STRUCTURES I

1.0 Properties of Materials

1.1 Introduction
When an external force acts on a body, the body will tend to undergo some type of deformation. However, due
to the cohesive forces that act between the molecules of the body, the body will tend to resist the deformation.
This resistance is known as strength of material. Different materials have different levels of strength. Within a
certain limit i.e. the elastic stage, the resistance offered by the material is proportional to the deformation
brought out on the material by the external force and the resistance equals the external force. Beyond the elastic
stage, however, the resistance offered by the material is less than the applied load and therefore the deformation
will continue disproportionately until failure takes place.
1.2 Stress and Strain
As an introduction to your first topic in Structures I, we shall begin with the following definitions that shall be
important to your understanding of the properties of the common materials that you shall encounter in Structural
Engineering.
(i) Plasticity: this is the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to
applied forces. Once a material undergoes plastic deformation, it can no longer be returned to its original state.
Plastic deformation is the permanent distortion that occurs when a material is subjected to tensile, compressive,
bending, or torsion stresses that exceed its yield strength and cause it to elongate, compress, buckle, bend or
twist. You can imagine a chewing gum that can be stretched to many times its original dimensions.
(ii) Elasticity: this is the property of some deformed bodies to recover, at least partially, their initial form after
the withdrawal of the force that caused the deformation. So, elastic deformation is the temporary distortion that
occurs when a material is subjected to tensile, compressive, bending, or torsional stresses that do not exceed its
yield strength. A good example is a rubber band that is stretched but quickly resumes its original dimensions
upon release of the stretching force.
(iii) Stress (σ): this is the restoring force per unit area. As discussed before, when some external force acts on a
body, different particles of the body will be displaced. These displaced particles will try to come back to their
original positions when the external force is withdrawn. Note that the reaction set up in the body is equal and
opposite to the applied force, so long as no permanent change is produced in the body. Therefore, the restoring
force is equal to the applied force. The formula for stress is given below:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝜎=𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃=𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴=𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

It would thus follow that the units of stress will be the units of Force (𝑘𝑁,𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠) divided by the
units of Area (𝑚2), thus stress, σ, would be denoted in 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2.
(iv) Strain (ε): this is the ratio of change in length or volume to the original length or volume. Since strain
is a ratio, it has no units. The formula for strain is given below:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝛿𝑙 𝛿𝑣
𝜀= =
𝐿 𝑉
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝜀=𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝑙=𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿=𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑣=𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉=𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
(v) Hooke’s Law: Hooke discovered a simple relationship between stress and strain. It states that stress is
proportional to strain within the elastic limits. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

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 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝛼 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ =𝐸
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑜𝑟,
𝜎
=𝐸
𝜀
The constant of proportionality,𝐸, is called modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity. Its value depends
on the nature of the material. Therefore, different materials have different values of 𝐸.
(vi)Young’s Modulus (𝑬): this is the ratio of stress to longitudinal strain within the elastic limits. Let us take a
wire of length 𝐿 and let it change by 𝛿𝑙 under an applied load. The force 𝐹 acting on an area of cross-section, 𝐴.
Therefore:

(𝛿𝑙)
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿
𝑃
𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐸 =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑃
= 𝐴
𝛿𝑙
𝐿
𝑃𝐿
=
𝐴𝛿𝑙
NB: Young’s Modulus of Elasticity is the same as the general Modulus of Elasticity hence the same symbol 𝐸 is
used for both of them. The Young's modulus of a material is a useful property to know in order to predict the
behavior of the material when subjected to a force.
(vii) Bulk Modulus: this is the ratio of stress to volumetric strain. If a force is applied normally over the surface
of a body and only change in volume takes place, the strain is called volumetric strain. It is measured by the
change in volume per unit volume.
Mathematically, it is represented as follows:
𝛥𝑃
𝐵 =
𝛥𝑉
𝑉
Where:
B: Bulk modulus
ΔP: change of the pressure or force applied per unit area on the material
ΔV: change of the volume of the material due to the compression
V: Initial volume of the material in the units of in the English system and N/m2 in the metric system.
Solved Example
What is the bulk modulus of a body that experienced a change of pressure of 5x104N/m2 and its volume
goes from 4 cm3 to 3.9 cm3?.
The bulk modulus is calculated using the formula,
𝛥𝑃
𝐵 =
𝛥𝑉
𝑉
𝐵 = (5𝑥104 𝑁/𝑚2 )/((4 𝑐𝑚3 – 3.9𝑐𝑚3 )/4𝑐𝑚3 ) = 0.125𝑥104 𝑁/𝑚2

𝐵 = 1.25 𝑥104 𝑁/𝑚2

Uses
 Bulk modulus measures how incompressible a solid is.
 Besides, the more the value of K for a material, the higher its nature is incompressible.

