Writing Styles

Hieroglyphics

In the beginning, people used symbols to create readable images. Hieroglyphics, pictorial writing
used in Ancient Egypt, originated around 2500 BCE. There were three types of signs: logograms
(words), phonograms (sounds), and determinatives (word endings). These symbols were placed
on monuments and funerary contexts.

As time moved forward, Egyptians developed two variants of hieroglyphics to simplify the
writing process. Hieratic script emerged as an outlet for priests and scribes to write without overt
use of pictures. Characters stood for phonetic value, yet were now more stylized in “script” form.
Hieratics are on pottery shards and official documents in Egyptian history. During the 7th century
BCE, Demotic writing came into fruition. Also featured on documents, demotic writing carries
no pictorial elements in its script. In the 18th century CE, Jean-Francois Champollion
successfully deciphered hieroglyphic readings through intense study and research.

Writing Evolves: The Phoenician Alphabet

The Phoenician Alphabet originated in the Mediterranean. Written right to left horizontally, it
was the first script in history to apply reading both words and phrases. There were 22 letters in
the Phoenician alphabet, their shapes are ultimately traced back to hieroglyphic language.
Similar to pictorial interpretations, symbols in the Phoenician alphabet represent animals and
land forms seen in life.

Further, the Phoenician language circulated in European countries such as Malta, France and
Sicily. Tunisia and the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) also used Phoenician
dialect in their reading lives. The Phoenician alphabet was widely used until around 2nd century
CE.

Pictures to Words: The Coptic Alphabet

The Coptic alphabet emerged when Greek culture began to dominate Egyptian life. Using an
extensive range of characters, it also began using reading comprehension in their dialect. The
Coptic alphabet began around the 2nd Century BCE. This alphabet consists of 32 letters. It
became the first official guide of both reading words and deciphering sounds similar to modern
text.

Coptic symbols displayed a cleaner script. It displayed prominently on tablets and clay
structures. Coptic dialect originated from the Greek system in word formation and structure.
While some characters in Coptic language served as additional pieces from Greek, this dialect
reveals early formation of phrases and sounds. Coptic alphabet dominated Egypt until the 5th
Century BCE.

The Greek Alphabet

The Greek alphabet dictates most scripts used in the current western world. It originated as early
as the 8th century BCE. Adapted from the Phoenician writing system, the Greek community
created a dialect composed of symbols representing both consonants and vowels. The earliest
recorded sighting of the Greek alphabet were inscriptions inside clay pots in Athens.

While ancient Greeks embraced Phoenician style of phonetic structure, they added features to
make their alphabet unique. For example, they altered certain Phoenician signs used as
consonants to create vowels sounds absent in the Greek language. This shift in phonemes
allowed them to create a viable writing system resembling actual speech.

Moreover, a limited letter variation allowed more people to access the Greek language.
Previously, only scribes and royalty were privy to learn writing. With a newly revised structure
of letters, now others had the chance to enrich their reading skills.

The Latin Alphabet

Now we move toward the system widely used today, the Latin (Roman) alphabet. This method is
heavily used in English and most European languages. The Latin alphabet emerged at around
600 BCE. It is derived from the Etruscan alphabet (an extension of the Greek dialect, dating as
far back as 8th century BCE).

The Latin alphabet holds 23 letters, later evolving into the 26 letter format during medieval
times. It also introduced us to the two most widely used forms of handwriting: capital
(majuscule) and lowercase (minuscule) letters. Their lovely curves and lines were displayed in
monuments and books throughout the Roman Empire. Reading this neater script, as well as using
a simpler alphabet system, brought reading texts to a whole new level.

Furthermore, the Latin alphabet brought cursive into the reading landscape. Cursive handwriting
recorded documents and notes in day to day living. Because cursive is written at a quicker speed,
reading these forms were at times challenging. Despite these obstacles, cursive introduced an
accessible form of reading and writing taught in the western world. 

English
It must be noted that the English language we know and study through various English language
courses today had yet to be created as the inhabitants of Britain spoke various dialect of the
Celtic language.

During the invasion, the native Britons were driven north and west into lands we now refer to as
Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The word England and English originated from the Old English
word Engla-land, literally meaning “the land of the Angles” where they spoke Englisc.

Old English (5th to 11th Century)

Albert Baugh, a notable English professor at the University of Pennsylvania notes amongst his
published works[1] that around 85% of Old English is no longer in use; however, surviving
elements form the basis of the Modern English language today.

