Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Desiccant wheel regenerated by thermal energy from a microcogenerator:

Experimental assessment of the performances
Giovanni Angrisani a, Alfonso Capozzoli b, Francesco Minichiello c,⇑, Carlo Roselli a, Maurizio Sasso a
a
DING, Università degli Studi del Sannio, Piazza Roma 21, 82100 Benevento, Italy
b
TEBE Research Group, DENER, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
c
DETEC, Università di Napoli Federico II, P.le Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Hybrid desiccant HVAC systems have shown several advantages, compared to conventional cooling and
Received 19 April 2010 dehumidification systems. Therefore, their use is also spreading for tertiary and residential buildings,
Received in revised form 25 August 2010 especially when the regeneration of the desiccant can be obtained by using available waste heat.
Accepted 26 September 2010
In this paper, an experimental analysis is presented on the performances of a silica-gel desiccant wheel,
Available online 29 October 2010
inserted in a test facility characterized by an advanced desiccant air handling unit, coupled to an electric
chiller, a natural gas-fired boiler and a small scale cogenerator. The desiccant wheel is regenerated by
Keywords:
using low temperature thermal energy recovered from the microcogenerator.
Desiccant wheel
HVAC system
The effects of the main thermal-hygrometric parameters (outdoor air humidity ratio and temperature,
MCHP regeneration air temperature) on the desiccant wheel performances have been experimentally evaluated;
Experimental analysis in particular, the thermal-hygrometric properties of the process air exiting the rotor and the desiccant
Latent loads wheel effectiveness values have been obtained. Finally, fixing the regeneration temperature at its maxi-
Regeneration temperature mum available value (65 °C), ventilation and internal latent loads that the desiccant wheel can handle
have been evaluated and compared to the required values, both for a set of cities all over the world
and as a function of the thermal-hygrometric outdoor conditions.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction As regards the dehumidifier, one of the most common configu-

Desiccant cooling is based on air dehumidification by means of
a desiccant substance (solid or liquid), and on its subsequent cool-
ing. In fact, the dehumidification process is exothermic and deter-
mines a sensible heating of the airflow being dehumidified, which
in turn has to be cooled to the thermal-hygrometric conditions
necessary to handle the thermal loads [1–3].
To obtain a continuous operation of such a system, the desic-
cant material has to be periodically regenerated by means of a
hot airflow, in order to evaporate the absorbed/adsorbed water va-
pour. Regeneration temperature depends on the desiccant mate-
rial, but it can be low enough for the last generation of
desiccants (60–70 °C is often sufficient), thus allowing the use of
waste heat from cogeneration devices or energy recovered from a
solar collector.
Therefore, a desiccant cooling system comprises three main ele-
ments (Fig. 1): the dehumidifier, the regeneration thermal energy
source and the cooling device.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 081 2538665; fax: +39 081 2390364.
E-mail addresses: giovanni.angrisani@unisannio.it (G. Angrisani), alfonso.capoz-
zoli@polito.it (A. Capozzoli), minichie@unina.it (F. Minichiello), carlo.roselli@
unisannio.it (C. Roselli), sasso@unisannio.it (M. Sasso).
rations is the desiccant wheel (DW) that is a rotor filled with a solid
desiccant material, which slowly rotates between the process air to
be dehumidified and the regeneration air [4].
With reference to the thermal energy source for regeneration,
the desiccant wheel can obviously be regenerated by a gas-fired
boiler or an electric resistance when waste heat is either not avail-
able or not sufficient (in terms of power or temperature); this oc-
curs in particular for high regeneration temperature (above 80 °C).
As regards the cooling device, it can be a direct or indirect evap-
orative cooler, an air-to-air heat pump (in cooling mode), or an air-
cooled water chiller.
The obtained air conditioning system can be called desiccant-
based (or hybrid) heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
system.
Desiccant HVAC systems have the following main advantages
compared to conventional cooling-based dehumidification systems
[5,6]:
(1) they can separately control sensible and latent load;
(2) the cooling machine only has to cool the process air (without
dehumidifying it), so it can operate with a higher chilled
water temperature compared to a cooling machine coupled
to a conventional cooling and dehumidification system,

0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.09.025
 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365 1355

Nomenclature

h specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) MCHP Micro Combined Heat and Power

L specific ventilation latent load [W/(m3/h)] SHR sensible heat ratio, i.e. the ratio between the sensible
T temperature (°C) and total thermal load
g effectiveness (–)
Dhvs latent heat of vaporization for water (kJ/kg) Subscripts
x air humidity ratio (g/kg) ad adiabatic
DT temperature variation (°C) deh dehumidification
Dx air humidity ratio variation (g/kg) DW referred to desiccant wheel
AHU air handling unit o outdoor air
COP coefficient of performance r room
DB–MCWB dry bulb–mean coincident wet bulb (°C) reg regeneration
DP–MCDB dew point–mean coincident dry bulb (°C) s supply
DW desiccant wheel th thermal
HVAC heating, ventilation and air conditioning

