these steps was an
individual process, requiring teams of workers and many machines.
[http://www.patentec.com/data/class/460.html]
4.4 Modern Developments
Modern day combine harvesters (or simply combines) operate on the same principles and use the
same components as the original threshing machines built in the 19th century. Combines also
perform the reaping operation at the same time.
Today, as in the 19th century, the threshing begins with a cylinder and concave. The cylinder has
serrated bars, and rotates at high speed (about 500 rpm), so that the bars beat against the grain. The
concave is curved to match the curve of the cylinder, and serves to hold the grain as it is beaten. The
beating releases the grain from the straw and chaff.
Next, the beaten grain is lifted through a set of straw walkers, which carry the large pieces of
straw away allowing the grain and chaff to fall below. Below the straw walkers, a fan blows a stream
of air across the falling grain, removing dust and fines and blowing them away.
The grain falls into a set of two sieves mounted on an assembly called a shoe. The sieve is
shaken mechanically. The top sieve has larger openings, and serves to remove large pieces of chaff
from the grain stream. The lower sieve separates clean grain, which falls through, from incompletely
threshed pieces.
A large amount of chaff and straw would accumulate around a threshing machine, and several
innovations, such as the air chaffer, were developed to deal with this. Combines generally chop and
disperse straw as they move through the field, though the chopping is disabled when the straw is to
be baled, and chaff collectors are sometimes used to prevent the dispersal of weed seed throughout a
field.
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Both the older and modern machines require a good deal of skill to operate. The concave
clearance, cylinder speed, fan velocity, sieve sizes, and feeding rate must be adjusted for crop
conditions.
From early 20th century, a self-powered threshing machine, run by a gasoline or diesel engine,
has been developing in a different way. It has been designed especially for a use to thresh rice,
because rice is the most important crop there.
4.5 Post-Production Operations of teff.
4.5.1 Harvesting
Teff is harvested when the vegetative parts turn yellowish or straw color. This depends on the
maturity period of varieties, which varies from 60 to 120 days. Drying of the pedicel (straw color)
which holds individual spikes is a good indicator of maturity of teff Harvesting before the plant gets
too dry helps prevent losses owing to shattering [Seyfu, 1997]. The average cutting loss is not
known. The moisture content is not specifically determined for teff, but for many cereals it is around
12 percent. Teff does not need artificial drying before harvesting. The seeds are dry when the plant is
harvested. [(http//www.fao.org/inpho/]
Harvesting is carried out by grasping the teff plants in one hand and cutting them with the sickle
near the base of the plant. The cut plants are placed in piles on the ground. In some parts of Ethiopia,
such as in Showa province, the farmer when harvesting the teff, crouches and cuts the plants near the
soil surface. This is done especially when the teff plants are short. In other parts of the country, the
whole plant is pulled out. Eight to twelve people can harvest one Massa which is about 2000-2500m2
in one working day. Farmers share their human labor and their harvesting equipment during
harvesting. Rarely do farmers harvest alone on their farm. After the plant is cut and placed on the
ground, other people, usually the elderly, women and young children follow the harvesters and tie
the harvested plants in small bundles or sheaves called Nado. [(http//www.fao.org/inpho/]
There is a migration of farmers during harvesting. Farmers, whose teff crop is late for harvesting
mostly in highland areas, migrate to middle and lower altitude areas for harvesting. They earn much
for their services and return to harvest their own crop. Due to lodging problems and shattering of
seeds during harvesting teff is not suitable for mechanized harvesting. Quality consideration during
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harvesting is not possible. Grass weeds could be harvested along with teff and this could lower the
quality of the product. Farmers usually do their best not to harvest grass weeds along with teff during
harvesting. The harvested crop is then carried on the women's backs, men's shoulders or heads
and/or on a donkey to near the threshing ground in the village where a large stack or pile, called
Kemmer. Stones are usually the base for Kemmer thus eliminating access of termites to the crop.
[(http//www.fao.org/inpho/]
Figure 1: Pile of teff called Kemmer.[(http//www.fao.org/inpho/]
In areas where termites are non existent the stacks can be on bare ground. The heads are turned
towards the centre of the stack so that rain will not wet them, and animals cannot feed on them. The
crop remains in the stack until the farmer is ready to thresh. [Seyfu, 1997].
4.5.2 Threshing
Threshing is done after all crops have been gathered from the field. The threshing ground is
prepared first. A threshing ground called Awdemma is made on nearly level or gently sloping ground
by digging out the vegetation inside the soil and smoothing the ground.
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Figure 2: Threshing of teff.
Note that the farmers are permanently pushing teff to the centre of the threshing ground with forks
that have three or four prongs. [http//www.fao.org/inpho/]
In some parts of the country the ground is made firm by wetting the soil and then driving
cattle over it. Then fresh cattle dung is collected from corrals or fields where cattle have grazed and
a mixture of manure and water is prepared. This mixture is prepared in a shallow hole dug in the
ground called Bola Obid, in earthenware jars, and a wooden container is prepared on the so-called
Awdemma. The loose soil is removed and the bare ground is smeared with this mixture. To some
extent, this reduces the mixing of the grain with soil. Pulse and other grain crops are threshed first.
Teff is then threshed on the firmed Awdemma. The size of the threshing ground varies in different
localities and dependent in part on the wealth of the farmer.[Taddesse, 1969].
Threshing may be a festive occasion. The farmers whose fields are being worked on is
expected to provide Tella a native beer and Enjera or roasted parched grains such as barley, maize,
etc. for the threshing day. Neighboring farmers are asked to help with the threshing. In return the
farmer helps them when they thresh their grain. Such supporting is called a Debo. Males mostly do
threshing. When threshing begins the farmer and his sons or friends get on the top of the teff stack
with sickles and undo the stack by taking out each sheaf, cutting the tie with a sickle and throwing it
onto the threshing ground. The untied bundles are spread evenly over the threshing ground with long
wooden forks called Andogo or Mansh. This has two Andogo or three to four Mansh slightly curved
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prongs or tines. Nowadays Mansh with four prongs made of metal are distributed and widely used in
many parts of the country. In many places, oxen are driven over the teff to tread out the grain. In
other parts of the country, threshing is done with cows or donkeys. The working animals are driven
in a circle round and round on the threshing by one or two men at a time. Sometimes the working
animals’ mouths are tied during threshing so that they cannot eat the grain. Men, who push it into the
centre with forks, Andogo or Mansh, keep teff on the threshing floor. After the top part of the teff
bundles broken or trampled out, the animals are driven out and workers start turning the broken teff
under, starting from one side. After they have done this several times, the straw with some grain
remaining in it is drawn aside with the Mansh and put in a long row. [Taddesse, 1969]
Here it is beaten or flailed with a long, slender stick, usually eucalyptus or with a long curved
stick usually made from Milletia ferruginea, known locally as Birberra or Maytenus ovatus, known
locally as Atat or Aule taffi meaning stick for teff. When the Aule Taffi is used two men usually
stand opposite each other along the row of straw and beat it in rhythm. Then the chaff with seeds is
thrown up against the wind to separate the seeds from the chaff (Figure 5). Then the straw is pulled
to the lower side of the Awdemma with the Mansh are removed with bundles of a branch of shrub
called Matoya or Abachara.
Figure 3: Separation of the chaff from the seeds after threshing: [http//www.fao.org/inpho]
The grain, with a lot of chaff called Galaba is then swept to the centre or to one side of the
Awdemma with dried kale heads tied into a small bunch Matragiya or with wooden shovels, Layada
or Lahada.
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Figure 4: Separation of the teff chaff from the seeds using the wind. [http//www.fao.org/inpho/]
The remaining chaff is then separated from the grain by wind. A farmer will put a small
amount of teff seeds together with small sized chaffs inside a Sefed. A Sefed is a kind of a fan woven
from grass stems. This fan is used for a lot of post harvest operations. This operation is carried out
by raising the fan above the farmers’ height and letting it drop smoothly so that the blowing wind
will separate the seeds from the chaff. Winnowing will then separate the chaff that cannot be
removed by the above-mentioned work. The remaining inert materials are removed by fanning with
an Afarssa or Maragabiya or small Sefed. The Maragabiya is a small piece of stiff skin from a wild
hog or the head of oxen with semi-circular wooden handle [Taddesse, 1969].
4.5.3 Cleaning
Women usually separate chaff from grain. The woman usually takes a container full of grain
and chaff and winnows it from a long strip. When she reaches the end of the row another person
using a Maragabiya starts fanning away the chaff that is too heavy for the wind by swinging the
Maragabiya to and throws over the grain. The woman then takes another container of grain and
winnows it by adding another layer over the previous one. It is fanned again and again with a
Maragabiya. This process is repeated until the cleaning is finished. Sieves remove the heavy
particles and dirt. If sieves are not available a bundle of kale heads is tied together right at the bottom
and the grain is poured over it so that the grains pass through this bundle while the dirt remain in the
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bundle. More cleaning work is done by women through sieving many times in their homes
[Taddesse, 1969].
A farmer grades his teff into two grades while it is on the Awdemma. When winnowing, the
light grains fall away from the centre of the windrows. These grains are considered to be of low
quality and are called Gerd while the heavy ones fall in the centre of the windrow. These are high in
quality. The Gerd that contains dirt and chaff is used for poultry and cattle feed (Taddesse, 1969).
Figure 5: Separation of teff seeds and chaff by winnowing.[http//www.fao.org/inpho/]
4.5.4 Utensils for measurement
After cleaning, the grain is measured and stored in different types of storage facilities. There
are many different kinds of measuring devices or utensils used. These differ in different
communities, but the ones most commonly used are kunna and Enkeb, which vary slightly from one
village to another. It usually has a volume of 4-5 kg and is made from wood, earthenware or grass
stalks. Another measuring device is known as Enkeb. This is a basket, is equivalent in volume to 3-4
kunnas. A Dawula is the other measuring unit. There is no container to measure a Dawula but it is
an imaginary container which will hold about 20 kunna or 4-6 Enkebs. Other types of measuring
devices are fibre and cloth sacks and Akomada which is a sack made from goat or sheep skin. Many
other measuring methods are used, but are far too many to mention here.The farmer measures his
crop to determine how much he can sell and how much he must retain for his family's use and for
seed. (Taddesse, 1969)
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4.5.5 Packaging and Storage
Farmers pack their produce in different packing materials, which are either the traditional
types such as Akomada or the modern packing materials such as plastic bags, sisal or plastic sacks.
The traditional ones are not preferred because of the odor that could affect the quality of the produce.
Modern packaging materials, especially plastic sacks, are much better since they prevent water from
penetrating into the seeds. The size of packaging materials differs according to the amount of the
seed to be stored or to be transported. For sale at the local market, small plastic sacks are preferred
while for long distance transport, export sacks of bigger sizes which contain 100kg teff are preferred.
Packing is done within the family. Mostly women put the grains in the sacks and males close the
sacks by hand sewing or tying with sisal or jute fibers.
After the grain is threshed, cleaned, and measured at the threshing ground it is stored in the
house or outside. Today, outside storage is not seen, unless it is in very remote areas. Farmers justify
that this is due to theft occurring from time to time. The seeds are already dried at the time of
harvesting and threshing. There is not as such quantified moisture content of seed for storage. The
moisture content of teff during storage as for other cereals is about 12 percent. Normally seeds are
dried in the open air under natural sun heat that will decrease the moisture content of the seeds. Up
to now there is no artificial drying facility for teff. Since it is dried during harvesting and storage, the
shelf life of teff is longer and can be stored quite safely for several years. Teff seeds are stored for
seed reserve for the next cropping season, for human consumption, for trade and at the cooperative
and governmental level for food reserves. The government is buying teff seeds for human
consumption from different teaching institutions, hospitals, and military institutions and for food
reserves. Teff as a food reserve is used during periods of famine in the country.
Usually teff is moved from a highly productive area to drought prone areas. A 3kg of teff
flour, 480g of Ersho, and 10 kg of water (6kg of water for dough and 4kg of water for baking) will
make 18 Enjera each Enjera weighing 450g. Accordingly, a family of three, consuming 6 Enjera a
day, needs only 190 kg of teff as a food reserve, which will last six months. Storage is in baskets,
pots, Gotera and Gusgusha or Gugusi, Gota or Gumbi, in barrels and Debgnt or Doggo.
There are several kinds of granaries; the most common ones are mentioned here. These
containers can be made in one piece or from 2-3 or more pieces fitted together. Usually a container
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made in one piece is called a Gusghusha or Gugusi. It is mostly used for one kind of grain. The one
made of many pieces or sections are called Gota or Gumbi. These are used for more than one type of
grain. When the grain is all used from the upper section, the housewife can lift up the upper section
and use the grain below. Children can get into the storage, Gota from the top and hand out the grain
in small containers. The size of a Gusghusha and Gota depends on the amount of grain one has.
These granaries are usually raised from the ground on pieces of stones placed at the corners. They
are moveable and can be used for a number of years if well made. There is a larger type of granary
referred to as Gotera. Richer farmers having a large amount of grain usually use them.
Teff can be stored or conserved for many years in practically any kind of storage system
without any appreciable change or damage from insect pests, if vermin and water are excluding from
the storage bins. Some farmers store chickpea and other pulse crops along with teff. This is due to
the minute size of the teff seeds, which could hamper the movement of weevils inside teff seeds and
the low level of oxygen by closing air holes. Small farmers store their grain in an upright
earthenware container made from mud reinforced with teff straw and sun dried during the dry
period. These are placed in the house. In some areas in the vicinity of Jimma, farmers store their
grain on straw (before threshing) in their granaries. In these, the sheaves are counted when they are
put up. The wife takes a sheaf or more according to the size of the family and threshes it on a fine
woven mat or basketry by hitting it with a small stick or by rubbing the panicles between her palms.
Grains, such as sorghum and corn, are stored under ground in some parts of the country, for example
in Harar, but it is unusual for teff to be stored in such pits. [Taddesse, 1969]
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5. Design analysis
5.1. Definitions
For the purpose of analysis and testing the thresher the following shall apply:
Actual capacity: The weight of the threshed grain collected from the main grain outlet per unit
time.
Clean threshed grain: Threshed grain with 100% purity exclusive of the empty grains and other
impurities
Concave clearance: The clearance between cylinder threshing elements and concave component
Concave component: An iron grill frame partly surrounding the cylinder on which the threshing
elements rubs, shear and/or impact the cut plants
Corrected capacity: The corrected capacity of the thresher at 20% grain moisture content (wet
basis), grain-straw ratio of 0.55 and 100% purity
Cylinder length: The distance between the outermost points along the cylinder base axis
Cylinder peripheral speed: The equivalent linear speed of the cylinder tip when running at normal
operating speed, expressed in m/s
Effective cylinder diameter: Outside diameter generated by the outermost point of the cylinder
threshing elements
Grain-straw ratio: Grain content the ratio of the weight of the grains present in the panicles, to the
total weight of the grain and straw in the same sample
Lower concave: A semi-circular shaped wire mesh or bar grate covering the lower portion of the
threshing chamber which causes the grains to separate from the panicles
Upper concave: A semi-circular shaped grate at the upper portion of the threshing cylinder with
louvers which assist threshing and axial movement of the straw
Prime mover: An electric motor, or a gasoline, or a diesel fed engine used to run the thresher
Threshing output: The weight of the threshed grains collected at the grain outlet
Total grain input: The sum of the weights of collected threshed grains and all threshing losses.
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5.2 Mode of Operation of the Design -Design Considerations

