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Cobalt–nickel–copper arsenide, sulfarsenide and sulfide

mineralization in the Bou Azzer window, Anti-Atlas,
Morocco: one century of multi-disciplinary and geological
investigations, mineral exploration and mining
Moha Ikenne1*, Mustapha Souhassou2, Nicolas J. Saintilan3,
AbdelHaq Karfal4, Abdelfattah E. L. Hassani4, Younes Moundi4,
Mehdi Ousbih1, Mohamed Ezzghoudi4, Mohamed Zouhir5 and
Lhou Maacha5
1
Lagage, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Zohr University, BP. 8106, Cité Dakhla Agadir,
Morocco
2
Egerne, Polydisciplinary Faculty of Taroudant, Ibn Zohr University, Agadir, Morocco
3
Institute of Geochemistry and Petrology, ETH Zürich, Clausiusstraße 25, 8092 Zürich,
Switzerland
4
CTT, Managem Group, Bou-Azzer, Taznakht, Ouarzazate, Morocco
5
Managem Group, Twin Center, Casablanca, Morocco
*Correspondence: m.ikenne@uiz.ac.ma

Abstract: The Bou Azzer mining district in the central part of the Anti-Atlas belt, Morocco, is renowned
worldwide for its serpentinized Neoproterozoic ophiolitic complex that hosts peculiar cobalt-dominated and
nickel-rich Co–Ni–Fe arsenide and sulfarsenide deposits with significant credits of gold and copper. The
Bou Azzer central mine and its satellite deposits, which are spatially associated with serpentinite bodies and
tectonically controlled, generally form breccias at the contact between serpentinites and more competent
rock types (e.g. diorite) but may also comprise anastomosing vein and tension gashes networks rooted in the
serpentinites and breaching into the competent rocks. A consensus on a genetic model for Bou Azzer has
not been reached given the most controversial and still highly debated topics dealing with the absolute age
of mineralization, and the identification of the source(s) of metals and arsenic. Here, within the geological
framework of the Bou Azzer window and the geodynamic history in the Anti-Atlas, we summarize the key fea-
tures of ore mineralogy, textures, paragenetic sequence and district-scale metal zonation. Using knowledge
based on the current state of research – until high-precision and robust geochronological data are produced
and permit a refinement of the genetic model – the key parameters for the origin of the Bou Azzer ores are:
(1) arsenides of Ni and Co, which are followed by Co–Ni-sulfarsenides and Cu-sulfides, initiating a sequence
of mineralization with precipitation controlled by the parameters mentioned in (2)–(4); (2) hydrothermal high
salinity fluids (.30 wt% total salt eq.) fostering leaching of Co and Ni from debated source rocks and their trans-
port as highly soluble chloride complexes; (3) dilution and cooling of those fluids from ,320 to ,200°C; (4)
variable redox conditions that would control the progressive oxidation of As from the arsenide stage (As1−) to
the sulfarsenide stage (As3+); (5) unlike Neoproterozoic metalliferous and As-rich black shales, serpentinites
fail to convincingly stand as a robust source of As despite being a reasonable source rock for Ni and Co; (6)
the controversial U–Pb and Sm–Nd dates of brannerite and carbonate, respectively, although arguing in favour
of an Hercynian timing of mineralization, do not preclude the possibility of a primary Pan-African mineraliza-
tion (,615 Ma) and/or at c. 540 Ma, followed by remobilization of a pre-existing mineralization during Her-
cynian events.

The cobalt–nickel–copper (Co–Ni–Cu) deposits at neighbouring Siroua massif highlight a major

Bou Azzer are located in the Anti-Atlas about
80 km to the south-southeast of the town of Ouarza-
zate in Morocco. Mineralization is spatially associ-
ated with extensive serpentinite bodies, which
resulted from the alteration of Neoproterozoic ophio-
lite sequences including peridotite protoliths
(Leblanc 1981). These ophiolites and those of the
tectonic lineament: the Anti-Atlas Major Fault
(AAMF; Leblanc 1981; El Boukhari et al. 1992;
Saquaque et al. 1992). The suite of tectono-magmatic
events of Pan-African, Hercynian and Alpine age,
which characterize the polyphase history of the
Anti-Atlas region (Choubert 1952; Leblanc 1981;
Hassenforder 1987), are thought to have caused