where the process air has to be cooled below the dew point
temperature to obtain the desired humidity ratio. Hence, the
cooling machine interacting with the hybrid HVAC system
has a higher COP;
(3) due to the higher value of COP, electric energy requirement
of the cooling machine is reduced;
(4) as the cooling machine only has to cool the process air with-
out dehumidifying it, a reduction of the chiller size and con-
sequently of the refrigerant fluid mass is obtained, and so a
lower environmental impact, both in terms of direct impact
(ozone layer reduction and greenhouse effect due to refriger-
ant fluids) and of indirect one (the reduced electric energy
use determines lower equivalent CO2 emissions of the power
plants);
(5) in the conventional cooling and dehumidification process,
air commonly has to be re-heated (for example, by a gas-
fired boiler or an electric resistance), in order to reach the
desired supply temperature, with a further primary energy
consumption. On the contrary, the re-heating process is
not required in the desiccant dehumidification;
(6) they can give very low dew point temperatures of process
air, lower than 6.0 °C, while conventional systems usually
do not reach dew point temperatures lower than about
4.0 °C. So, the desiccant dehumidification technology is par-
ticularly used when very dry air is needed in the operating
processes, such as in the chemical, pharmaceutical and food
industries, or when a very low indoor humidity ratio is
needed in order to preserve or manipulate hygroscopic or
humidity sensitive materials;
(7) a better indoor air quality can be obtained too, due to sani-
tizing effects of desiccant [7,8].
Thanks to these advantages, the use of desiccant technology is
also spreading for tertiary and residential buildings. On the other
Regeneration
heat source
supply
Heat
hand, it is necessary to highlight both the low familiarity with such
technology and the frequent lack of knowledge about perfor-
mances and cost/benefit ratio.
As a result of the importance of desiccant wheel in solid desic-
cant cooling systems, many investigations have been performed on
its design, modeling and optimization.
A mathematical modeling of desiccant wheel using a commer-
cial software for solving mass and heat transfer equations has been
developed by Esfandiari Nia et al. [9]. The model is used to obtain
simple correlations for calculating humidity and temperature of
the air exiting the wheel as a function of the physically measurable
input variables and to determine the optimal rotational speed.
Jia et al. [10,11] developed a mathematical model to predict the
performance of a rotary solid desiccant cooling system using a novel
compound desiccant material; this model was then validated by
means of experimental tests. Stabat et al. [12] developed a desiccant
wheel model to be adapted to building simulation code, which was
in good agreement with the experimental and manufacturer data.
Hamed Ahmed et al. [13] developed a mathematical model to eval-
uate the effect of the operating conditions on the performance of a
rotating dehumidification system using a liquid desiccant. The ef-
fects of regeneration air temperature, process air and regeneration
air inlet humidity ratio, rotational speed, process and regeneration
air velocity on the amount of water absorbed are investigated. Xiong
et al. [14] investigated a novel two-stage liquid desiccant dehumid-
ification system using an exergy analysis method. The proposed sys-
tem is characterized by higher coefficient of performance and exergy
efficiency compared to a basic liquid desiccant dehumidification
system. The transient and steady state transport phenomena in the
DW have also been analyzed by Z. Gao et al., who developed a math-
ematical model based on the one-dimensional Navier–Stokes equa-
tions [15]. The model evaluates the humidity ratio and temperature
in both the airflow channels as a function of time. The predicted re-
sults are validated by means of data taken from experimental results.
Beccali et al. [16,17] presented some models to evaluate the
performance of rotary desiccant wheels composed of different so-
lid desiccant materials. The models were derived from the interpo-
lation of experimental data obtained from the industry. Some
correlations were developed for predicting outlet temperature

and humidity ratio.