Already sickle plant bearing grains to be threshed out are put into the hopper in the direction of
the feed. The feed tray then swerves the stalk in between them as they are fed into the threshing
chamber by the pushing action of the stick or hand. As the grains-bearing stalks come out of the tray,
the grains get combed off the stalk by the tongs on the radial thresh comb. The combed off grains
fall on the sloppy tray and slide downwards. Simultaneously, the fanning effect of the drum blows
air against the direction of slope of the sloppy tray and blows up the lighter constituent and the
remaining stalk out of the thresh chamber. The lighter constituents includes premature grains, leaves
and in some cases weeds. The denser grains now fall down the slope under the action of gravity and
then collected by the sprout of the tray.
The rasp-bar-and wire-concave mechanism can be used for almost all crops, provided that
clearance stators-to-beaters is correct and that beater speed is correct for the crop being threshed.
These mechanism types are usually used on drum-type threshers, where the threshing was done in an
axial and not a radial axis.
Thus a choice exists between a wire concave system with manual feeding and steel rasp
beaters. Steel beaters give better flywheel effect and lower wind / air resistance losses, but probably
produce more grain cracking - we didn’t experiment with steel beaters at all. We don’t have any
experience on threshing.
Threshing velocity refers to the velocity of the beaters, hoops or pegs which strike and rub
the heads of grain. Too high a velocity results in breaking or even shattering of the grain. Thus
rendering it unsuitable for use as seed and making separation from the chaff extremely difficult. Too
low a threshing velocity causes insufficient separation of grain from the plant head.
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5.3 Basic assumptions and decisions
5.3.1 Design options

The following two tables will provide a brief description of the selection of the appropriate design considerations among the others. They
provide the required parameters for the design analysis.
Table 2, Design concept
No of sieves Drum speed Drum Concave No of spikes Type of Mtl. For most Power Sieve drive No of blowers
diam. clearance components Req. mechanism
At At rowscolumns
feed outlet
Concept A Non High drum 500mm 70 60 6 7 Steel37 7 KW Non Non
speed
(900rpm)
Concept B (One ) High drum 500mm 50 40 6 7 Steel37 7.5 KW Non Non
Only sieve speed
(900rpm)
Concept C (two) Normal drum 460mm 45 35 7 8 Steel37 8.3 KW Single drive for Non
1 straw walker speed both
& 1 sieve (750rpm)
Concept D (three) Normal drum 460mm 30 25 9 8 Steel52 9 KW Separate for each Single electric
1 straw walker & 2 speed drive
different (550rpm)
perforations size
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sieves
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5.3.2 Design Matrix
Table 3, Design Matrix
No Concept A Concept B Concept C Concept D

1 Raw materials 10 8 7 6
2 Efficiency 5 7 8 9
3 Power Requirement 9 8 7 6
4 Complexity 9 8 8 5
5 Cleaning Efficiency 4 6 8 10
6 Operation 5 6 8 9
7 Cost 9 8 8 7
8 Maintenance 9 8 8 7
9 Durability / strength 9 8 8 7
10 Manufacturing 8 8 7 6
11 Over all weight 8 8 8 7
12 Over all dimension 8 8 8 7
13 Acceptance 5 6 8 8
Total 98 99 101 94
5.4 Design of spike

The power required to thresh off grains from stalk is assumed to be 8.3 KW.
Reasons: Power requirement of multi crop thresher and wheat thresher varies from mostly 3.7KW to
15KWbased on yield per hour and other parameters. 8.3 KW is the power rating for two wheel
tractor available at [Farm Technology project MU-IUC]; hence it is feasible for testing purpose after
manufacturing.
Drum speed: It is taken to be 750 rpm.
Reason: most threshers are designed for drum rpm of 600 to 700 for optimum efficiency and Teff
threshing requires higher rpm of drum than other crops like maize which requires more torque than
rotation. At the same time the output of two wheel tractor available at the farm store is 540 to 750
rpm.
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The threshing is axial flow-type; it is more appropriate for teff than radial type because the flow is
axial, then the teff is beaten more than once through its flow.
For larger machines;

Recommended cylinder diameter is 457 to 610mm and width of cylinder in average is about 76.2
cm. [Smith Wilkes, 1979]
From the above recommendations, cylinder diameter of D= 460 mm
Width of W= 800 mm
Figure 6 cylinders (drum)

The torque required to thresh off grain from stalk
From
Where T= total torque

ω= drum speed in rad/sec
P= power required
Assume the whole engine power is transmitted to the spikes (i.e. the power required to thresh off
grains from stalks is p=8.3kw)
Hence
T=8.3*1000/78.54=105.68N.M
This total torque (T) is distributed equally on the spikes around and across the drum. That is
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T= Tr*k Where k=number of spikes

Tr =resultant torque on each spike
Now assume number of spike through: width of the drum K1=7

And perimeter of the drum K2=8
K=K1*K2=56
Hence the resultant torque on each spike is
Tr= T/k=96.447/56 =1.887 Nm.
Figure 7 Cross section of the spike on a rotating
Force analysis on each spike
The torque resulting from on individual

Force is T=F*r………………. (a)
Where F and r are the ith force and Radius respectively.
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Assume the force on the spike is a uniformly distributed over the spike length and the resultant of the
load considered at each 20 mm length.
From (a)
But F1=F2=Fn=F
Assume L=60mm
n = 60/20= 3
n = number of length of segments
……………………… (b)
Figure 8 Force distributions on spike.
Equation (b) is sum of arithmetic series and can be modified as
……………………………………………….…..(c)
Where d= common difference
a = first term
a= r+20=230+20=250mm
d =20, Tr =1722.3Nmm
F=1722.3/1.5(2*250+2*20) = 1722.3/810=2.13N
Fig 9…………………………..
These forces are non-concurrent, coplanar hence their resultant is R=ΣF=6F=6.6N
ΣMo=20F+40F+60F
210F=6mF
m =210/6=35mm
‘O’ is a point where the spike is welded with the drum.
On the basis of cost, use steel-37 with:
Ultimate strength of σu = 370Mpa
Yield strength σy = 230Mpa and take factor of safety of 4
σmax=σY/F.s=230/4=57.5MPa
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The spike tooth is solid rod subjected to bending moment M.