Old English can be further subdivided into the following:

 Prehistoric or Primitive[2] (5th to 7th Century) – available literature or documentation

referencing this period is not available aside from limited examples of Anglo-Saxon
runes;
 Early Old English (7th to 10th Century) – this period contains some of the earliest
documented evidence of the English language, showcasing notable authors and poets
like Cynewulf and Aldhelm who were leading figures in the world of Anglo-Saxon
literature.
 Late Old English (10th to 11th Century) – can be considered the final phase of the Old
English language which was brought about by the Norman invasion of England. This
period ended with the consequential evolution of the English language towards Early
Middle English.

Early Middle English

It was during this period that the English language, and more specifically, English grammar,
started evolving with particular attention to syntax. Syntax is “the arrangement of words and
phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language,” and we find that while the British
government and its wealthy citizens Anglicised the language, Norman and French influences
remained the dominant language until the 14th century.

An interesting fact to note is that this period has been attributed with the loss of case endings that
ultimately resulted in inflection markers being replaced by more complex features of the
language. Case endings are “a suffix on an inflected noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates
its grammatical function.”

History of the English language

Charles Laurence Barber[3] comments, “The loss and weakening of unstressed syllables at the

ends of words destroyed many of the distinctive inflections of Old English.”

Similarly, John McWhorter[4] points out that while the Norsemen and their English counterparts
were able to comprehend one another in a manner of speaking, the Norsemen’s inability to
pronounce the endings of various words ultimately resulted in the loss of inflectional endings.

This brings to mind a colleague’s lisp and I take to wondering: if this were a few hundred years
ago, and we were in medieval Britain, could we have imagined that a speech defect would bring
about the amazing changes modern history is now looking back on? Something to ponder…

Refer to the image below for an idea of the changes to the English language during this time
frame.
 

Late Middle English

It was during the 14th century that a different dialect (known as the East-Midlands) began to
develop around the London area.

Geoffrey Chaucer, a writer we have come to identify as the Father of English Literature[5] and

author of the widely renowned Canterbury Tales, was often heralded as the greatest poet of that
particular time. It was through his various works that the English language was more or less
“approved” alongside those of French and Latin, though he continued to write up some of his
characters in the northern dialects.

It was during the mid-1400s that the Chancery English standard was brought about. The story
goes that the clerks working for the Chancery in London were fluent in both French and Latin. It
was their job to prepare official court documents and prior to the 1430s, both the aforementioned
languages were mainly used by royalty, the church, and wealthy Britons. After this date, the
clerks started using a dialect that sounded as follows:

 gaf (gave) not yaf (Chaucer’s East Midland dialect)

 such not swich
 theyre (their) not hir [6]

As you can see, the above is starting to sound more like the present-day English language we
know.
If one thinks about it, these clerks held enormous influence over the manner
of influential communication, which ultimately shaped the foundations of Early Modern English.

Early Modern English

The changes in the English language during this period occurred from the 15th to mid-17th
Century, and signified not only a change in pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar itself but also
the start of the English Renaissance.

The English Renaissance has much quieter foundations than its pan-European cousin, the Italian
Renaissance, and sprouted during the end of the 15th century. It was associated with the rebirth
of societal and cultural movements, and while slow to gather steam during the initial phases, it
celebrated the heights of glory during the Elizabethan Age.

It was William Caxton’s innovation of an early printing press that allowed Early Modern English
to become mainstream, something we as English learners should be grateful for! The Printing
Press was key in standardizing the English language through distribution of the English Bible.

Caxton’s publishing of Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur (the Death of Arthur) is regarded as

print material’s first bestseller. Malory’s interpretation of various tales surrounding the legendary
King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, in his own words, and the ensuing popularity 
indirectly ensured that Early Modern English was here to stay.

It was during Henry the VIII’s reign that English commoners were finally able to read the Bible
in a language they understood, which to its own degree, helped spread the dialect of the common
folk.

The end of the 16th century brought about the first complete translation of the Catholic Bible,
and though it didn’t make a markable impact, it played an important role in the continued
development of the English language, especially with the English-speaking Catholic population
worldwide.

The end of the 16th and start of the 17th century would see the writings of actor and playwright,
William Shakespeare, take the world by storm.

Why was Shakespeare’s influence important during those times? Shakespeare started writing
during a time when the English language was undergoing serious changes due to contact with
other nations through war, colonisation, and the likes. These changes were further cemented
through Shakespeare and other emerging playwrights who found their ideas could not be
expressed through the English language currently in circulation. Thus, the “adoption” of words
or phrases from other languages were modified and added to the English language, creating a
richer experience for all concerned.