In some cases, the performances of the DW were investigated
only by means of experimental laboratory tests. For example,
Desiccant Cooled
Process air Dry air Cooling device
supply air Mandegari and Pahlalavanzadeh [18] presented an experimental
dehumidifier
study considering different climates (hot dry and hot humid) and
various operating conditions, in terms of regeneration temperature
and wheel speed. The desiccant wheel effectiveness values in each
Moisture out
operating condition were calculated and a new definition for effec-
Fig. 1. Simplified scheme of a desiccant cooling system. tiveness was introduced.
1356 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365
Yao et al. [19] investigated a new silica-gel regeneration meth-
od using power ultrasound. The experimental study proves that
the proposed method can help to improve the regeneration effi-
ciency and reduce regeneration energy.
In terms of thermal energy source to regenerate the DW, great
attention is taken in the literature to solar energy. The evaluation
and optimization of a solar assisted DW performance have been
carried out by Fouad et al. [20]. They developed a numerical model
to study the effect of parameters such as wheel thickness, speed
and porosity, regeneration to adsorption area ratio, process airflow
rate and humidity ratio and regeneration air temperature. A solar
air collector is used as thermal energy source to regenerate the
desiccant material.
Vitte et al. [21] showed that a correctly controlled solar desic-
cant cooling system can allow interesting energy savings in build-
ing air conditioning. The influence of indoor and outdoor air
conditions is characterized using numerical simulations, adopting
a validated model of the desiccant wheel.
A numerical and experimental study of a solar assisted desic-
cant cooling system for air conditioning applications in Pakistan
was presented by Khalid et al. [22]. Tests were conducted on a
gas-fired hybrid desiccant cooling test rig. Using sets of measured
data from the test rig, a validation of a numerical model of the
cooling system, in which the gas-fired heater is substituted by a so-
lar air collector, was undertaken.
On the other hand, few research investigations were carried out
to experimentally evaluate the performance of a desiccant wheel
regenerated by means of low temperature thermal energy recov-
ered from a cogenerator [23–27]. Moreover, with reference to the
coupling DW–MCHP (Micro Combined Heat and Power), little
attention has been paid on the DW effectiveness variation and on
the DW capability in handling ventilation and internal latent loads.
So, in this paper, the effects of the main thermal-hygrometric
properties (outdoor air humidity ratio and temperature, regenera-
tion air temperature) that influence the DW performance have
been experimentally evaluated; the silica-gel desiccant wheel is
part of a hybrid HVAC system, and the DW regeneration is carried
out by using thermal energy recovered from a microcogenerator. In
particular, when varying the aforementioned parameters, the ther-
mal-hygrometric properties of process air exiting the rotor and the
DW effectiveness values were evaluated. Finally, fixing the regen-
eration temperature at its maximum available value (65 °C, by
using only the MCHP for regeneration), ventilation and internal la-
tent loads that the DW can handle were evaluated and compared
to the required values, considering both a set of cities all over
the world and the entire range of climatic conditions which oc-
curred in the experimental tests.
2. Desiccant HVAC system coupled to a microcogenerator
2.1. Experimental apparatus
The main components of the experimental apparatus, located at
Sannio University (in Benevento, Southern Italy), are the following:
- a HVAC system, based on an air handling unit (AHU) with a des-
iccant wheel, an electric chiller and a natural gas-fired boiler;
- a microcogenerator (MCHP), based on a natural gas-fired recip-
rocating internal combustion engine.
The nominal characteristics of these components are:
- microcogenerator: electric power 6.0 kW, thermal power
11.7 kW, electric efficiency 28.8%, thermal efficiency 56.2%;
- chiller: cooling capacity 8.50 kW, COP = 3.00;
- boiler: thermal power 24.2 kW, thermal efficiency 90.2%;
- AHU: process airflow rate is 800 m3/h. During summer opera-
tion, this is handled to achieve the supply conditions for the
room (Ts = 13–19 °C, xs = 7–11 g/kg), in order to maintain
indoor thermal and humidity comfort.
In Fig. 2, the layout of the test facility is shown. The following
three airflows are present (entirely drawn from the outdoor, state
O - therefore no recirculation is carried out):
- process air: dehumidified in the DW, (O-2), pre-cooled by inter-
acting with the cooling air stream in an air-to-air cross flow
heat exchanger (2–3), and finally cooled to the supply temper-
ature by a cooling coil connected to the chiller (3–4);
- regeneration air: heated by the heating coil connected with the
MCHP (O-5) and, when necessary, by a further heating coil con-
nected with the boiler (5–6), in order to regenerate the DW
material (6–7);
- cooling air: cooled by a direct evaporative cooler (O-8) and then
used to pre-cool the process air exiting the DW (8–9).
The volumetric rates of the three airflows can be controlled by
means of manual shutters. When these are at their maximum
opening, the airflow rates get their nominal values (800 m3/h).
The position, the measured parameter, the measuring range and
the accuracy of the sensors are reported in Fig. 2 too.
In Fig. 3, the transformations relative to process, regeneration
and cooling air are reported on a psychrometric chart.
2.2. Main characteristics of the desiccant wheel
The weight of the DW is 50 kg; its dimensions are
700 mm  700 mm  440 mm (height  width  thickness), with
a diameter of 700 mm. In reality, the frontal area of the rotor effec-
tively exposed to process and regeneration airflows is relative to a
diameter of about 600 mm, since a circular crown of the total area
is obstructed by the metallic frame in the AHU. The rotor has the
following configuration: 60% of the rotor area is crossed by the pro-
cess air, while the remaining 40% by the regeneration air. This is of-
ten used when there is low temperature regeneration thermal
energy.
In fact, the DW is filled with silica-gel, a desiccant material that
can be effectively regenerated at temperatures as low as 60–70 °C,
values obtainable by using the thermal recovery from the MCHP
and, only when necessary, the natural gas boiler. The rotor matrix
is composed of alternate layers (smooth and wavy) of silica-gel
sheets and metallic silicate, chemically bound into an inorganic fi-
ber frame.
The so realized ‘‘honeycomb” frame has several advantages,
such as the maximization of the superficial contact area, low pres-
sure drops, and low weight but high structural durability.
3. Results
3.1. Experimental analysis of the desiccant wheel performances
The desiccant wheel performances, in terms of humidity reduc-
tion, process air outlet temperature and effectiveness, depend on
several operational parameters. In particular, the influence of the
regeneration air temperature, as well as the temperature and
humidity ratio of the outdoor air entering the desiccant wheel, is
analyzed in this paper.
Increasing the regeneration air temperature, Treg = T6, with fixed
outdoor humidity ratio, Dx, that is the difference in humidity ratio
of process air between upstream and downstream of the DW, in-
creases, Fig. 4a. In fact, the moisture desorption process from the
 EXHAUST GAS
COOLING
AIR
COOLING NATURAL GAS
EXHAUST GAS AIR SENSORS
NATURAL GAS