From figure 9, the maximum bending moment at the base of spike is M=6.6*35=231Nmm, from
bending moment equation,
……. [Shuam’s series,1961]
=
3.4mm
Hence; to account for fluctuating loading effect, use standard serrated steel roll of diameter d=8mm.
5.5 Belt Design

Belt drives are flexible power transmissions, which are simple devices to transmit torque and
rotational motion from one (driver or motor) to the other (driven). Power is transmitted by flexible
element placed on pulleys which are mounted on these shafts to reduce peripheral forces.
The transmission ratio of torque and speeds at the driving and driven pulleys are determined
by the ratio of pulley diameters. Peripheral forces may be transmitted by either frictional (non-
positive) or positive locking of the flexible connector on the pulleys. [Horold A.; Rothbart ,1985]
V-belt drives are non-positive transmission. The peripheral force is transmitted by frictional
forces acting on the flanks of the pulley and belt combination. Bottoming of the belt in the groove
leads to a reduction of the transmissible peripheral force to slip and to damages owing to
overheating. The wedging action of v-belts on the pulley groove also results in drive which is more
compact than a flat belt drive.
The distance between shaft centers is recommended to be:
Lower limit: e ^0.7(d1+d2) mm
Upper limit: e ^2(d1+d2) mm [Shigley, 2004]
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Analysis: for belt transmitting power from motor to drum

Known:
Motor power Pm=8.3kw; Motor speed N1=750rpm
Transmission ratio of belt u=n1/n2=1 i.e. the drum and motor speed are equal.
Belt geometry
Figure 10 geometric representation of belt
From carpet diagram [Endalkachew, 2006] for the above given power and rpm, the corresponding
section B-belt is selected.
High speed drive torque from,
T1=105.68Nm
Design diameter of Motor pulley pitch diameter ds=C …………………………….. [Jose,2004]

C=38 to 48 for normal section V-Belt
By substituting the numerical values in the above formula ds =179.65mm
From standard table use ds =200mm
Reason: cost of commercially available pulley is lower than manufacturing for specific dimensions.
Assuming no slip, the belt speed would be ν=pdsN/60 =7.85m/s
Since transmission ratio is one, ds = dl where dl =larger pulley diameter

Recommended center distance is 0.7(ds+dl) mm e 2*(ds+dl) mm… [Shigley,2004]
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From the above interval take e=540mm

Belt length L=2e+Δ1+Δ2/2 where, Δ1=p (dl+ds)/2 Δ1= (ds-ads) 2/4 …………………….. [Jose, 2004]
By substituting the values, L=1708.3mm
Rounding off to standard we get L=1760mm
Hence the modified center distance is given as
…………………………………………… [Jose, 2004]

=565.85mm
Determination of power rating of each belt and belt tension
Power rating
From power rating standard table (attached at the appendix) for section –B V-belts, the rated power
per belt corresponding to smaller pulley pitch diameter of 200mm and faster speed of 750rpm is,
Pr/z=4.13kw
Where pr=rated power, z=number of belts
Power added per belt for speed ratio of one is padd/z=0
Hence power capacity pc of a single V-belt is given as pc= pr +padd=4.13kw
Assuming the whole motor power is transmitted to the drum shaft, we need z=design/padd belts
for transmission. Z=8.3/4.13=2belts
Belt tension
N2 N1
Figure 11 belt tension
..………………………………. (1)[Endalkachew, 2006]
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Where, ρ=linear density, =arc of contact μ =coefficient of friction, f =effective coefficient of

friction, β=groove semi angle, F1=maximum belt tension, F2=minimum belt tension
Assume β =190 from recommended range of

μ =0.3
f= 0.512
The power transmitted by a belt drive is given by
……………………………………………… (2) [Endalkachew, 2006]
Table 4, belt property
[http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/V-belts/home.html#top]
From table 4 corresponding to f =0.512 section B V-belt

F=5535N, ρ =0.1666kg/m, M=62.72Nm, m=11.11
By substituting the numerical values of known parameters in to equations 1&2 and solving
simultaneously we get
F1=587.3N F2=61.2N
Belt life calculation
The general design equation for V-belt is given as
….. ……………………… (a) [Endalkachew, 2006]
Where
t=time in seconds
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The only unknown in the above equation (a) is t; Hence evaluating for time t yields
t=23947555.82sec=6.652khour
If the machine is assumed to work 8hrs per day, then the belt is expected to work for 23947555.82/
(8*60*60*365) =2.3years.
Belt dimensions
Figure 12 Belt dimensions
From standard table [Jose, 2004], width and height of B-section v-belt for intended torque
transmission is b=17mm h=10.5mm
The groove dimensions for V-belt sheaves can be extrapolated from standard table [Jose, 2004]
Table 5, groove dimensions for A and B-section V-belt sheaves
Belt section A B
Groove angle 380 380
Top groove width(mm) 13.13 17.34

Center to center distance of grooves(mm) 15.1+/-0.4 19.04+/-0.4
Minimum groove depth(mm) 13.2 17.5
Distance from groove center to pulley edge(mm) 11.1 15.1
Distance from top to pitch line(mm) 4.76 6.34
Clearance between belt & groove top(mm) 1.0 1.2
Design of belt for power transmission from drum shaft to sieve shaft
The power required to drive the sieve and straw walker is obtained by appropriate
assumption of torque requirement to drive the sieve together with its contents. The sieve and straw
walker are connected with a metal strip in order to have a common drive mechanism which
minimizes cost of having separate drive.
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Assume the sieve dimension to be 800mm*800mm*1mm and straw walker have equal dimension as
sieve. Both are made of steel-37 with the following mechanical properties.
Density ρ=7700kg/m3
Yield strength σy=230Mpa
Ultimate strength σu=370Mpa
The volume of the sieve is V=0.00064m3
Weight of the sieve is Ws=ρνg=7700*0.00064*9.81=48.34N
For both sieve and straw walker including metal strips W=2Ws+some weight=100N
Assume the weight of teff and straw that both sieves can hold at the instant be 100N
Therefore the total force corresponding to the tangential force at the junction of connecting rod with
disc is F=W+100N=200N
Assume the sieve move a linear distance of L=50mm
From (i.e. 50mm is covered at half revolution) the corresponding disc

diameter at junction is D=32mm
Hence the torque required is T=200*0.016=3.2Nm
Power required for this torque

Assume the sieve shaft speed to be N=300rpm
Hence P=100.53W=0.1005KW.From this we can conclude that a power transmitted by single A-
section V-Belt with smaller pulley pitch diameter ds=80mm and faster pulley speed of 750rpm is
enough to operate the system.
u=dl/ds=2.5 implies dl =200mm.
Speed ratio u=N3/N4=750/300=2.5
Rated power pr=0.625KW
Power added per belt for speed ratio of 2.5 is padd/z=0.1KW
Hence power capacity pc of a single V-belt is given as pc= pr +padd=0.725kw
Belt geometry
Figure 13 belt geometr
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Muaz ; Wubshet
From geometric consideration of the thresher, assume center distance to be

e=460mm
Belt length
L=1367.65mm.rounding to
Standard gives L=1430mm
Hence modified center distance
e=491.43mm
Belt tension
Fig 14, belt tension
, and
From the above relations =0.1224rad/sec and =2.897rad/sec
The power transmitted by a belt drive is given by
Speed
=3.14m/s
Substituting the numerical values for known and solving for unknown gives
F1=308.12N & F2=77.25N
Belt life calculation
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From general design equation for =0.7731, d s=0.08m, dl=0.2m, ν=3.14m/s, and from table 4 for
A-section V-Belt F=3216N, M=23.93Nm, ρ=0.9682kg/m, m=11.11 we get the expected belt life to
be t=13.66khr
For the previously assumed machine operation time per day (i.e. 8hrs per day), then the belt is
expected to work for 49177980/ (8*60*60*365) =4.68years.
Belt dimension
From standard table [Jose, 2004], width and height of A-section v-belt for intended torque
transmission is b=13mm and h=8mm
5.6 Design of V-Belt pulleys
5.6.1 Pulley for B-section V-Belts
Both driver and driven pulleys have the same dimensions; hence design for one of them will
automatically fulfill for the other except for hub dimensions which are dependent on shaft diameters.
Material selection:
Pulleys are mostly made of cast iron or cast aluminum alloys and frequently of steel or welded
stamped discs
For mass production, considering cost of material use pulley material to be gray cast iron
ASTM.class20 with the following mechanical properties.
Density ρ=7200kg/m3
Tensile strength σu =152Mpa; Compressive strength σc =572Mpa
Torsion shear strength τ=179Mpa
Geometry analysis
From belt calculations the pulley diameters are determined to be ds=dl=200mm which is between
the recommended value of 137.4mm to 203.2mm for the given belt section with 2β=380
Safe width of the pulley is given by bf = (z-1) c’+2s ……. [Jose, 2004]
Where bf =safe width of the pulley =center distance between two adjacent grooves s=distance
from groove center to pulley edge
Substituting the values from table 5, we get bf = (2-1)*19.45+2*15.5=50mm
5.6.2 Pulley for A-section V-Belts
With the same procedure as for pulley for B-section V-Belts, ds=80mm, dl=200mm and safe width
of the pulley is, bf =22.2mm
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5.7 Shaft design