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 o For example, the value of K for steel is 1.6×1011N/m2, and the value of K for glass is
4×1010N/m2.
o Here, K for steel is more than three times the value of K for glass.
 This implies that glass is more compressible than steel.
 While in solids, Young’s modulus is commonly used, the value of K varies in gases, as they are
extremely compressible. The concept of Bulk Modulus is also used in liquids. Temperatures of fluid and
entrained air content are the two factors highly controlled by the bulk modulus.

(viii) Modulus of Rigidity: this is the ratio of the tangential force per unit area to angular deformation produced
in the body. Take the solid below which is acted upon by a shear force. (Remember what we discussed in class
about shear forces).

The Bulk modulus, G, will be given by:

A block of unknown material kept on a table (The square face is placed on the table.), is under a shearing force.
The following data is given, calculate the shear modulus of the material. Dimensions of the block = 60 mm x 60
mm x 20 mm. Shearing Force = 0.245 N. Displacement = 5 mm

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 0.245𝑁 68.056𝑁

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = −6
=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 60𝑥60 𝑥10 𝑚2
∆𝑥 5 1
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = =
𝑙 20 4
(68.056𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑠, 𝐺 = = 272.22𝑁/𝑚2
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The following example will give you a clear understanding of how the shear modulus helps in defining the
rigidity of any material.
 Shear modulus of wood is 6.2×108 Pa
 Shear modulus of steel is 7.2×1010 Pa
Thus, it implies that steel is a lot more (really a lot more) rigid than wood, around 127 times more!

(ix) Working Stress and Ultimate Stress: safe working stress is the maximum allowable stress that a material
or object will be subjected to when in service. It is always less than the elastic limit. The ultimate stress is the
maximum value of stress that a material can resist.
(x) Factor of Safety: since a material should be working at stresses under its breaking point, the factor of safety
is how much tolerance/allowance is given to a material. It is expressed as follows:

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 (𝐹𝑆) =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Within a system, there shall need to be a compromise between a high factor of safety and the efficiency of the
system. The Factor of Safety should be >1 in a safe system.

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1.3 The Stress-Strain Curve
When stress is plotted against strain, for a tensile experiment on a ductile material (steel), the typical curve that
is generated is as shown below:

Figure 1.1: Stress-Strain Curve

In Figure 1.1 above, some salient points are indicated by the lettered red points. These are worth of mention to
fully understand the curve.
Proportional Limit (A): From point O to A, the stress is directly proportional to the strain. Beyond point A, the
curve slightly deviates from the straight line. It thus follows that Hooke’s Law is true for the curve up to point
A.
Elastic Limit (B): If the load is increased between points A and B, the material under test will regain its original
shape if the load is removed. This means that the material possesses elasticity up to point B, which is the elastic
limit.
Upper Yield Point (C): If the material is stressed (loaded) beyond point B, the plastic stage will be reached and
the material will start yielding. The first yield point is known as the upper yield point indicated in the diagram as
point C.
Lower Yield Point (D): Further addition of small loads from point C will cause the curve to drop to point D.
This point is known as the lower yield point.
Ultimate Stress Point (E): After the end of yielding, if the load is increased beyond point D, there will be an
increase in stresses up to a maximum point E. Point E is thus referred to as the point of ultimate or maximum
stress.
Breaking/Fracture Stress Point (F): After the material has reached its maximum stress point, it will start
necking (elongating while reducing in cross-sectional area). Upon further loading, the material will fracture.
This point of breaking or fracturing is called the breaking or fracture stress point and is indicated by the point F.
1.4 Worked Examples
1. A nylon string has a diameter of 2𝑚𝑚. It is pulled by a force of 100𝑁. Determine the stress exerted on the
string.

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