MCHP
WATER SUPPLY
E7

CHILLER
NAME AND SYMBOL MEASURED PARAMETER MEASURING RANGE ACCURACY

BOILER
FT-CP
FT-HB

E6
TTA
TTA1,3,7...12 AIR TEMPERATURE -50 / +50 °C ± 0.9 °C
TTW9
TTW10
TTA

TTW12 E9
TTA2,4...6 AIR TEMPERATURE -10 / +90 °C ± 0.15 °C
TTW11 TTW7 TTW8

MTA
MTA0 AMBIENT RELATIVE HUMIDITY 0 - 99% ± 5%

G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365

LEGEND
MTA
MTA2, ... 5 RELATIVE HUMIDITY 0 - 99% ± 5%
GATE VALVE
FTA
BALANCE FTA1,2 AIR VELOCITY 0 - 10 m/s ± 0.2 m/s
VALVE
FT-HTC1,2
VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE 2 - 60 L/min ± 2% FS
FILTER FT-CTC

THREE-WAY Pd1, ... 3 Pd DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE 0 - 500 Pa ± 14 Pa

E7 FT-HTC2 FT-CTC E8 FT-HTC1
VALVE FT-HB
MASS FLOW RATE 0 - 2.5 Nm3/h ± 0.2% FS
PUMP FT-CP
TTW
TTW1, ... 6 WATER TEMPERATURE -10 / +120 °C ± 1.4 °C
E
ELECTRIC
ENERGY METER TTW5 TTW6 TTW1 TTW2 TTW3 TTW4

w5 w6 w4 w3 w7 w1 w2

FAN 3

7 TTA4 MTA4 E4
6 TTA5
5 TTA6 E3
o FTA2

FILTER 3
HEATING

DVR-A3
REGENERATION REGENERATION

HEATING
COIL 2

COIL 1
Pd3

AIR AIR
MTA0 DESICCANT
WHEEL

EVAPORATIVE
o 2 8
FILTER 1

TTA9
MTA1 E5
o
COOLER
MTA2

FILTER 2
TTA1 TTA2 TTA11

DVR-A2
PUMP

PROCESS Pd2
COOLING
AIR AIR
HEAT
FAN 2 EXCH. FAN 1
E2 TTA10
9 TTA7 3 4 TTA8 E1 TTA3 MTA3 FTA1
COOLING

TTA12

DVR-A1
COOLING PROCESS
COIL

Pd1

AIR AIR

AIR HANDLING UNIT

Fig. 2. Layout of the experimental plant and characteristics of the sensors.

1357
1358 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365
Fig. 3. Air processes on the psychrometric chart.
desiccant matrix (on the regeneration side) is endothermic, thus
favored by high temperatures. Increasing the regeneration temper-
ature, the DW section being regenerated is subjected to a deeper
drying process. Consequently, the desiccant matrix can attract
more moisture from process air during the successive dehumidifi-
cation process.
In Fig. 4a, it can be also noted that the best performance, in
terms of dehumidification capability (Dx), is obviously obtained
considering the isoenthalpyc process (the ideal adsorption pro-
cess). Among the three tests considered, at the same regeneration
temperature, the best performance is obtained in test #3, during
which xo attains its maximum value, and so the desiccant material
capability to catch water vapour droplets on its surface is maxi-
mized. In fact, the higher the water vapour content in outdoor
air, the higher the difference in terms of vapour partial pressure
between outdoor air and desiccant material surface. Consequently,
diffusion of the water vapour droplets from the former to the latter
is higher.
When comparing tests #1 and #2 (Fig. 4a), characterized by
similar values of xo, the dehumidification capability is higher for
test #1, due to the lower outdoor air temperature. This is so be-
cause the adsorption process is exothermic, hence favored by low
temperatures.
In Fig. 4b, Dx as a function of xo is reported, for different To and
for Treg = 65.0 °C. It monotonically increases with xo, while, for
fixed values of xo, it decreases when To rises, as already explained
for Fig. 4a. These results are in good agreement with data supplied
by the manufacturer, where the experimental Dx is lower than the
indicated one by about 15%.
In Fig. 5a, DT, the process air temperature difference between
downstream and upstream of the DW, is reported as a function
of Treg, for three tests characterized by different values of To and
xo. Evidently, DT increases with Treg, because of the heating of
the desiccant matrix on the regeneration side and, as a conse-
quence of the rotation of the wheel, on the process side. Obviously
the increase in DT is only due to the rise in T2, To being constant.
Moreover, the lowest values of DT occur in test #1, due to the low-
est values of To and xo. As regards the remaining tests, test #3 is
characterized by a lower To but a higher xo compared to test #2.
This last condition is predominant such that the highest DT occurs
for test #3. In fact, DT increases with process air inlet humidity ra-
tio (see also Fig. 5b, referred to a Treg = 65.0 °C) as the wheel re-
moves a greater quantity of water vapour when xo grows
(Fig. 4b). Therefore, DT rises due to the increase in the adsorption
heat released during the process. Moreover, DT is lower in the case
of isoenthalpyc process.
In Fig. 5b, DT as a function of xo is reported, for different values
of To. It can be seen that DT increases when xo rises and/or To de-
creases, because in these cases the adsorption process is enhanced
(Fig. 4b) and so the adsorption heat rises.
The results reported in Figs. 4 and 5 are in good agreement with
similar analysis reported in literature [4,28].
Some definitions of desiccant wheel effectiveness are used
[18,29–31]:
- the thermal effectiveness (1), the conventional effectiveness def-
inition for a heat exchanger:
gth ¼ ðT 2  T o Þ=ðT 6  T o Þ ð1Þ
- the regeneration effectiveness (2):
greg ¼ ðxo  x2 ÞDhv s =ðh6  ho Þ ð2Þ
It expresses, for unitary mass flow rate, the latent load handled
by the DW with respect to the regeneration thermal power re-
quired for the adsorption process;
- the dehumidification effectiveness (3):
gdeh ¼ ðxo  x2 Þ=ðxo  x2;ideal Þ ð3Þ
where x2,ideal is the ideal humidity ratio of process air stream at the
desiccant wheel outlet. If its value is zero, the process in the DW is
ideal and the process air is completely dehumidified. So, gdeh ex-
presses the comparison between the real dehumidification capabil-
ity and the ideal one.
- the adiabatic effectiveness (4):
gad ¼ 1  ðh2  h0 Þ=h0 ð4Þ
The real adsorption process is not isoenthalpyc (air enthalpy in-
creases), so the comparison between the real adsorption process
and the isoenthalpyc one becomes significant.
In Fig. 6a, the values of the above-mentioned effectiveness as a
function of Treg are shown, for fixed values of To and xo. When the
 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365 1359