From: Aïfa, T. (ed.) 2021. Mineralization and Sustainable Development in the West African Craton: From Field
Observations to Modelling. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 502, 45–66.
First published online April 9, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP502-2019-132
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved.
For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/permissions. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on July 10, 2021
46 M. Ikenne et al.
progressive enrichment of mineralization in Co and
Ni starting with a primary mineralization and its
remobilization (Leblanc 1981; Maacha et al. 1998;
Maacha 2013).
This evolution has resulted in the Bou Azzer min-
ing district being the only mining district in the world
where cobalt is mined as the main commodity. Min-
ing activities are presently managed by the Tifnout
Tiranimine company (CTT), which is a daughter
company within the larger MANAGEM mining
group. With mining activities dating back to 1930
(see the summary in the present work), the current
production reaches 150 000 metric tons per year,
out of which half comes from the sole ‘7/5 lode’.
In this work, we synthesize the geology of the
Bou Azzer ophiolitic sequence in a window of Pre-
cambrian domains within the Palaeozoic cover
sequence. In parallel, we propose a summary of the
geodynamic model for the Pan-African Orogeny
(800–540 Ma) for which the AAMF in the very
area of Bou Azzer and Siroua may be testament of
the birth and closure of an oceanic domain between
the West African Craton in the south and a hypothet-
ical continent to the north (Leblanc and Lancelot
1980). Within this wider geological framework, in
light of the current understanding of the first-order
controls on mineralization (faults, lithological con-
trols) and additional constraints from ore mineral
paragenesis and mineral chemistry, we present a cur-
rently accepted genetic model for the Bou Azzer
deposits (Leblanc 1981; Maacha et al. 1998) while
addressing the most controversial, longstanding,
yet exciting scientific issues regarding the timing
of mineralization and source(s) of metals for this
odd mineralized system.
Lithostratigraphy of the Precambrian
domains in the Anti-Atlas
Located on the northern edge of the West African
Craton, the Anti-Atlas mountain range is character-
ized by Proterozoic bedrock that crops out in win-
dows within the Palaeozoic cover sequence. This
mountain range comprises two geomorphological
and tectonic domains on either side of the major
tectonic lineament of the AAMF: a southwestern
domain and a northeastern domain with discrete
geological evolutions (Fig. 1). The southwestern
domain comprises Palaeoproterozoic formations that
underwent Eburnean deformation (2187–1700 Ma)
whereas the northeastern part is composed of Neo-
proterozoic rocks. Considering the available geo-
chronological data (Walsh et al. 2002; Gasquet
et al. 2004; Thomas et al. 2004; Blein et al. 2014a,
b), a new lithostratigraphic model is proposed for
the Anti-Atlas. The Palaeoproterozoic bedrock is
overlain unconformably by Neoproterozoic and
Palaeozoic volcano-sedimentary sequences. Palaeo-
proterozoic metasedimentary siliciclastic rocks
were intruded by a granitoid suite dated at 2187–
1700 Ma (U–Pb zircon ages; Aït Malek et al. 1998;
Thomas et al. 2002; Gasquet et al. 2004; Soulaimani
et al. 2013; Blein et al. 2014b). Felsic intrusions of
Eburnean age have been documented throughout
the Anti-Atlas region at Tata (Walsh et al. 2002),
Tagragra d’Akka, Igherm, Bas Draa (Aït Malek
et al. 1998), Zenaga (Thomas et al. 2002), Iguerda
and Agadir Melloul (Blein et al. 2014b). To date,
the most precise ages available for Eburnean rocks
of granitic affinity come from Kerdous where a
microtrondhjemite was dated at 2187 + 33 Ma
(zircon SHRIMP U–Pb age; unpublished geological
map of Anezi, British Geological Survey (BGS)
2001; Blein et al. 2014b), and a tonalite was dated
at 2110 + 17 Ma (zircon SHRIMP U–Pb age) with
c. 2180 Ma old inherited zircon (geological map of
Tlatat Ida Gougmar; Roger et al. 2006).
The Neoproterozoic cover is divided into two
lithostratigraphic units (Thomas et al. 2002; Gasquet
et al. 2004; Walsh et al. 2012):
(1) The Anti-Atlas Supergroup comprises forma-
tions of Cryogenian and Ediacaran age, includ-
ing the Bleida Group and lateral equivalents
in the domain to the south of the AAMF. The
Anti-Atlas Supergroup is attributed to a pas-
sive margin and an oceanic and volcanic-arc
setting with igneous intrusions dated at 762 +
2–661 + 23 Ma (zircon U–Pb age, Gasquet
et al. 2005 and references therein) that were
later obducted on the West African Craton
(Gasquet et al. 2005). These obducted oceanic
rocks include the Bou Azzer and Siroua ophio-
litic sequences along the AMMF.
(2) The Ediacaran Ouarzazate Supergroup (c.
575–542 Ma; Toummite et al. 2013; Karaoui
et al. 2015; Baidada et al. 2019) rests uncon-
formably above the Anti-Atlas Supergroup.
The Ouarzazate Supergroup comprises large
volumes of intermediate to felsic rocks with
scarce mafic sills and a continental volcano-
clastic sequence that covers c. 650 km2 (Edia-
caran series of Tidiline, Bousalda and Anezi;
Toummite et al. 2013; Ernst 2014). Originally
interpreted as being related to a subduction set-
ting of Pan-African age (Leblanc 1981; Bajja
1987; Diallo 1989), this geological patchwork
has been reinterpreted as representing extensive
dynamics post-dating the Pan-African collision
(Toummite et al. 2013; Belkacim et al. 2017).
In the Sirwa area, granitoids have distinctive
positive εNd values (εNd-560 Ma: +0.8 to +3.5)
and low 87Sr/88Sr ratios (0.7034 and 0.7065)
indicating a juvenile source (Toummite et al.
2013; Belkacim et al. 2017), whereas volcanic
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Co–Ni deposit of Bou Azzer (Anti-Atlas) history and prospects 47

