Report (2)

Ahmad Amr | Industrial water treatment | 6734

What is lime softening
lime softening is a process where hydrated lime or quicklime is added to raise pH
and precipitate calcium. In enhanced softening, the pH is increased further in a
second stage, to at least 10.6 to also remove magnesium.
Benefits
Lime softening has been identified by EPA as a “best available technology” (BAT)
and Small System Compliance Technology (SSCT) for uranium and radium.
Conventional single stage softening can remove between 50 and 80 percent of
radium. Enhanced lime softening can remove up to 90 percent of radium and
uranium and may also remove arsenic, iron, and manganese.
Limitations
The pH must be greater than 10.6 and sufficient magnesium must be present (or
added) for effective removal of uranium.
Enhanced softening is a relatively expensive technology and requires careful
monitoring and understanding of the chemistry to ensure proper operation.
Although package plants are available, additional operator training will likely be
needed unless a softening plant exists already.
Other Considerations
Because softening removes hardness and alkalinity, water from softening plants
may change the corrosivity of the water. It may be necessary to add corrosion-
inhibiting materials to the finished water to protect the distribution system and
prevent possible simultaneous compliance issues with other regulations like the
Lead and Copper Rule.
Disposal Considerations
Treatment residuals generated by lime softening will include backwash, sludge,
and aged/ineffective media. The concentration of radionuclides in these
residuals may impact disposal options. Water softening plants are generally not
allowed to discharge solid or liquid wastes to water bodies. Removal of
radionuclides will likely complicate the disposal process. However, several states
have sludge disposal programs allowing for land application of softening sludge.
Aged/ineffective media and sludge will need to be disposed of in an appropriate
class of landfill. Refer to the disposal section of the Web site for more detailed
information. Disposal Issues.

THE JAR TEST

A laboratory procedure that simulates coagulation/flocculation with differing
chemical doses. The purpose of the procedure is to estimate the minimum

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coagulant dose required to achieve certain water quality goals. Samples of water
to be treated are placed in six jars. Various amounts of chemicals are added to
each jar, stirred, and the settling of solids is observed. The lowest dose of
chemicals that provides satisfactory settling is the dose used to treat the water.

total hardness
Total hardness is a measurement of the mineral content in a water sample that is
irreversible by boiling.
More specifically, total hardness is determined by the concentration of
multivalent cations in water. These cations have a positive charge that is higher
than 1+. Typically, cations have a charge of 2+. The most common cations
present in hard water are Mg2+ and Ca+.

Hard water is not seriously harmful to human health. However, water with a high
level of hardness could cause serious problems in industrial settings, where
water hardness is typically monitored to prevent costly failures in components
like cooling towers, boilers and other equipment that contain or process water.
High total hardness can result in abnormal cloudiness and the formation of
scale. However, levels of hardness that are too low could make the water
corrosive and more aggressive. Thus, industries that use equipment and
machinery that handle water should ensure that the total hardness levels are
maintained at appropriate levels to prevent the water from becoming corrosive.
Although hardness is mostly caused by the dissolved mineral compounds
calcium and magnesium, other ions such as iron and manganese may also
contribute to hardness in small amounts. As calcium carbonate, hardness is
measured in milligrams per litre (mg/L) or grains per gallon (gpg). The equation
Hardness = 2.497 (Ca) + 4.118 is used to measure hardness (Mg). As a result,
changes in the magnesium pool have a greater impact on hardness than
changes in the calcium pool.
Various measures and kits can be used to measure the magnesium and calcium
present in hard water. These two essential minerals are the main cause of water
hardness. Water systems that use underground water as a source are more
concerned with water hardness, since as water moves through rock and soil it
dissolves small amounts of naturally occurring minerals, carrying them into the
groundwater supply. Water is a good solvent for calcium and magnesium, so
when the minerals are present in the soil around a water-supply well, it results in
hard water. To reduce the total hardness of water, certain processes such as
water softening can help. With softening, the adverse effects of hard water can
be reduced significantly.

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Calcium and magnesium, the two key components of hardness, are potentially
beneficial to humans. Many countries include guidelines on the amount of such
minerals that should be present in drinking water.