Shaft is a rotating member supporting attached elements. It is a relatively long member of
round cross section that rotates and transmits power. A shaft can have a non round cross section, and
it need not rotate. It can be stationary and serve to support a rotating member, such as the short
shafts (also known as spindles) that support the non driving wheels of automobile. It is apparent that
shafts can be subjected to various combination of axial, bending, and, torsion loads and that these
loads may be static or fluctuating. Typically a rotating shaft transmitting power is subjected to a
constant torque (producing a mean torsional stress) together with a completely reversed bending load
(producing an alternating bending stress).
Shaft design consists primarily of the determination of the correct shaft diameter to insure
satisfactory strength and rigidity when the shaft is transmitting power under various operating and
loading conditions. In addition to satisfying strength requirements, shafts must be designed so that
deflections are within acceptable limits. Design of shafts of ductile materials based on strength is
controlled by the maximum shear theory where as shafts of brittle material would be designed on the
basis of maximum normal stress theory.
Figure 14, schematic representation of drum shaft

Analysis for drum shaft
Known:
A shaft is pulley driven and supported by two bearings at B&C. the basic dimensions of the shaft
and location of the bearings, driving pulley and support discs are assumed. Motor power and drum
speed are specified to be 8.3kw and 750rpm respectively.
Net force on pulley is Fnet= 2*(F1+F2) =2*(587.3+61.2) =1297N
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Power required by drum to thresh is P=8.3kw-0.725kw=7.575kw

Tangential force on drum is Ft=P/ν; ν=18m/s
Implies Ft =428.66N
Decisions
Based commercial availability, cost, and strength requirement for the intended use, we use cold
drawn1020steel having
Ultimate strength σu=530Mpa
Yield strength σy=450Mpa
Density ρ= 7700kg/m3
We select D/d =1.25 and r/d=0.03
A safety factor of 2.5 is chosen for average materials operated in ordinary environments and
subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined
A standard size bearing will be selected
Assumptions
The full power reaches the drum shaft
The tangential force is divided equally through two discs attached on the shaft
The pulleys (P2&P3) are assumed to be a solid cylinder of diameters 200mm and 80mm (numerical
value from previous calculation) respectively.
Force analysis
Pulley weight Wp=ρνg
For pulley2, width=50mm hence V=0.00157m3 implies Wp2 =118.7N and P3 having width of
22.2mm have a weight Wp3=8.73N
Net belt tensions:
Tension on drum shaft from motor shaft Fnet1=1297N at an angle of 600 from horizontal.
Tension on drum due to connection with sieve shaft Fnet2=385.37N vertically down ward.
Weight on the shaft due to drum, spikes, and teff to be threshed is calculated from the following
assumptions.
The drum is a hollow cylinder with external diameter de=460mm, internal diameter di=450mm (i.e.
drum plate thickness t=5mm) & width=800mm as shown in fig. 15
The drum volume is calculated as
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=0.00572m3
Figure 15, drum or cylinder

Mass of drum m=ρg= 44.02kg
In our actual case the drum is not a full cylinder, instead eight metal plates of about 35mm wide are
welded on discs and supporting rings for each row of spikes. Therefore from this fact we can assume
that the weight due above mentioned components on the drum shaft be 50% of the drum weight.
Now the mass becomes m=22.01kg
Weight wd=216N. This weight is equally shared on both discs.
Force analysis on shaft
Figure 16, Vertical force

Taking ΣMB=0
80*1241.93+840*Rc-20*108-820*108-900*394.1=0
RC =412N
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Taking ΣFy=0, RB =1241.93+216-412=1045.93N

Bending moments
At B MB=80*1241.93=99354.4Nmm (cw) where, cw=clockwise
To left of D MD=8425.6Nmm (ccw) ccw=counter clockwise
At E ME =23288Nmm (ccw)
At C MC =23646Nmm
Force & mending moment diagram
Figure 17, Force & mending moment diagram
Figure 18, Horizontal force
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Fnet1sin30=648.5N
Taking ΣMB’=0 implies Rc’=152.54N and ΣFy=0 gives RB’=924.56N
Bending moments calculation
At A’ MA’=0
At B’ Mb’=51880Nmm (cw)
At C’ MC’=0
At D’ MD’=46358.8Nmm (cw)
At E’ ME’=3050.8Nmm (cw)
Force & bending moment diagram
152.54N 3050.8Nmm
924.56N
Figure 19, Force & bending moment diagram
The maximum resultant bending moment is around bearing B and is given by
=112083.68Nmm
At B torque T=105220Nmm
Based on maximum shear stress theory
…………. ………………….. (*)[Shuam’s’ outline ,1961]

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Where, d=diameter of shaft,

kb=combined shock and fatigue factor applied to bending moment
kt= combined shock and fatigue factor applied to torsional moment
τmax=maximum shear stress
The yield stress in shear τy is given as τy=0.557σy and
=450/2.5=90Mpa
Assuming minor shock (load suddenly applied), kb=1.5 & kt=1.5
By Substituting the numerical values in to equation (*) yields d=21.89mm
From standard table take d=25m
Design of shaft for sieve mechanism
Figure 20, schematic of sieve shaft

The distance from inner side of casing to the disc end is equivalent to the maximum height the guide
and slot for sieve mechanism can have and assume this distance be a separation between bearing
center and load center of sieve. From the geometry of guide mechanism, its maximum attainable
height is h=30mm
The material selected and its mechanical properties are the same as for drum shaft.
Force analysis and shaft diameter determination
Forces acting on this shaft are pulley weight (Wp4), weight of sieves with teff and belt tension. All
these forces except Wp4. hence from Wp=ρνg for width of 22mm V=0.00069m3
Wp4=48.82N. The force due pulley tension is upward, the net force at shaft end is
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; = 385.37N-48.82N=336.55N and weight of sieve with teff Ws=200N.

From vertical force analysis, the reaction at bearing is Rb=136.55N
There is no force component through horizontal axis, hence no bearing reaction at horizontal
direction.
Figure 21, bending moment diagram
From bending moment diagram maximum bending moment is Mmax=6732Nmm

Assuming the whole belt power is transferred to the shaft, torque acting on the shaft would be
The shaft diameter from the equation
d=15mm
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5.8 Bearing selection

The word “Bearing” is applied to a machine or structure refers to contacting surfaces through
which a load is transmitted. When relative motion occurs between the surfaces, it’s usually desirable
to minimized friction and wear. Any interposed substances that reduce friction and wear is lubricant.
Lubricants are usually liquid but can be solids like graphite, tetraflouroethylene (Tefflon) or gas such
as pressurized air.
Ball bearings are used in greater quantity than any other type of rolling bearing for an application
where the load is primarily radial with some thrust load present. Rolling bearings are an assembly of
several parts-an inner race, an outer race, a set of balls or rollers, and a cage or separator. The cage
or separator maintains even spacing of the rolling elements. A cage less bearing in which the annulus
is packed with the maximum rolling element is called full-complement bearing. Full-complement
bearings have high load capacity but lower speed limits than bearings equipped with cages.
For our purpose pillow block mounting ball bearing is selected. We use ball bearing because the
radial load is significant.
bolts
Figure 22, bearing cover
From table 14.1 [Juvinel p601] bearing dimensions corresponding to shaft diameters are selected
as follows
Bearing Bore(mm) OD(mm) W(mm) ra(mm) ds(mm) dH
basic
Number
L05 25 47 12 0.64 29.0 42.9
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L05 15 32 9 0.3 17.5 29.2
5.9 Spline
Spline may be considered as multiple keys, integral with the shaft. Compared with keys, splines
have an advantage of self centering. For a given torque transmission a spline shaft is weakens less
than a keyed shaft. Thus a spline shaft can transmit more torque than a keyed shaft of same
dimensions.
A spline shaft is weaker in torsion

than bending. The stiffness of a splined shaft
is usually based upon root diameter d, so
that the equivalent length L
The strength of straight spline shaft is
based upon the equivalent shaft diameter
Figure 23, spline geometry

de=D-h
The torque carrying capacity for parallel side spline is
T=i*Dm/2
Where i=number of spines
D= (D+d)/2
L=effective spline length
S=contact distance =0.5*(D-d) +2h
P=permission side properties and stress concentration; suggested value
p =4*permissible nominal shear stress.
For spline in shear, the force P acting on a spline at the mean spline diameter D is given by
P=2T/d=4T/ (D+d) and P=l*b*i*k*τ
Where b=spline width measured at the base K=coefficient accounting non-uniform load
distribution; suggested value k=0.75 [Horold A.; Rothbart, 1985]
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Bending stress σ=3p (D-d)/(l*b2k)=12T (D-d)/ (D-d) (L*b*i*k)

For bending stress with the nominal bearing stress force the nominal stress is in compression
P = (D-d)/(L*i*k*σ)
Motor shaft
Known: p=8.3kw
N=750rpm
It is internally splined
Internal diameter =26mm
Number of spines =6
Motor torque
Length of spline =40mm
Material
Steel37
Design from strength point of view

The strength of internally spline shaft is usually taken as the strength of a hollow shaft of internal
diameter equal to the mean diameter of respective externally splined shaft.
The shaft is subjected to both twisting and bending moments

Bending moments
Vertical
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Horizontal
Equivalent bending moment
Equivalent twisting moment
The internal diameter of the shaft is
Since the maximum shear stress is less than the allowable one, the splined shaft
is safe
5.10 Cover, concave clearance, and casing design
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Cover
Figure 24 cover with inside deflector.