8° tlas
WAC Phanerozoic cover
9° 7°

Neoproterozoic
Tineghir
Volcanics, conglomerates h A lt
(Ouarzazate and Bou Salda Gr.) Hig Fa u
Turbidites, volcanic levels as
(Saghro Group)
ll arh So u t h At l Ougnat
B Pan-African granites ze
Ou
Oceanic units
(Bou Azzer, Siroua, Iriri)
J. Saghro
s Ouarzazate
Platform cover units Atla
(Lkest, Taghdout, T. n’Tarhatine)
H igh Siroua
Paleoproterozoic Schists, granites, mylonites
Agdz

B Taroudant
Ant i-A lt
Agadir Zenaga Bou tlas Major Fau
Azz
er
1 Zagora
Igherm
30° Agadir
n

Melloul Iguerda
Taïfast
ea

ZFVA A
Oc

Tiznit Tagragra
Tata
Kerdous of Tata SAF
c

ti
B

an
Sidi Ifni Akka
l Ifni
At Tagragra
29°
Goulmine
of Akka N West Africain
Craton
sin 0 50 Km
Ba
uf
Bas Drâa
Tin
do
WAC Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic cover
Archean and Paleoproterozoic basement

Fig. 1. Simplified map of the Anti-Atlas belt, showing the main Precambrian inliers and the location of the Bou
Azzer mining area. Inset shows the location of the Anti-Atlas belt along the northwestern margin of the West African
Craton (modified from Gasquet et al. 2005).