7.5
(a)
6.5

5.5
isoenthalphic for test #3
∆ ω [ g/kg]

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Regeneration temperature [°C]

test #1 (To = 26.6°C, ωo = 9.26 g/kg) test #2 (To = 35.6°C, ωo = 10.7 g/kg) test #3 (To = 31.7°C, ωo = 13.0 g/kg)
test #1 test #2 test #3

7.5
(b)
7.0
Treg = 65 °C
6.5

6.0
∆ ω [ g/kg]

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Outside air humidity ratio [g/kg]

To = 25.0°C 27.0°C 29.0°C 31.5°C

34.5°C To = 25.0°C 27.0°C 29.0°C
31.5°C 34.5°C

Fig. 4. Difference between process air humidity ratios at inlet and outlet of the desiccant wheel as a function of regeneration temperature (a) and outside air humidity ratio
with Treg = 65.0 °C (b).

regeneration temperature rises, there is an increase in dehumidifi-
cation effectiveness, gdeh, thanks to the enhancement of the corre-
sponding desorption process.
Moreover, the rise of Treg causes an increase in the heat losses
from the hot side of the DW (regeneration section) to both the cold
side (process section) and the outdoor environment, due to en-
hanced convective – conductive heat transfer mechanisms, and a
stronger heating of the matrix and of the desiccant material is also
caused. Thus, the regeneration effectiveness decreases (the aug-
mentation of the latent load handled by the DW does not balance
the increase in the regeneration thermal power).
Furthermore, the enthalpy h2 increases, causing a light fall of
the adiabatic effectiveness. Finally, the consequent augmentation
of T2 is not able to balance the increase of the regeneration
temperature, so the thermal effectiveness has a descending
behavior.
In Fig. 6b, the four effectiveness trends are reported as a func-
tion of the outdoor air temperature, for fixed values of Treg and
xo. As already noted in Fig. 4a, the growth of To leads to a reduction
of the dehumidification wheel capability, thus to a decreasing of
dehumidification and regeneration effectiveness.
With higher air temperatures at the DW inlet, To, the adsorption
process is penalized. Consequently, the reduction of the released
heat of adsorption leads to the enhancement of the adiabatic
efficiency.
As regards gth (1), at constant regeneration temperature, pro-
cess air temperatures at the inlet and the outlet of the rotor both
increase. The thermal effectiveness passes through a declining
trend, in accordance with the manufacturer’s data.
The DW effectiveness trends shown in Fig. 6a and b are in good
agreement with the trends reported in [18].
In Fig. 6c the DW effectiveness values are reported as a function
of outdoor air humidity ratio, for fixed values of Treg and To.
As regards greg, increase in xo causes an augmentation of the
dehumidification capability, xo  x2, cfr. Fig. 4b, while Treg is fixed,
and so greg grows. With reference to gth, the growth of dehumidifi-
cation capability determines a rise in the released heat of adsorp-
tion, therefore both T2 and gth rise.
1360 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365

20
(a)
16

isoenthalpyc for test #3

12
[°C]

0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Regeneration temperature [°C]

test #1 (To = 30.1°C, ωo = 6.0 g/kg) test #2 (To = 35.5°C, ωo = 10.5 g/kg) test #3 (To = 32.6°C, ωo = 13.0 g/kg)

test #1 (To = 30.1°C, ωo = 6.0 g/kg) test #2 (To = 35.5°C, ωo = 10.5 g/kg) test #3 (To = 32.6°C, ωo = 13.0 g/kg)

27
(b) Treg = 65 °C
24

21
[°C]

18

15

12
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Outdoor air humidity ratio [g/kg]

To = 25.0 °C 27.0 °C 29.0 °C 31.5 °C 34.5 °C

To = 25.0°C 27.0°C 29.0°C 31.5°C 34.5°C

Fig. 5. Difference between process air temperatures at outlet and inlet of the desiccant wheel as a function of regeneration temperature (a) and outside air humidity ratio
with Treg = 65.0 °C (b).