METHODS USED TO REMOVE HARDNESS

By Boiling:
Soluble bicarbonates are converted into insoluble carbonates which are removed
by filtration.
Reactions: Ca(HCO3)2 → ΔCalo3↓ + H2O + CO2
⇒ Mg(HCO3)2 → ΔMgCO3↓ + H2O + CO2

By Clarks Method:
Calcium hydroxide is Clark’s reagent. It removes the hardness of water by
converting bicarbonates into carbonate.
Reaction: Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 → 2CaCO3↓ + 2H2O
PERMANENT HARDNESS OF WATER
Gan’s Permutit Method:
In this method, sodium aluminum ortho silicate known as permutit or zeolite is
used to remove the permanent hardness of water.
Reaction: Na2 Al2 Si2 O8.KH2O + Ca++→ 2Na+ + Ca Al2 Si2 O8.xH2O

Calgon’s Process:
In this method, sodium-hexa-meta-phosphate (NaPO3)6 known as Calgon is
used. The hardness in water is removed by the adsorption of Ca++ and MG++ IONS.
Ion Exchange Resin Method:
In this method, the permanent hardness of water is removed by using resins.
Ca++/Mg++ ions are exchanged with Cl–, SO4-2 ions are exchanged with anion
exchange resin (RNH2OH). Demineralized water is formed in this process.
⇒ 2RCOOH + Ca++ → (RCOO)2Ca + 2H+
⇒ RNH2OH + Cl– → RNH2Cl + OH–
⇒ H+ + OH– → H2O
Ion exchange is a common industrial method of water softening. It is
accomplished by passing the water through columns of a natural
or synthetic resin that trades sodium ions for calcium and magnesium ions. After
the column has been in use for some time, calcium and magnesium begin to
appear in the water leaving the column. At that point, the column must be
regenerated by passing a concentrated solution of common salt slowly through

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the column; the excess sodium ions displace the ions that produce the hardness
so that, after flushing with water, the bed of exchanger is ready to be used again.
At first, the exchangers used for this purpose were natural aluminosilicates, but
later, synthetic resins came to be used instead. Home water softeners usually
work similarly and consist of zeolite or another ion-exchange resin in a tank
connected directly into the water system

CHEMICALS USED TO REMOVE HARDNESS

Water softening is achieved either by adding chemicals that form insoluble
precipitates or by ion exchange. On a small scale, chemicals used for softening
include ammonia, borax, calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), or trisodium
phosphate, usually in conjunction with sodium carbonate (soda ash). The lime-
soda method of water softening must be followed
by sedimentation and filtration in order to remove the precipitates. Water can be
chemically softened on a large scale by the addition of just enough lime to
precipitate the calcium as carbonate and the magnesium as hydroxide,
whereupon sodium carbonate is added to remove the remaining calcium salts.

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RESOURCES:
https://www.britannica.com/technology/water-softening

https://www.shaalaa.com/question-bank-solutions/what-are-the-methods-of-removing-
hardness-of-water-removal-of-hardness-of-water_214489

https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/concept/removal-of-permanent-hardness-of-water-
254502/

https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/hardness-water

https://www.owp.csus.edu/glossary/jar-
test.php#:~:text=A%20laboratory%20procedure%20that%20simulates,are%20placed%20in
%20six%20jars.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/water-softening

https://www.lenntech.com/applications/process/boiler/foaming-priming.htm

https://www.britannica.com/technology/water-softening

https://www.shaalaa.com/question-bank-solutions/what-are-the-methods-of-removing-
hardness-of-water-removal-of-hardness-of-water_214489

https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/concept/removal-of-permanent-hardness-of-water-
254502/

https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/hardness-water

https://www.owp.csus.edu/glossary/jar-
test.php#:~:text=A%20laboratory%20procedure%20that%20simulates,are%20placed%20in
%20six%20jars.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/water-softening

https://www.lenntech.com/applications/process/boiler/foaming-priming.htm

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PRIMING AND FOAMING
Boiler water carry-over is the contamination of the steam with boiler-water solids.
Bubbles or froth actually build up on the surface of the boiler water and pass out
with the steam. This is called foaming and it is caused by high concentration of
any solids in the boiler water. It is generally believed, however, that specific
substances such as alkalis, oils, fats, greases, certain types of organic matter
and suspended solids are particularly conducive to foaming. In theory suspended
solids collect in the surface film surrounding a steam bubble and make it
tougher. The steam bubble therefore resists breaking and builds up foam. It is
believed that the finer the suspended particles the greater their collection in the
bubble.
Priming is the carryover of varying amounts of droplets of water in the steam
(foam and mist), which lowers the energy efficiency of the steam and leads to
the deposit of salt crystals on the super heaters and in the turbines. Priming may
be caused by improper construction of boiler, excessive ratings, or sudden
fluctuations in steam demand. Priming is sometimes aggravated by impurities in
the boiler-water.
Some mechanical entrainment of minute drops of boiler water in the steam
always occurs. When this boiler water carryover is excessive, steam-carried solids
produce turbine blade deposits. The accumulations have a composition similar to that of the
dissolved solids in the boiler water. Priming is common cause of high levels of boiler water
carryover. These conditions often lead to super heater tube failures as well. Priming is
related to the viscosity of the water and its tendency to foam. These properties are governed
by alkalinity, the presence of certain organic substances and by total salinity or TDS. The
degree of priming also depends on the design of the boiler and its steaming rate.

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