The cover prevents the straw and grain from escaping during threshing. It should have such
strength that it shouldn’t be deformed by the action of the drums tangential force. Its dimensions are
proportioned based on predetermined dimensions of drum, spike, and concave to spike clearance.
The clearance between concave and tip of spike differs for different crop types and drum speed. As
the drum speed increases, clearance also increase and the clearance at the inlet is narrower than the
outlet clearance [source]. From observation of existing multi-crop threshing machine and
relationship of drum speed with concave clearance, assume clearance at the inlet and outlet be 45mm
and 35mm respectively.
Cover plate diameter D is the sum of drum diameter, concave clearances, and twice of spike
length. I.e. D=460+45+35+60*2=660mm.Length of cover plate is the sum of drum length and
clearance between drum and bearing centers. L=800+20+20=840mm.
Because of it‘s local availability and relatively lower cost use steel-37 for cover, casing,
plates and strips. To have enough rigidity, the plate thickness is assumed to be 1.5mm (adapted from
existing machine.)
Even though; the casing doesn’t carry a significant load, it should be rigid and strong enough
in order not to bend due to external damage and action of grains. Its thickness can be adapted from
existing machine as that of cover plate i.e. thickness t=1mm.
Tray (feeder)
It is inclined at an angle of 150-to-250 from horizontal toward the feed inlet to facilitate feed rate.
Material used: steel-37
The feeder provides space for teff before threshing. Its dimensions are proportioned based on drum
width and amount of teff required to be put on it. The metal plate of thickness t=3mm welded at the
tip of feeder connects the feeder with the casing through bolts. Base on this we decided to use the
following dimensions.
Thickness=1.5mm
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Height h=60mm
Length L=840mm
Width W=600mm
The supporting frame
The whole body of the machine is supported at four ends by angle iron welded with casing. Since the
frame support the whole weight, it should be checked for buckling. The length of frame is the sum of
center distance between drum and straw walker, straw walker and bottom sieve plus additional
clearance. Assuming an average person operates the machine, length is taken as
L=1000mm
5.11 Design of Bolt

The joining of removable machine and structural element is commonly accomplished by
means of threaded bolts and screws. Proper tolerance of hole patterns between mating elements is
important for good assembly. Using the method of true position tolerance optimum clearance hole
sizes can be determined based on standard drill sizes and hole tolerance.
The through bolt is least expensive but requires that both ends of the bolt be accessible than
tap bolt and stud which require strong threaded sections. Wear may occur in the tapped material
which is not easily replaceable. The influence of the torsion stress on the bolt strength may be taken
into account by decreasing the allowable nominal stress D by 25 to 30 %.
Bolt connecting bearing cover and frame
See figure 22 for illustration
The bolts are subjected to both tensile force and shear force.
They are designed for maximum bearing load
F1=836.1 N vertical force at the bearing
F2=1441.53N horizontal reaction force at bearing B.
Force on each bolt is Fb1=836.1/2=418.5N tensile
Fb2=1441.53/2=720.8 N shear
Decision and assumption
A relatively inexpensive, commercially available, mechanically strong and mostly adapted SAE
class 4.6 steel is selected for all bolts to be designed.
The load is shared equally between the two bolts and a safety factor of 3 is used.
Analysis
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From the table 10.5 [Robert C.Juvinall; Kurt M.Marshek, 1999]

For class 4.6 proof strength Sp=225MPa, yield strength σy =240Mpa. (Proof load or strength
correspondence to the auxiliary applied load that the screw or bolt must withstand without
permanent set)
For ductile material, neglecting stress concentration, assume steady force application, the stress area
As is given as
As=Fb/0.75 D
Where D=Sp/F.S=225/3=75 Mpa
As=418.05N/0.75*75N/mm2=418.05/56.25=7.43 mm2
From table 10.2 [Robert C.Juvinall; Kurt M.Marshek, 1999] for coarse thread with stress area of
8.78mm2 (which is the next larger value of 7.43mm2) nominal diameter d=4mm, pitch p=0.7mm,
minor diameter d=3.14mm
Considering the failure of bolts due to shear:
As=Fb2/ (Ty/F.S)
Ty=0.577Sy=0.577*240=138.48 Mpa
As=1441.53*3/138.48=31.23mm2
From table 10.2 [Robert C.Juvinall; Kurt M.Marshek, 1999] for coarse thread with stress area of
36mm2 (the next larger value of 31.23mm2) an appropriate standard size of class 4.6 bolt to be
M8*1.25
Initial tightening tension can be given as Fi=0.9*AsSp [Robert C.Juvinall; Kurt M.Marshek, 1999]
Fi=0.9*36.6*225=7411.5N
Estimated tightening torque T=0.2Fi*d………………… [Robert C.Juvinall; Kurt M.Marshek, 1999]
T=0.2*7411.5*8=11858.4Nmm.This is the tightening torque required.
Bolt for joining feeder with body
It fails due shear
Assume factor of safety FS=2

The force in which the bolts should carry is the sum of weight of feeder and unthreshed teff assumed
to be placed on the feeder.
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Where, Wf =feeder weight

Wt=teff weight
F=shearing force on bolts
= 0.00089m3 =volume of feeder

Wf=ρνg=67.3N
Assume the feeder can carry a distributed load of Wt= 2000N over its area. Hence F=2067.3N. Since
we have two bolts, the shear force on each bolt is
=1033.65N
The cross-sectional area resisting this force is calculated as
And Implies As=14.9mm2
From standard table for As=14.9mm2, the corresponding bolt dimension is

For bolts joining cover plate with casing
Number of bolts is two. The weight these bolts should carry is
Wc=ρνg and
Where, D=cover diameter=660mm, t=cover thickness=1.5mm, L=length=840mm
Hence the weight of cover Wc=163N
To account for the weight of deflecting plates that are attached on the inside part of the cover plate
and other miscellaneous effects take Wc =326N
Hence cross-sectional area is As=5.885mm2. Therefore use M3.5X0.6 bolt.
5.12 Design of drum discs
These discs are used to connect the shaft with drum (metal strips welded it.) for our case, two
discs are used with six rings of 15mmwide and 5mm thick with external diameter equal with drum
internal diameter d=450mm for reinforcement purpose. Since the disc is in uncertain environment
and subjected to uncertain stresses, we used a safety factor FS=4
Based commercial availability, cost, and strength requirement for the intended use, material for the
disc is selected to be steel-37 with the following mechanical property.
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=230Mpa
=370Mpa
=128.11Mpa
=32Mpa
Width of discs is equivalent with transverse weld length L=20mm (analyzed on welding design)
Disc external diameter is the internal diameter of the drum i.e. d=450mm
Critical region for failure of disc is through section a-a due to shear.
Hence; from allowable shear stress theory
…............ (a)
And
Where Ft, T are tangential force and torque respectively
at critical radius r
T=96447Nmm, r=22mm, As=2prt=138.23tmm2
Substituting numerical values in to equation (a)
the thickness t=0.5mm. Take t=1mm
Figure 25, drum disc
5.13 Sieve mechanism

From geometry of figures 26 and 27, the length of connecting bar is L=clearance between disc and
guide plus diameter of disc plus slot length and some allowance. Hence by considering geometric
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feasibility, the length is taken as L=20+32+35=87mm.The length of guide can be obtained

considering the condition when the value of varies from 00 to 1800. i.e. L’=102mm.
Description of the mechanism
A disc coupled at the shaft end provides a rotational motion. The connecting rod connected with disc
by screw as a pin joint translates the rotational motion of disc to translation for movement of sieve.
The guided slot again is connected with connecting rod using screw providing 360 0 rotation. The slot
and sieve are connected with tightly screwed Angled iron. The dimensions for T-section slot and
guide are assumed as shown in fig below and checked for failure of critical sections.
Material used is steel-37
σy=230Mpa
σu=370Mpa
τy=0.557σy =128.11Mpa
FS=2.5
=57.244Mpa
Analysis of sieve dynamics

Screw Connecting Rod
Set screw
Slot
Disc Guide
Figure 26, sieve linkage mechanism and different parts.
Sectional view of slot and guide

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The sieve motion is constrained for Y & Z-axes but it allowed for x-direction. The disc velocity at
periphery (at point of connection with connecting rod) is given as
…………………………………………………… [Norton, 2001]
Where =absolute velocity of connecting rod, & R=scalar length of disc radius N=300rpm,
=31.42rad/s
From geometric observation, at =900 and 2700 the maximum tangential velocity of disc is obtained.
Assuming the sieve should cover L=50mm linear distance for each forward and backward
movement, the diameter D at which the connecting rod is connected with the disc can be obtained.
From distance equivalence, (half disc revolution is required for single stock of sieve
movement) we get D=32mm.
The maximum velocity sieve can attain is =0.503m/s, r=D/2=16mm.
The horizontal motion of sieve is
=10.60, from geometry

Hence Vx=0.494m/s. this figure is reasonable from observation of sieving system for grain miller.
Linkage force analysis
Ws=200N=weight of sieve, grain and slot analyzed previously
)θ
Y
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X Figure 27, linkage mechanism
For equilibrium F21=F41 and T=-r*F41 implies F41=7814.566N

F41 is a force that a disc plate should support. The screw joining connecting rod with disc should
also carry this load.
From F23=7881.21N. This is a force that a guided slot and guide should support.
Taking , F14=7881.21N
5.14 Design of keys
The portion the mounted member in contact with the shaft is the hub. In most common cases
the torque transmitting shaft to hub connections are keys. Keys are usually made of cold finished
low carbon steel (as SAE or AISI), but heat treated alloy steels are used when greater strength is
required. Key width is approximately quarter of the shaft diameter. [Juvenile p736-737]
The primary function of key is to transmit torque between a shafts and the mating machine
element, such flywheel, a pulley, a gear, etc. or coupling between shafts of a motor and a machine it
drives. Keys prevent relative rotational motion of the joined elements and in most cases also prevent
relative axial motion, except in the cases of feather and spline keys.
The distribution of forces on the surfaces of a key is complex and depends up on the shaft
and hub. The force distribution is not uniform over the key surface. Because of uncertainties, a factor
of safety ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 is used.
Analysis
Material used same as shaft material, cold drawn 1020 steel
=450Mpa =180Mpa =250.65Mpa
=530Mpa =100.26Mpa
FS=2.5
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A widely used type of key (square key) is selected for our case. From standards for mechanical
elements, table 11.39[Horold A.; Rothbart, 1985] for shaft diameter of 25mm the width and depth of
square key is W=H=0.25inch=6.35mm and for shaft diameter of 15mm, W=H=4mm.
Key length calculation
The key is fitted on the sides of the key seat and may have clearance on the top. Torque is
transmitted through the sides and no axial forces can be resisted. Neglecting the friction between the
contacting surfaces, and considering the transmission of torque by means of compressive and shear
stresses, the transmitted torque is:
……………………………………… [Horold A.; Rothbart, 1985] for shear
……………………………... [Horold A.; Rothbart, 1985] for compression
For drum shaft pulley (pulley2) considering both shear and compression and substituting the
numerical values for W=H=6.35mm, T=105220Nmm, d=25mm gives
L=15mm
For drum shaft discs and pulley3 all parameters are the same as that of pulley2 except for torques
T=52610Nmm, and T=9234.8Nmm hence the length of L=8mm can be used for both.
Key for sieve shaft and pulley4 is obtained by substituting T=23087Nmm in the above equation.
Hence L=9mm
Design of screws for sieve mechanism
SAE class 4.6 steel
These screws provide the pivoting action for connecting rod with disc and slot as shown in figure 26.
The screw connecting disc with connecting rod tends to fail in shear due the linkage force F41.
=56.43mm2
From standard table use screw M10*1.25
5.15 Design of welded joints