At constant outdoor temperature, the increase in the specific
humidity strongly affects the dehumidification capability in the
ideal process, xo  x2,ideal, leading to the decreasing trend of the
dehumidification effectiveness.
Finally, at higher outdoor humidity ratio, adiabatic effective-
ness improves, according to data supplied by the DW
manufacturer.
Fig. 7 refers to data obtained in the absence of thermal energy
delivered to regeneration air, in order to highlight the process of
desiccant saturation. The graph shows the time trend of Dx for
two different tests, characterized by similar temperatures, but dif-
ferent moisture contents of outdoor air. The two curves start from
the same initial value of Dx, and then continue differently. In par-
ticular, in the test #2, characterized by a higher value of xo, the
saturation process is more rapid. In fact, at the same time, the
Dx residual is less than in the test #1, and this is due to the higher
quantity of water vapour in the air for the test #2, which tends to
saturate more rapidly the surface of the desiccant. After about
76 min during which the wheel dries the process air without being
regenerated, the saturation process may be considered almost en-
tirely completed, as Dx residual at the end of the test is about 1/4
and 1/8 for test #1 and test #2 respectively, compared to the initial
Dx .
3.2. Latent load handled by the desiccant wheel
On the basis of the experimental data previously reported, an
analysis on the silica-gel desiccant wheel has been carried out to
estimate its performance in handling the ventilation and internal
latent loads of a conditioned space. The process air volumetric flow
rate has a negligible influence on the desiccant wheel performance
(in terms of dehumidification capability, i.e. Dx) if the following
conditions are satisfied:
(a) the face velocity of the process air at the DW inlet remains
constant;
 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365 1361

(b) the ratio between process air and regeneration air flow rate
(a) 100 adiabatic
90 is equal to 1, as in the previously reported experimental
80 ωo = 13.0 g/kg
analysis.
70 To = 32.7°C
60 In this case, the DW dehumidification performance is substan-
[%]

thermal
50 tially independent of volumetric flow rate. In the following analy-
regeneration
40 sis, the ventilation and internal latent loads are expressed per
30 unitary volumetric air flow rate, considering indoor thermal-hygro-
dehumidification
20 metric conditions characterized by Tr = 25 °C and xr = 10.5 g/kg
10
45 50 55 60 65 70 (relative humidity = 54%), and supply air temperature equal to
Regeneration temperature [°C] 17 °C; Treg is fixed to 65 °C (maximum value obtainable by using
the selected MCHP).
(b) 90
adiabatic
The outdoor design conditions herein considered are based on
the following ASHRAE data [32]:
80
ωo = 11.2 g/kg
70
- design for cooling: 0.4% DB–MCWB (dry bulb–mean coincident
Treg = 66.4°C
wet bulb), 1.0% DB–MCWB and 2.0% DB–MCWB;
60 - design for dehumidification: 0.4% DP–MCDB (dew point–mean
[%]

thermal
coincident dry bulb) and 1.0% DP–MCDB.
50

40
dehumidification It is helpful to use an example for understanding these design
data. For Istanbul, 0.4% DB = 31.1 °C and MCWB = 21.4 °C: as re-
30 regeneration gards DB temperature, this means that the value 31.1 °C is ex-
ceeded on average by the indicated percentage (0.4%) of the total
20
25 27 29 31 33 35 number of hours in a year (8760), i.e. by 35 h per year, for the per-
Process air inlet temperature [°C] iod of record; as regards MCWB temperature, the value 21.4 °C de-
fines the average wet bulb temperature that was observed when
(c) 90 the air was at the extreme high dry bulb temperature (31.1 °C).
adiabatic In other words, the value 21.4 °C is not the average wet bulb tem-
80
perature during the entire warm season, but just its average value
To = 31.6°C
70 when the air is very hot [33].
Treg = 66.2°C
The designer has to choose the set of conditions and probability
60
[%]

thermal
of occurrence that can be conveniently applied to the specific situ-
50 ation. The DB–MCWB data represent outdoor conditions of hot,
dehumidification
40
mostly sunny days. They are therefore commonly used in sizing
cooling equipment, such as chillers and cooling coils. On the con-
30 trary, design conditions based on dew point temperatures (DP–
regeneration
20 MCDB) are directly related to the highest values of humidity ratio,
7 9 11 13 15 which represent peak moisture loads from the weather. These val-
Process air inlet humidity ratio [g/kg]
ues are especially useful for humidity control applications, hence
Fig. 6. Various types of desiccant wheel effectiveness as a function of regeneration in desiccant cooling and dehumidification, cooling-based dehu-
temperature (a), process air inlet temperature (b) and humidity ratio (c). midification and ventilation system design.

4.0
test #1 (To = 26.7°C,ωo = 5.37 g/kg)
3.5
test #2 (To = 26.1°C, ωo = 7.56 g/kg)
test #1
3.0
test #2
ω [g/kg]

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5
1 16 31 46 61 76
Time [min]

Fig. 7. Difference between process air humidity ratios at inlet and outlet of the desiccant wheel as a function of the time, in the absence of regeneration thermal energy.
1362 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365

(a) 0.4 % DB-MCWB 1.0 % DB-MCWB 2.0 % DB-MCWB

5

handled by the DW [W/(m3 /h)]

Specific ventilation latent load
4

0
Athinai

Beograd

Bologna

Firenze

Casablanca

Boston

Lima
Zagreb/Maksimir
Budapest/Ferihegy I

Istanbul

Ottawa
Wien/City

Sarajevo/Butmir

Bucuresti Afumati

Sydney Airport Amo

Toronto Buttonville A
(b) 0.4 % DP-MCDB 1.0 % DP-MCDB
6
handled by the DW [W/(m3 /h)]
Specific ventilation latent load

95%
90% 91%
98%
90% 90%
5 84%
93%

2
Athinai

Beograd

Bologna

Firenze

Casablanca

Boston

Lima
Zagreb/Maksimir
Budapest/Ferihegy I

Istanbul

Ottawa
Wien/City

Sarajevo/Butmir

Bucuresti Afumati

Sydney Airport Amo

Toronto Buttonville A

Fig. 8. Specific ventilation latent load handled by the desiccant wheel for various cities and for different outdoor design thermal-hygrometric conditions (Treg = 65 °C).