It was during the early 17th century that we saw the establishment of the first successful English
colony in what was called The New World. Jamestown, Virginia, also saw the dawn of American
English with English colonizers adopting indigenous words, and adding them to the English
language.

The constant influx of new blood due to voluntary and involuntary (i.e. slaves) migration during
the 17th, 18th and 19th century meant a variety of English dialects had sprung to life, this
included West African, Native American, Spanish and European influences.

Meanwhile, back home, the English Civil War, starting mid-17th century, brought with it
political mayhem and social instability. At the same time, England’s puritanical streak had taken
off after the execution of Charles I. Censorship was a given, and after the Parliamentarian victory
during the War, Puritans promoted an austere lifestyle in reaction to what they viewed as
excesses by the previous regime[7]. England would undergo little more than a decade under
Puritan leadership before the crowning of Charles II. His rule, effectively the return of the Stuart
Monarchy, would bring about the Restoration period which saw the rise of poetry, philosophical
writing, and much more.

It was during this age that literary classics, like those of John Milton’s Paradise Lost, were
published, and are considered relevant to this age!

Late Modern English

The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th and early
20th-century saw the expansion of the English language.

The advances and discoveries in science and technology during the Industrial Revolution saw a
need for new words, phrases, and concepts to describe these ideas and inventions. Due to the
nature of these works, scientists and scholars created words using Greek and Latin roots e.g.
bacteria, histology, nuclear, biology. You may be shocked to read that these words were created
but one can learn a multitude of new facts through English language courses as you are doing
now!

Colonialism brought with it a double-edged sword. It can be said that the nations under the
British Empire’s rule saw the introduction of the English language as a way for them to learn,
engage, and hopefully, benefit from “overseas” influence. While scientific and technological
discoveries were some of the benefits that could be shared, colonial Britain saw this as a way to
not only teach their language but impart their culture and traditions upon societies they deemed
as backward, especially those in Africa and Asia.

The idea may have backfired as the English language walked away with a large number of
foreign words that have now become part and parcel of the English language e.g. shampoo,
candy, cot and many others originated in India!

https://www.britannica.com/topic/
English-language/Middle-English
Source for extra info^

Books

The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. Written in the 14th century, this collection of
tales brought to life characters and stories that remain popular today. The Canterbury Tales
also provides a glimpse into the customs and practices within the society at the time of its
writing. This work is one of the most read books and one of the most studied in all the world.
Many scholars suggest that Chaucer's magnum opus contributed greatly to the popularization
of the English vernacular in literature.

Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. Considered one of the most important pieces of world
literature, the Divine Comedy is an epic poem that details a journey through the realms of the
afterlife and, allegorically, the soul's discovery of God. Long considered to be the greatest
piece of Italian literature, the Divine Comedy also provides us with a closer view of medieval
Christian theology and philosophy.
The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. William Shakespeare is often considered the
greatest writer in the English language and the greatest dramatist in all of history. The
characters, stories, and language have taken hold of readers for hundreds of years and have
greatly contributed to shaping modern culture. Shakespeare's complete works have been
translated into every major language and are still enjoyed around the world.

Moby Dick by Herman Melville. This now-famous book about a man's hunt for the great
whale is considered one of the greatest American novels ever written. Moby Dick is heavy on
symbolism, but is also famous for the detailing of the whaling industry in the 19th century
and its many different narrative styles and structures.

1984 by George Orwell. This dystopian novel describes life in a totalitarian regime that has
stripped the people of their rights. The themes in this novel have become a major part of
modern culture, creating terms and concepts that have been incorporated into our own
society. Surveillance, truth, and censorship take center stage in this novel; no other book has
contributed to our understanding of these themes like 1984.

Brave New World by Aldous Huxley. Another dystopian novel, this one by Huxley is often
considered one of the great novels of the 20th century. Huxley's novel looked unfavorably on
the loss of an individual's identity through futuristic technological advancements. Huxley's
own fears of commerciality and the emerging youth culture are fully on display in this novel.

The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer. These two ancient Greek epic poems are not only the
preeminent works in ancient Greek literature, but they are also incredibly influential texts for
all forms of art, thought, and music in Western civilization. The Iliad details a few weeks
during the end of the Trojan War and the Odyssey describes Odysseus' ten-year journey
home from the Trojan War. These two works are important for their detail of Greek history
and legend, the composition of story, and the development of themes.

Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes. This Spanish novel, originally published as two
books, is one of the most influential and popular novels in the world. It's also considered to
be one of the best books ever written. The adventure, symbolism, and characterization
contained in Don Quixote has promoted the book to the incredible popularity it has today.
Don Quixote became one of the earliest canonical texts and has been inspiring artists of all
kinds for hundreds of years.

In Search of Lost Time by Marcel Proust. Daunting in length, the seven-volume In Search
of Lost Time is one of the most prominent modern works of the early 20th century. The novel
explores themes of memory, childhood, and meaning, but it avoids the plot-driven model of
19th-century novels. The supporting cast are incredibly well drawn and the events are moved
forward by the differing perspectives that experience them, writing techniques that have been
emulated endlessly since the novel's publication.

Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert. Flaubert's story of a woman who engages in

adulterous affairs in an attempt to escape from a loveless marriage was subjected to heavy
censorship at the time it was published, and Flaubert was taken to trial over the novel. After
his acquittal, Madame Bovary became renowned as a masterpiece of the Realism movement.

Arabian Nights translated by Andrew Lang. This English language version of One
Thousand and One Nights retells the ancient stories that have now become popularized
around the world, including the plight of Scheherazade, the adventures of Aladdin, and the
voyages of Sinbad.

One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel GarcÃa Márquez. Considered to be one of

the most significant novels in the Spanish literary canon, One Hundred Years of Solitude tells
the story of the BuendÃa family over several generations. The style and themes in the novel
are seen to be representative of a unique Latin American literary movement of the 1960s:
Magical Realism.

War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy. Though Tolstoy was hesitant to call this a novel, War and
Peace is often included in the discussion of the best novels of all time. Chronicling the
French invasion of Russia in 1812, the book looks at the psychological effects of the war and
the philosophical discussions that it created.

The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu. Written in the beginning of the 11th century, The
Tale of Genji is often called the first novel. While it does not have a plot by definition, the
story does have many elements of a modern novel, including a main character, a supporting
cast, and characterization. Translation of this novel has proved difficult over time, but most
still consider it the first and greatest work in Japanese literature.

Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriett Beecher Stowe. Written by a middle aged, white woman in
1851, Uncle Tom's Cabin has been credited for changing the views of slavery in the north
and continues to serve as a reminder of the effects of slavery and other inhumane acts.

Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoyevsky. While Fyodor Dostoyevsky has written
several works that could be considered some of the most influential ever published, Crime
and Punishment is one that stands above the rest as one of the best books ever written. This
novel explores the mind of an individualistic person from within, challenging the rules of
crime and punishment as they apply to the main character and the people around him.

Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe. The theme of preserving cultural history in the face
of Western domination in this novel gave voice to the oppressed people in Africa and caught
the attention of the world. This novel, written in 1958, is still widely read and studied as an
example of the damage of colonialism.

Faust by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Faust is a tragic play, but it has long been
considered the single greatest work in German literature. The tale tells of Faust selling his
soul to the devil for worldly knowledge and pleasures. The influence this story has on art,
literature, music, and thought is immeasurable.
 Beloved by Toni Morrison. Written to honor the memory of African American slaves
brought over during the slave trade, Toni Morrison's Beloved is one of the most recognizable
and influential texts in modern literature. For giving voice to the African-American
experience and observing and recording the collective memory of the population, Morrison's
novel won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1988.

The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien. Not only is The Lord of the Rings one of the best-
selling novels in the world, it also helped form and shape the high fantasy genre. While many
of the themes from the story were adapted from earlier mythologies, The Lord of the Rings
itself became the foundational text for all fantasy readers and authors.

Demographics
1. List of fiction genres:

• Fantasy

• Science Fiction

• Humor

• Dystopian

• Adventure

• Romance

• Detective & Mystery

• Horror

• Suspense/Thriller

• LGBT

• Historical Fiction

• Young Adult

• New adult

• Children’s Fiction

• Crime and Detective

• Contemporary Fiction
• Short Story

• Women's fiction

2. List of nonfiction genres:

• Self-Help

• Biography

• Memoir & Autobiography

• Motivational/Inspirational

• Religion & Spirituality

• Cooking

• Travel

• Art & Photography

• Health & Fitness

• History

• Crafts, Hobbies & Home

• Families & Relationships

• Humor & Entertainment

• Business & Money

• Law & Criminology

• Politics & Social Sciences

• Education & Teaching