A welded joint a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of the two edges of the two
parts to be joined together, with or without the application of pressure and a filler material .The heat
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required for the fusion of the material may be obtained by burning of gas (incase of gas welding) or
by an electric arc (in case of arc welding). The latter method is extensively used because of greater
speed of welding.
Welding is extensively used in fabrication as an alternative method for casting or forging and
as a replacement for bolted and riveted joints .It is also used as a repair medium e.g., to reunite metal
at a crack, to build up a small part that has broken off such as gear tooth or to repair a worn surface
such as a bearing surface.
There are a number of welding process namely fusion welding ,thermite welding, gas
welding, electric arc welding and forge welding. The classification is mainly based on use of heat
alone or combination of heat and pressure during welding process. We used arc welding technique
for our specific case due to be versatile application in our area and its inherent advantage over other
techniques.
Welding design for disc plate with drum plate
Basic assumption and decision fig…………
The tangential force of drum periphery acts on a single plate at a time.
From torque equation
T= Ft*r
Ft= T/r=964.47/0.255= 428.25N
The joints are subjected to double transverse and single parallel fillet welds. Hence the strength of
the joint is given by the sum of double transverse and singe fillet welds.
Ft= 0.707S*l2* σt + 1.414S*l1*τall …………………………………………………………………...*
σt=allowable tensile strength for the weld metal
τall=allowable shear strength for the weld metal
Both the plate and disc are made of steel37 hence σt = σt/ (F.s) = 230/2.5=92MPa
With mechanical property of σt =230MPa and σY =370MPa
Assuming that the weld size
S=thickness of plate=5mm
By substituting numerical values into equation (*)
Ft= 0.707S*30* 92 + 1.41420*l1* 51.2MPa ……………………………………………………**
=16996.23N
Since the load actually carried by the joint is less than the allowable joint load, the joint is safe.
Design of weld for joint of spike tooth with drum plate fig………………….
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T= throat thickness
S=weld size
D=6mm
Assume s=3mm
A=t*p*D= 0.707*3*3.14= 39.98mm2
Direct shear stress τ= F/A =6.6/39.98= 0.165MPa
Bending moment M=F*e = 6.6*35 =231Nmm
For a circular section, section modules
Z=p*0.707*3.62/4= 59.97mm3
Bending stress
Maximum normal stress
=0.5*3.85+0.5*(3.852+4*0.1652)0.5 =3.86MPa
Maximum shear stress =1.932MPa

Allowable stress for the welded joint are
σt =weld factor * σY/F.s……..assume weld factor to be 0.8
= 0.8*230/2.5 =73.6 Mpa
τall=0.8*0.557* σY/F.S =102.488MPa/2.5 =40.99MPa
Since the normal and shear stress are less than allowable one, the joint is safe for the assumed weld
decision.
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5.16 Machine Description

The basic unit in this thresher is the threshing unit which is a cylinder with spike tooth. Other
components like feeder, concave, and power transmission components are basic accessories.
The Feeder
This unit comprises of the hopper, whose aperture lays vertical at the base. The hopper has only
one of its sides in a slant. Opposite the start side is a vertical side, which has the aperture of the
hopper at its bottom.
The Threshing Unit

The threshing unit contains feeder with spike tooth cylinder. The crop is cut in to small pieces &
rubs against the concave, which give superior separating performance.
It is comprised of the thresh comb. This is made up of a drum upon which small rods (tongs) are
welded to it in a line at intervals. There are eight of such lines-each welded to opposite sides of the
shaft. Each of the tongs is carved to forming an arc of small curvature. Further a shaking & bagging
unit are used to collect the seeds. The whole unit is supplied with belts and pulleys to achieve
constant cylinder speed.
The shaft rests on ball bearings of each end. Attached to one of the ends of the shaft is a pulley for
drive. The pulley/shaft rotates in the direction of carve of the tongs. Just a distance beneath the
thresh comb is a sloppy tray which slopes downwards into a trench. The trench is also sloppy in the
direction perpendicular it the direction of slope of the tray. The trench ends as a sprout.
The Blower
The blowing effect is just the drum speed that it makes opposite the slope of the tray. The
blowers are the effect of the drum in threshing unit, which separates small pieces of crops residue
from the seed.
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The slanted plates (plates welded at an angle to drum horizontal axis) at the inlet of thresher
creates vacuum in order to draw teff inward hence air is drawn in to the cylinder at the same time.
Metal plates of length about 150mm width 60mm are welded at the outlet end inline with rows of
spike through the drum perimeter in order to create higher pressure inside cover plate than the
atmosphere to draw straws outward. The drum also rotates reasonably at higher speed. The effect of
all these provides the blowing effect inside the thresher.
By considering power loss, weight of machine, cost increase with the presence of blower, we
decided not to use blower. Drive comes to the drum from a two wheel tractor powering a V-belt
wrapped around the wheel, which is located on the thresher shaft by a keyway and nut. The keyway
can be produced by a chisel by a skilled operator and does not need a milling machine or lathe with
milling attachment.
6. Operation and Maintenance of a thresher
Following are some general guidelines for the operation and maintenance of a thresher or cleaner.
At all times, consult the user’s manual. Also, review the safety/health precautions for harvesting and
threshing. This guide lines will be used after the thresher is manufactured.
6.1 Operation
6.1.1Before operating a thresher:

1. Position the thresher on a level area close to the crop stack to minimize handling and
shattering losses.
2. Spread cloth, canvas, or mat underneath the thresher to collect spilled grain from the grain
discharge chute or due to shattering during handling.
2. Install the cylinder, cover, and feed tray if dismantled during field transport.
3. Position the thresher so that the straw is thrown with the direction of the wind. This will
eliminate the blowing of straw, chaff, and dust back toward the operator and the threshed grain.
4. Check each belt’s alignment and tension. Improper alignment and tension are the major
causes of premature belt failure. The figure 6.a is provided to show how the pulley is slack and to
have a better transfer of power, it must be in tension.
_______________________________________________________________________________ 55
Muaz ; Wubshet
Figure 6.a figure 6.b

5. Check pulley surfaces. Rough grooves must be smoothened with a fine file if nicked. Cracked
pulleys should be replaced immediately.
6. Open the cover and check all pegs on the threshing cylinder for tightness. Loose pegs will
damage the machine and can be dangerous to the operators.

Figure 6.c figure 6.d

Here both figures are showing how the teeth are arranged and make any change if worn out pegs are
there.
8. Examine the peg teeth for wear. Maximum wear occurs at the feed end of the cylinder and is
more prominent at the leading side in the direction of rotation. Worn pegs must be rotated 180
degrees or interchanged with those located near the straw paddles. Badly worn pegs must be
replaced or rebuilt by welding.
9. Rotate the threshing cylinder manually at least five revolutions to ensure that there are no
obstructions or interferences.
10. Make sure there are no loose or missing bolts and set screws. Tighten or replace as
necessary.
_______________________________________________________________________________ 56
Muaz ; Wubshet
11. Lubricate all bearings with good quality grease (see maintenance and service section) the belt
idler and oscillating screen eccentric bearings are lubricated for life, thus require no lubrication.
12. Check engine oil and fuel levels. Follow the engine manufacturer’s recommendations.
13. Start the engine and allow it to warm up. Feed the thresher with the crop to be threshed for
performance checking. Increase cylinder speed if excessive amounts of not threshed and not
separated grain are observed with the straw. Optimum threshing and cleaning is obtained
with cylinder speeds of 750 rpm.
6.1.2 Operating the thresher

1. Start the engine.
2. Load the feed tray with the harvested crop. Two or Three persons are required to operate the
machine. One men load and the other feed the machine. Another person bags the threshed
grain and insures that the cleaning screen is kept free of clinging straw especially when
threshing wet material. Use a stick to remove clinging straw from the oscillating screen to
protect hands from possible injury.

Figure 6.e. Removing of straw but with hand it may be dangerous.
3. Harvested crops must be placed on the feed tray with the panicle away from the operator, so
it is fed panicle first into the thresher.
4. Feed the crop at a uniform rate and maintain maximum feeding rate without overloading the
engine. Adjust the feed rate to match the condition of the material being threshed. For wet
crops or crops with decomposed straw, reduce the feed rate to avoid overloading the cleaning
screen.
_______________________________________________________________________________ 57
Muaz ; Wubshet
5. For higher threshing efficiency, briefly hold the crop bundles at the feed opening for partial
threshing when the material is longer than 40-50 cm. longer cut material will reduce machine
output and may result in poor threshing and clogging of the machine. Short, panicle-
harvested materials (cutting just above the flag leaf) may result in high not threshed losses
because the panicles move rapidly through the thresher without receiving sufficient
threshing. Recycling the straw is necessary in this case.
6. Reduce feeding rate when threshing wet or partially decomposed materials to avoid
overloading.

Figure 6.f wet crop to be threshed need more power so needs less feed rate.
7. Open the cylinder cover periodically to remove straw and chaff accumulation at the lower
concave.
6.2 Guidelines for Maintenance and service of a thresher or cleaner
1. Lubricate cylinder and shaft bearings with good-quality general purpose grease every 25
hours of operation. Periodically apply a small amount of oil to all hinge points.
2. Inspect the machine regularly for loose, worn, or damaged peg teeth, concave bars, cylinder,
discharge paddles and other parts, and tighten, repair, or replace them immediately. Missing
bolts or nuts must also be replaced.
3. Reduce belt tensions by loosening the idler pulley if added and engine mounting bolts when
the machine will not be used for an extended period to minimize deterioration.
_______________________________________________________________________________ 58
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4. Check engine crankcase oil level at least every 4 operating hours and follow the engine
manufacturer’s recommendations for oil change intervals and oil grade. Be sure the
recommended oil level is maintained.
5. Service the air cleaner, fuel filter, fuel line, carburetor, and spark plug regularly according to
engine manufacturer’s instructions.
6.3 Guidelines for storage of a threshing machine or grain cleaner