In Fig. 8, the specific ventilation latent load that can be handled desiccant wheel), it is obtained for each city by the experimental
by the desiccant wheel for different cities around the world is re- knowledge of the maximum desiccant wheel dehumidification
ported. The cities selected for the analysis are characterized by val- capability (DxDW) relative to a regeneration temperature of
ues of the outdoor humidity ratio (derived from DB–MCWB and 65 °C, i.e. xs = xo  DxDW.
DP–MCDB data) included within the range of experimental data In Fig. 9a and b, the maximum specific internal latent load that
available for the desiccant wheel performance (see Section 3.1). could be handled by the desiccant wheel (independently of the
Fig. 8a refers to DB–MCWB data (for cooling purposes), while type of internal latent load) is presented, considering the ASHRAE
Fig. 8b refers to DP–MCDB data (for dehumidification purposes). cooling and dehumidification design data, respectively. This load
For those cities where the DW is able to handle the entire required is proportional to xr  xs, with xs experimentally evaluated as re-
specific ventilation latent load (L, proportional to xo  xr), it is re- ported above.
ported on the ordinate. This occurs for all the cities in Fig. 8a and In Fig. 9b, note that for the cities in which the ventilation latent
only for some of them in Fig. 8b. On the contrary, for those cities load cannot be completely handled by the desiccant wheel (be-
where the DW cannot entirely balance L, only the fraction of L cov- cause xs > xr, as occurs, for example, in Bologna), no internal la-
ered by the DW (proportional to xo  xs, with xs experimentally tent load can be balanced by the wheel, such that negative
evaluated) is shown on the ordinate and reported in percentage values are shown. In these cases, the lower the ventilation latent
too. This occurs for some cities (such as Athinai and Bologna) in load covered by the DW with respect to the required value
Fig. 8b. This result strictly depends on the above-mentioned differ- (Fig. 8b), the higher the absolute value of the internal latent load
ence between DB–MCWB and DP–MCDB data. Moreover, note that reported in Fig. 9b.
for some cities and for certain percentiles (Athinai, Beograd, Sara- Thus, in these cases, a higher Treg is necessary and the only
jievo, Sydney), the ordinate is equal to zero (Fig. 8a) because the in- waste heat from MCHP is not sufficient for regeneration process.
door humidity ratio is higher than outdoor one (i.e., there is no The results reported in Fig. 9, for given cities, can be generalized
ventilation latent load). for any climatic condition, which is the main purpose of Fig. 10,
As regards the experimental evaluation of xs (the supply air where the following parameters have been reported as a function
humidity ratio, equal to the process air humidity ratio after the of outdoor air humidity ratio:
 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365 1363

(a) 0.4 % DB-MCWB 1.0 % DB-MCWB 2.0 % DB-MCWB

5

handled by the DW [W/(m3 /h)]

Specific internal latent load
4

Athinai

Beograd

Bologna

Firenze

Casablanca

Boston

Lima
Zagreb/Maksimir
Budapest/Ferihegy I

Istanbul

Ottawa
Wien/City

Sarajevo/Butmir

Bucuresti Afumati

Sydney Airport Amo

Toronto Buttonville A
(b) 3.0
0.4 % DP-MCDB 1.0 % DP-MCDB
handled by the DW [W/(m3 /h)]
Specific internal latent load

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
Athinai

Beograd

Bologna

Firenze

Casablanca

Boston

Lima
Zagreb/Maksimir
Budapest/Ferihegy I

Istanbul

Ottawa
Wien/City

Sarajevo/Butmir

Bucuresti Afumati

Sydney Airport Amo

Toronto Buttonville A

Fig. 9. Specific internal latent load handled by the desiccant wheel for various cities and for different outdoor design thermal-hygrometric conditions (Treg = 65 °C).