1. Clean the machine thoroughly.
2. Remove belts and store in a dry place.
3. Store the machine in a clean, dry location and cover to reduce damage from dust
accumulation.
4. Paint parts that need repainting.
5. Clean and apply oil to exposed metal surfaces to prevent rusting.
6. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations on engine storage.
[Alemayehu Refera]
_______________________________________________________________________________ 59
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7. Conclusion
• Even though it is difficult to make proper conclusions without extensive mechanical, field
and user acceptability testing, we have designed an effective and efficient teff thresher
through detail analysis.
• The machine described in this report will thresh teff. It is probably not good at threshing
beans (beans normally require a peg type mechanism)
• The machine is not suited for production by 'village technology' methods, since some
components require middle levels of technical equipment and skill.
• Economic analysis as well as economic loss due to different threshing, cost and equipment
maintenance, as well as labor inputs has not been well determined.
• It would appear that for teff, the use of an axial thresher multiplies labor productivity over
hand threshing.
_______________________________________________________________________________ 60
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8. Recommendations
Recently while rewriting the Thresher report, we realized that one can make significant design
simplifications and cost savings. As per the project has been done, the following recommendations
are given as general.
• Do village or smallholder trials

• Consider driving this kind of threshing mechanism by the same diesel or petrol engine.
• Work on to improve the thresher for teff should increase the number of bars on the drum
from eight to twelve and replacing the rasp bars with 40 by 40 angle iron reduces threshing
losses. Hence, rethreshing teff could be avoided and threshing losses can be minimized with
the right modifications and a proper workshop to assemble the drum-concave.
• It would appear necessary to conduct some tests to check if a two wheel tractor powered
threshing mechanism results in significant increase in labor productivity over traditional
hand-beating methods.
• For conduct testing it could be recommend using very detailed table as provided in the
appendixes.
• Training Needs: In most developing countries, mechanization is far removed from traditional
practices and its acceptance is a delicate matter for many farmers. Accordingly, training is a
key element in the successful adoption of engine-powered machines by farmers.
Appropriate trainings of several types are required:
 farmers need to be informed about how credit schemes to purchase equipment function;
 then they need to be made aware of the conditions suitable for harvesting and threshing
which will reduce the costs of these operations and improve the quality of the product
obtained;
 This training should be complemented by supplying information on, and demonstrating, new
harvesting, threshing and cleaning equipment to farmers so as to increase their awareness of
the range of machines available.
_______________________________________________________________________________ 61
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9. References
Books
1. Smith Wilkes “Farm Machinery and Equipment”, 6th edition, 1979.
2. Norton “Design of Machinery”, 2nd edition, 2001.
3. Shuam’s outline Series “Machine Design”, 1961.
4. Robert C.Juvinall; Kurt M.Marshek “Fundamental of Machine Component Design”, 1999.
5. Engineering Drawing and Design, Cecil Jensen; Jay D.Helsei.
6. Shigley, JL.,”Mechanical Design Handbook,” 3rd edition, P 170-171, JohnWitey, New
York, 2004.
7. Horold A.; Rothbart, “Mechanical Design Handbook”, 1985
Internets
1. http://www.patentec.com/data/class/460.html
2. http://www.cd3wd.com/pedalpower/default.htm
3. http://www.rwc.cgiar.org/RSCRTCC/2004/Sessions/9/Coordinator
4. http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tes/teff/injera.html
5. http://www.eatethnic.com; Ethnic Foods and Nutrient Composition Guide
6. http://www.fao.org/inpho/
7. http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/V-belts/home.html#top,
8. http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/gears/home.html#top
9. http://www.wam.umd.edu/tes/teff/injera.html
Publications
1. Tadesse, Seyfu, Addis, Ethiopia, 1996; Chekol, Tesema, University of Maryland,

1997
_______________________________________________________________________________ 62
Muaz ; Wubshet
2. Unpublished feed resource report, 1990. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

http://www.fao.org/docrep
3. MOA Department of Land Use Study and Administration, Land Use Systems and
Soil Conditions of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, June 1995
4. In cooperation with the German Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research,
IPGRI
5. Ketema, Seyfu, "Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected
crops"; International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
6. Zemedu Worku, PhD, [Agricultural specialist, former Dean of Alemaya College and

long time expert at the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)]
7. Alemayehu Refera, Danilo Mejia (Technical), Beverly Lewis (Language & Style),
Beverly Lewis (HTML transfer) Institute of Agricultural Research Organization,
Agricultural Research Center (IARO)
8. Nkama, I. 1992. Local Rice Processing. Paper presented at the monthly Technology
Review Meeting for Taraba ADP, Adamawa, Nigeria.
9. Okaka, J.C. 1997. Cereals and Legumes: Storage and Processing Technology. Data
and Microsystems Publications, Enugu, Nigeria.
10. Endlkachew Mekonnen “Teaching material for Machine elements 1 “ Mekelle

university, 2006.
11. Jose Dogumiuze “Teaching Material for Machine Elements 2” Mekelle University,
2004.
_______________________________________________________________________________ 63
Muaz ; Wubshet
Appendixes
Appendix A
Minimum List of Field and Laboratory
Test Equipment and Materials
A.1 Equipment
A.1.1 Field
Grain Moisture Meter (duly calibrated using the Standard method) Range: 12% to 30%
Psychometric (thermometer range: 0oC to 100oC) Accuracy: 0.5oC
Air Velocity Meter; Range: 0 – 30 m/s
Tachometer (contact type or photo electric type; Range: 0-5,000 rpm
Noise Level Meter Range: 30 to 130 dB (A)
Timers (range: 60 minutes) Accuracy: 1/10 sec
Measuring Tape, Camera
Weighing Scale Capacity: 100 kg Scale divisions: 0.5 kg
Graduated Cylinder (for engines) (500- mL capacity)
or Watt-Hour Meter (for electric motors) 60 Hz, 220 V
A.1.2 Laboratory
Weighing Scale (Sensitivity: 0.1 g)
Magnifying Lens (minimum of 10 magnifications)
Grain Sample Cleaner, Grain Sampler/Divider
Air-oven
A.2 Materials
Field, Canvas Sheet
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Nylon-Catch Bag, Nylon Net

Sample Bags
Labeling Tags which include
Date of test
Machine on test
Sample source
Variety
Trial number
Appendix B
Test Materials for Mechanical
Rice Thresher
B.1 Sample Characteristics

Test materials to be used shall have the following characteristics:
B.1.1 Variety : commonly grown locally
B.1.2 Grain moisture content : 22.7% maximum, wet basis
B.1.3 Straw length : 35 - 45 cm
B.1.4 Grain-straw ratio : 0.50 – 0.65
B.2 Quantity to be supplied
The amount of test material to be supplied shall be sufficient for one hour of continuous threshing
operation in order to provide samples to be used for running-in prior to the actual conduct of test
trials.
Approximately: 1 hour x threshing capacity (kg/h)
B.3 Sample Preparation
Prepare the sample in such a way that test sample to be used for the running-in and in each test trial
shall have identical characteristics in terms of moisture content, variety and date of harvest and
cultural management, fertilizer input, etc. Care should be taken so as to prevent alterations of the
conditions of the test samples.
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Appendix C
Sampling and Measurement
for Test Material
C.1 Sampling Procedures for Harvested Palay

The conditions of crop such as grain-straw ratio and moisture content of grain to be used in each test
trial shall be taken using “representative samples” which represent the different condition of the
harvested palay on the pile. This can be done by taking samples, each at the top, middle and bottom
of the pile. Samples representing the materials for each test trial shall be placed in appropriate
containers for laboratory analysis.
C.2 Sampling from Different Outlets
C.2.1 During each test trial, samples shall be collected from different outlets to be analyzed in the
laboratory for losses, purity and grain quality. The minimum amount of sample to be taken shall be
twice as much as what is needed for a particular analysis. The excess sample shall be used for
reference purposes or for an eventual second check in case of review. The sampling procedures shall
be undertaken at the following thresher outlets:
C.2.1.1 Main grain outlet
Using a plastic bag or an appropriate container, collect four or more samples of approximately 0.5 kg
each from the outlet. A final sample of approximately 1.5 kg shall be taken to the laboratory for
analysis.
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C.2.1.2 Straw thrower outlet

In the collection of sample in this outlet, use a rectangular box-shaped nylon catch with a dimension
of 1.5 m x 0.5 m open at one end of the small side. Five samples shall be collected from this outlet
with five-second duration per collection. Separate the free grain mixed with the straw and the grains
that are still attached to the panicle. Put them in a separate container and label them as separation
loss and unthreshed loss, respectively.
C.2.1.3Chaff outlet
During the test, five samples shall be taken from the chaff outlet for duration of about one minute
per collection by using nylon net with a dimension of 1.5 m x 1.0 m held by two persons at both
ends. These samples shall be placed in appropriate containers and labeled as blower loss.
If there is an outlet chute whose function is to collect and recycle the chaff materials, the amount of
grains being recycled and the blower loss shall be taken separately. This can be achieved by
following the sampling procedures discussed in the preceding paragraph.
However, at the outlet chute a plastic bag or any appropriate container shall be used to collect three
samples. These samples shall be placed in appropriate containers and labeled as recycled sample.
C.3 Collection of Scattered Grains
For testing purposes, scattered grains shall be gathered since these grains are part of the total grain
input. Spread canvas sheets around the threshing floor area to catch these grains after each test trial.
Place the collected grains in appropriate containers and label them as scattered grains. Provisions
shall be provided for the collection scattered grains with maximum distance of 1.0 m away from the
base of the machine.
C.4 Handling of Samples
All samples to be taken to the laboratory shall be placed in appropriate containers and properly
labeled. If the samples are not to be immediately analyzed, they should be air-dried and if necessary,
treat the samples with chemicals such as insecticide in order to prevent the samples from possible
damage. If the sample is to be used for determining moisture content, it must be kept in dry and
airtight containers.
C.5 Other Measurements Required During the Test Run
Data shall be taken for the following: speed of rotating components, air velocity, and noise level at
the location of the operators and baggers. For each data to be taken there shall be a minimum of five
observations. These shall be taken without and with load. Before taking of data, it should be ensured
that the feed rate, speed and other functional characteristics have stabilized. The time of sampling
shall be properly spaced during the whole duration of the test trials. For air velocity, measurement
shall be taken in at least six measuring points. The test engineer shall decide on the location of the
measuring points, which will provide him with a good estimate of the blower’s air velocity.
C.6 Measurement of Fuel Consumption
To get the amount of fuel consumed, the tank shall be filled to full capacity before the test. After the
test, fill the tank with measured fuel to the same level before the test. When filling up the tank,
careful attention shall be paid to keep the tank horizontal and not to leave empty space in the tank.
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Appendix D
Performance Test Data Sheet
Test Trial No. : _______________________ Date: ___________________________
Test Engineers: _______________________ Location: ________________________
Test Specimen: ______________________
ITEMS TO BE MEASURED AND INSPECTED
Trial
ITEMS 1 2 3 Ave.
D.1 Crop Condition
D.1.1 Variety
D.1.2 Days after harvest
D.1.3 Straw length (mm)
D.1.4 Grain moisture content (%)
D.1.5 Grain-straw ratio
D.2 Performance test
D.2.1 Speed of components(rpm)
D.2.1.1 Prime mover
D.2.1.1.1 Without load
D.2.1.1.2 With load
D.2.1.2 Threshing cylinder shaft
D.2.1.2.2 With load
D.2.1.3 Fan shaft
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D.2.1.3.2 With load

D.2.1.4 Oscillating screen shaft
D.2.1.5 Grain auger shaft
D.2.1.5.2 With load
D.2.2 Fan air velocity (m/sec)
D.2.2.1 Without load
D.2.2.2 With load
D.2.3 Noise level [db(A)]
D.2.3.1 Feeder
D.2.3.1.2 With load
D.2.3.2 Bagger
D.2.4 Operating time (min)
D.2.5 Threshed grains (kg)
D.2.6 Threshing capacity (t/h)
D.2.7 Fuel time (min)
D.2.8 Fuel consumed (L)
D.2.9 Fuel consumption (L/h)
D.2.10 Observations:
D.2.10.1 Ease of transporting the machine
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
D.2.10.2 Adjustments such as belt tensions, clearance, air velocity and others
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
D.2.10.3 Safety features
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
D.2.10.4 Presence of grains that are blown back at the feeding port during threshing operation
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
D.2.10.5 Ease of cleaning the cylinder and concave
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
D.2.10.6 Ease of cleaning the fan and housing assembly
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
D.2.10.7 Labor requirement
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________ 69
Muaz ; Wubshet
________________________________________________________________________
D.2.10.8 Failure or abnormalities that shall be observed on the thresher or its component parts during
and after the threshing operation.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
D.2.10.9 Others
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E
Laboratory Work
E.1 Measurement of straw length

This shall be taken using at least ten representative samples of cut plants and measuring the length
from the point of cut to the tip of the panicle.
E.2 Measurement of grain content
In measuring the grain-straw ratio, take three representative samples of approximately 500 grams
each of cut plants from the test materials. For each sample, manually thresh the grain from the
panicle. Determine the weight of the grain and the straw separately. Record and calculate the grain-
straw ratio using the formula in Appendix G1. The average of the three samples shall be taken as the
grain-straw ratio.
E.3 Purity Determination
Take 500 g from the final sample taken from the main grain outlet. Clean the grains to remove the
impurities and other foreign matters. The clean grain shall be weighed and recorded. The percent
purity is calculated using the formula in Appendix G4.
E.4 Determination of Losses
E.4.1 Blower loss
Five samples shall be taken at the chaff outlet to collect grains mixed with the chaff. Each sample
shall be cleaned and weighed. The total weight of the clean grains and the total time of collection
shall be recorded for the computation of blower loss. (See sub-clause G5.2)
E.4.2 Separation loss
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Five samples shall be taken at the straw outlet to collect loose grains mixed with the straw. The total
weight of the clean grains collected and the total time of collection of the five samples shall be taken
and recorded for the computation of separation loss. (See sub-clause G5.3)
E.4.3 Unthreshed loss
Unthreshed grains collected at the straw outlet shall be hand threshed and weighed. The total weight
and time of collection shall be taken and recorded for the computation of unthreshed loss. (See sub-
clause G5.4)
E.4.4 scattering loss
Grains scattered around the thresher with a maximum distance of 1.0 m away from the base of the
machine, shall be collected after each trial, cleaned and weighed for the determination of scattering
loss. (See sub-clause G5.5)
E.5 Determination of Net Percent Cracked Grains
Three samples each from manually threshed and machine threshed grains shall be taken for analysis.
Each sample shall consist of 100 grains. These grains shall be manually dehulled and inspected for
the presence of fissures. The net percent cracked grains shall be taken as the difference between the
values obtained from the manual and machine-threshed grain samples (see sub-clause G8).
E.6 Determination of Percent Mechanically-Damaged Grains
Three samples form machine-threshed grains shall be taken for analysis. Each sample shall consist
of 100 grams. Separate those grains that were broken crushed or dehulled (partially or fully) and
weigh. Compute for the percentage of mechanically damaged grains. (see sub clause G9).
Appendix F
Laboratory Grain Analysis Data Sheet
Machine Tested: _____________________ Analyzed by: _______________

Date of Test: _____________________ Date Analyzed: _______________
F.1 Crop Conditions
F.1.1 Moisture Content, (% w.b.)
Average
F.1.2 Grain-Straw Ratio

Sample Weight of Grain and Weight of Grain Grain-Straw Ratio
1
2
3
Average
F.2 Grain Analysis

_______________________________________________________________________________ 71
Muaz ; Wubshet
F.2.1 Purity Determination

Initial Weight of Samples (unclean) = 500 gms
ITEMS Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Gen
.
1 2 3 Ave. 1 2 3 Ave. 1 2 3 Ave. Ave
.
Cleaned(g)
Purity (%)
F.2.2 Loss Determination

Trial Blower Loss Separation Loss Unthreshed Loss Scattering Loss
No.
Duration: Duration: Duration: Duration:
Sample Total Sample Total Sample Total Sample Total

Wt. (g) (kg) Wt. (g) (kg) Wt. (g) (kg) Wt. (g) (kg)
1a
b
c
Ave.
1a
b
c
Ave.
1a
b
c
Ave.
Gen.
Ave
F.2.3 Threshing Efficiency/Recovery Determination

Trial Blower Separation Unshelled Scattering Total
No. Loss Loss Loss Loss
wt. % wt. % wt. % wt. % Output(kg Input(kg

) )
_______________________________________________________________________________ 72
Muaz ; Wubshet
Averag
e
Appendix G
Formula Used During Calculations and Testing
G.1 Grain-straw ratio (R),
Where: Wg is the weight of grain, g

Ws is the weight of sample (grain and straw), g
G.2 Fuel consumption (FC), L/h
Where: F1 is the amount of fuel consumed, L

TO is the time of operation, h
G.3 Capacity
a) Actual capacity (Ca), kg/h
_______________________________________________________________________________ 73
Muaz ; Wubshet
Where: WC is the weight of threshing output, kg

TO is the duration of operation, h
b) Corrected capacity (CC), kg/h (at 100% purity, 20% moisture content and 0.55 grain straw ratio)
Where: CC is the corrected capacity, kg/h

CO is the actual capacity, kg/h
MCO is the observed moisture content, %
MCm is the grain moisture content, at 20%
RO is the observed grain-straw ratio
Rm is the standard grain-straw ratio of 0.55
G.4 Purity (P), %
Where: Wu is the weight of unclean grain, g

WC is the weight of cleaned grain, g
G.5 Losses
G.5.1 Summation of all losses (Lt), kg
Lt= Blower loss+ Separation loss+ Unthreshed loss+ Scattered loss
G.5.2 Blower loss (B1)

a) Amount
b) Percentage
G.5.3 Separation Loss (S1)

a) Amount
b) Percentage
_______________________________________________________________________________ 74
Muaz ; Wubshet
G.5.4 Unthreshed Loss (U1)

a) Amount
b) Percentage
G.5.5 Scattering loss (SC l), %
G.6 Threshing Cylinder Efficiency (Te), %
or
= 100% - Unthreshed loss (%)
G.7 Threshing Recovery (Tr), %
G.8 Cracked grains (Cg), %
G.9 mechanically damaged grain (Dg), %
_______________________________________________________________________________ 75
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_______________________________________________________________________________ 75
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_______________________________________________________________________________ 76
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_______________________________________________________________________________ 77
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_______________________________________________________________________________ 78
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Final year project Design of Axial flow teff thresher

1. BACKGROUND TO THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

1.1 Food Crops

1.2.1 Center of origin and diversity

1.2.2 Geographic distribution In Ethiopia (Agronomy)

1.3 Types of teff

1.4 Demand for teff

1.5 Limitations and Prospects for Improving Teff

1.6 Agricultural Machineries and Farm Implements

3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

4.1 Definition of Threshing

4.2 Threshing and Winnowing

 threshing by hand, with simple tools;

4.2.2 Threshing with animals or vehicles

4.2.3 Threshing with hand-driven machines

4.2.4 Threshing with motorized equipment

Table 1, Threshing speed and yield of different grains

MAIZE RICE SORGHUM BEAN

Threshing speed (rpm) 800 800 1200 600

4.3 Threshing Machines

4.4 Modern Developments

4.5 Post-Production Operations of teff.

Figure 1: Pile of teff called Kemmer.[(http//www.fao.org/inpho/]

Figure 2: Threshing of teff.

Figure 5: Separation of teff seeds and chaff by winnowing.[http//www.fao.org/inpho/]

4.5.4 Utensils for measurement

4.5.5 Packaging and Storage

5.2 Mode of Operation of the Design -Design Considerations

5.3 Basic assumptions and decisions

5.3.1 Design options

5.3.2 Design Matrix

Table 3, Design Matrix

No Concept A Concept B Concept C Concept D

5.4 Design of spike

For larger machines;

Figure 6 cylinders (drum)

Where T= total torque

T= Tr*k Where k=number of spikes

Now assume number of spike through: width of the drum K1=7

Figure 7 Cross section of the spike on a rotating

Force analysis on each spike

The torque resulting from on individual

The spike tooth is solid rod subjected to bending moment M.

……. [Shuam’s series,1961]

5.5 Belt Design

Analysis: for belt transmitting power from motor to drum

Figure 10 geometric representation of belt

Design diameter of Motor pulley pitch diameter ds=C …………………………….. [Jose,2004]

Since transmission ratio is one, ds = dl where dl =larger pulley diameter

From the above interval take e=540mm

…………………………………………… [Jose, 2004]

Figure 11 belt tension

..………………………………. (1)[Endalkachew, 2006]

Where, ρ=linear density, =arc of contact μ =coefficient of friction, f =effective coefficient of

Assume β =190 from recommended range of

From table 4 corresponding to f =0.512 section B V-belt

….. ……………………… (a) [Endalkachew, 2006]

Figure 12 Belt dimensions

Groove angle 380 380

Top groove width(mm) 13.13 17.34

From (i.e. 50mm is covered at half revolution) the corresponding disc

Power required for this torque

Bending stress σ=3p (D-d)/(lb2k)=12T (D-d)/ (D-d) (Lbik)