- the specific latent load that can be globally handled by the des- can be useful. In Fig. 11, the specific internal latent load required by
iccant wheel, for different outdoor temperatures (Fig. 10a, dot- a given application is presented as a function of the room SHR (sen-
ted lines). This is proportional to xo  xs; sible heat ratio, i.e. the ratio between the sensible and total ther-
- the required specific ventilation latent load (Fig. 10a, continu- mal load). This allows to identify the value of the specific
ous line). This is proportional to xo  xr. Therefore, for fixed internal latent load to be balanced (Fig. 11) through the knowledge
indoor conditions, it depends only on the climatic conditions; of both the sensible and latent load of the considered indoor ambi-
- the specific internal latent load that can be balanced by the des- ent. Successively, by the diagram of Fig. 10b, the user can check if
iccant wheel, for different outdoor air temperatures (Fig. 10b). the desiccant wheel is able to balance the required internal latent
This is proportional to xr  xs. load for certain outdoor design conditions.
With reference to both Figs. 10 and 11, in all the cases in which
Analyzing Fig. 10a, it can be noted that, for values of outdoor the desiccant wheel cannot balance the required latent load, a
humidity ratio lower than about 15.5 g/kg, the specific latent load higher Treg is necessary.
that can be handled by the desiccant wheel is higher than the spe-
cific ventilation latent load required by the outdoor air humidity 4. Conclusions
ratio. This means that in these conditions the desiccant wheel is al-
ways able to balance at least the ventilation latent load. On the An experimental analysis on the performances of a silica-gel
contrary, for outdoor humidity ratio higher than 15.5 g/kg, the des- desiccant wheel, inserted in a test facility characterized by a desic-
iccant wheel can handle the required ventilation latent load only cant air handling unit coupled to an electric chiller, a boiler and a
for low outdoor air temperatures. This confirms that the process microcogenerator has been presented. The desiccant wheel is
air inlet temperature also strongly affects the DW dehumidification regenerated by using thermal energy from a microcogenerator,
capability. therefore at low temperature (lower than 70 °C).
As a consequence, in Fig. 10b, only for outdoor humidity ratio Useful desiccant wheel performance curves were obtained, as
lower than about 15.5 g/kg, the desiccant wheel can also balance regards the difference between process air inlet and outlet humid-
a part or all the internal latent load, such that positive values occur. ity ratio (i.e. the moisture removal capability of the wheel) and
In order to check if the wheel is able to entirely cover the inter- temperature, as a function of regeneration temperature and pro-
nal latent load for a given application, Fig. 11 (coupled to Fig. 10b) cess air inlet humidity ratio and temperature. Also the trends of
1364 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365

To = 25.0°C 27.0°C 29.0°C 31.5°C 34.5°C

Outdoor air humidity ratio [g/kg]
(a) 7
handled by the DW [W/(m /h)] 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Required specific ventilation

6
3

latent load [W/(m /h)]

Specific latent load

3
4

(b) 6
handled by the DW [W/(m /h)]
Specific internal latent load

5
3

-1

-2
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Outdoor air humidity ratio [g/kg]

To = 25.0°C 27.0°C 29.0°C 31.5°C 34.5°C

Fig. 10. Specific latent load handled by the DW (a), required specific ventilation latent load (a) and specific internal latent load handled by the DW (b), as a function of outdoor
humidity ratio (Treg = 65 °C).

3.5 Furthermore, an analysis was presented to evaluate the desic-

cant wheel performance in handling the ventilation and internal
3.0 latent load for various cities around the world. The results showed
that the selected outdoor thermal-hygrometric design data
load required [W/(m3 /h)]

strongly affect the possibility for the desiccant wheel to completely

Specific internal latent

2.5
balance the latent load. When using ASHRAE design dehumidifica-
2.0 tion data (characterized by high dew point temperature) for the
cities analyzed, the desiccant wheel is often not able to entirely
1.5 handle even the ventilation latent load (due also to the low regen-
eration temperature, equal to about 65 °C). On the contrary, when
1.0 using ASHRAE design cooling data, the wheel always allows at least
the covering of the ventilation latent load.
0.5 Then, the results obtained for given cities were generalized
for any climatic condition. On the basis of the obtained experi-
0.0 mental performance curves, useful diagrams were obtained to
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
evaluate the specific latent load that the desiccant wheel can
SHR [-] handle as a function of outdoor humidity ratio, for different out-
Fig. 11. Specific internal latent load required as a function of sensible heat ratio door temperatures. The results showed that, for outdoor humid-
(SHR). ity ratio higher than about 15.5 g/kg, the desiccant wheel can
balance at least the ventilation latent load only for low outdoor
various types of DW effectiveness (regeneration, dehumidification, temperatures. This confirms that the process air inlet tempera-
thermal and adiabatic effectiveness) were analyzed, as a function ture also strongly affects the DW dehumidification capability.
of the abovementioned parameters. Moreover, the specific internal latent load that can be handled
The results obtained provided useful information on the perfor- by the desiccant wheel versus outdoor humidity ratio for differ-
mances of a silica-gel desiccant wheel regenerated by a microco- ent outdoor temperatures were evaluated. A simple chart to
generator (low regeneration temperature range, i.e. 40–70 °C), as identify the required specific internal latent load as a function
this issue was poorly investigated in literature. of SHR was obtained. In this way, the designer can easily evalu-
The performance curves considering an ideal isoenthalpyc ate the specific internal latent load for the analyzed indoor
adsorption dehumidification process were presented too. In this ambient (characterized by a given SHR) and check if the silica-
way, it is possible to compare and evaluate the deviation entity gel desiccant wheel with low regeneration temperature is able
of the real evaluated performances from the ideal conditions. to balance it, otherwise, higher regeneration temperatures are
 G. Angrisani et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 1354–1365
necessary and the waste heat from MCHP could be not sufficient
for the desiccant regeneration.
Acknowledgments
This work has been financed by Italian research project PRIN
2007 ‘‘Criteria and methodologies for the optimization of small/
medium scale polygeneration systems”.
Moreover, this work was developed in a project promoted by
International Energy Agency (IEA), Annex 54, Integration of Mi-
cro-generation and Related Energy Technologies in Buildings.
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