rocks in the Saghro area have mostly negative margin on the edge of the Western African Craton
εNd values (−4.5 to −0.2), which may be com- at c. 1000–800 Ma. Yet, new ages obtained for
patible with crustal contamination of magmas those mafic dykes in the Igherm and Zenga windows
(Ikenne et al. 2007; Baidada et al. 2017). Indeed, (1710–1639 Ma, TIMS, U–Pb geochronology on
Palaeoproterozoic to Archaean inherited zircon baddeleyite, Ikenne et al. 2016, 2017; U–Pb
in granitoids of the Imiter inlier and the Nd SHRIMP zircon ages, Ait Lahna et al. 2016) suggest
model ages allow one to argue in favour of a con- that the Taghdout Group might have been deposited
tribution of Proterozoic protolith in the genesis on a Late Palaeoproterozoic to Early Mesoprotero-
of magmas at the root of mafic dykes but also zoic passive margin. Therefore, those findings have
granitic intrusions of Igoudrane, Bou Teglimte invited a revision of the lithostratigraphy within the
and Bou Fliou (Ikenne et al. 2007; Baidada Anti-Atlas area, with particular focus on the south-
et al. 2017, 2019). western domain to the south of the AAMF (Ikenne
et al. 2017).
It was commonly accepted that the Precambrian rock
record in the windows of the Anti-Atlas includes a
stratigraphic gap for the Mesoproterozoic era and Geodynamic model of the Pan-African
the Tonian period. Yet, recent geochronological orogeny in the Anti-Atlas
studies using the U–Pb isotope system in baddeleyite
found in mafic dykes have brought evidence of a Several models of geodynamic reconstruction of the
magmatic province of Mesoproterozoic age in the Pan-African Orogeny in the Anti-Atlas have been
Anti-Atlas (El Bahat et al. 2013; Kouyaté et al. proposed using a wealth of structural and geochem-
2013; Söderlund et al. 2013; Youbi et al. 2013). ical data from the central Anti-Atlas, in particular
This newly identified magmatic province might be within the Bou Azzer and Siroua windows (Leblanc
testament of magmatic activity associated with the and Lancelot 1980; Leblanc 1981; Bodinier et al.
break-up of the Columbia Supercontinent (El Bahat 1984; Schermerhorn et al. 1986; Saquaque et al.
et al. 2013). On the basis of geochronological 1992). These models converge and agree on the
work carried out on contact aureoles found in lime- fact that the geodynamic evolution of the Anti-Atlas
stone and quartzite of the Taghdout Group (Rb–Sr in the Pan-African orogeny is centred on the birth
whole rock geochronology at 789 + 10 Ma; Clauer and closure of an oceanic domain between the
1976), those magmatic dykes had always been inter- West African Craton to the south and a hypothetical
preted as being related to the formation of a passive continent to the north. The ophiolite sequences in the
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48 M. Ikenne et al.
Bou Azzer and Siroua windows are remnants of this
oceanic domain. Considering the models for the oro-
genic cycles in the Appalachians and in the South
American Cordillera, Hefferan et al. (2014) pro-
posed a three-stage geodynamic model for the
Pan-African Orogeny in the Anti-Atlas:
(1) The Iriri-Tichibanine Orogeny (c. 760–
700 Ma), recorded by the Tasriwine ophiolitic
complex and the Iriri migmatites at Siroua
(i.e. the Iriri migmatite comprises tonalitic
gneisses with quartzo-feldspathic leucosomes
and dark amphibolite bands; Samson et al.
2004), the Tichbanine Ben Legrad Formation
in the north of Bou Azzer (rhyodacite rocks
dated at 761 + 7 Ma and 767 + 7 Ma using
U–Pb geochronology on zircon, Chèvremont
et al. 2013), as well as the Bougmane and
Tazeghzaout complexes in the southwestern
domain. Peak deformation in this orogeny was
dated at c. 705 Ma. This age corresponds to
the age of arc magmatism and the collision of
this arc with the West African Craton and coeval
amphibolite-facies metamorphism of the Boug-
mane and Tazeghzaout complexes (D’Lemos
et al. 2006). These authors have proposed a
detailed description of this orogeny between
760 and 700 Ma in the Bou Azzer window.
(2) The Bou Azzer orogeny (c. 680–640 Ma).
This tectono-magmatic stage of protracted
deformation was characterized by numerous
syntectonic calc-alkaline intrusions (granodio-
ritic to tonalitic affinity) between c. 675 and
645 Ma (U–Pb geochronology on zircon;
Massironi et al. 2007). In the Bou Azzer win-
dow, calc-alkaline intrusions were dated at
c. 659–632 Ma, in amongst which some of
the oldest diorites and granodiorites dated at
c. 653 Ma (U–Pb geochronology on zircon;
Inglis et al. 2005) were affected by amphibo-
lite grade metamorphism. In contrast, the
youngest intrusion identified at Ousdrate and
dated at 640.8 + 1.4 Ma (Inglis et al. 2005)
lacks metamorphic overprint.
(3) The WACadomian orogeny (c. 620–555 Ma).
Subduction of the oceanic crust stopped in
the north beneath the hypothetical continent
while a new subduction developed beneath
the complex comprising the accreted Iriri-
Tichibanine arc and the West African Craton
(WAC-Iriri/Tazigzaout arc complex). With
subduction and protracted convergence, a new
continental arc is formed, i.e. the Iriri/Tazigza-
out-WAC zone, comprising intrusion of highly
potassic alkaline batholiths. Intrusion of the
Saghro volcanic rocks and deposition of the
Bousalda and Tidilline Groups would have
been coeval with convergence of this new arc
with the Iriri and Tazigzaout-Bougmmane-
WAC (IBT-WAC) complex. The suture zone
between these two arcs could be located in
the north, or could possibly be represented by
the ‘South-Atlas fault’ as suggested by Ennih
and Liégeois (2001).
However, this model proposed by Hefferan et al.
(2014) is difficult to reconcile with an earlier
model focusing on the Bou Azzer window that con-
siders a two-stage Pan-African evolution with a
‘major Pan-African stage B1’ and a ‘late Pan-African
stage B2’ (Leblanc 1981; Hassenforder 1987; Saqua-
que et al. 1989).
(1) The Pan-African B1 stage, which was dated at
685 + 15 Ma, affected the Palaeoproterozoic
basement, the possibly Late Palaeoproterozoic
to Early Mesoproterozoic Taghdout Group, a
Cryogenian (?) passive margin sedimentary
sequence (Tachdamt–Bleida) and the Bou
Azzer ophiolitic complex (see the following
section). This event produced isoclinal folds
that developed a greenschist-facies metamor-
phism mineral parageneses that overprint the
fabrics of Eburnean age in the basement.
(2) The Pan-African B2 stage, which occurred
between 615 and 578 Ma (Ducrot 1979; Jean-
nette et al. 1981), mostly affects the lower part
of the Ediacaran Ouarzazate Supergroup (the
Tiddiline series), without substantial metamor-
phic overprint but rather marked fracture
cleavage. The undeformed Bleida granodiorite
was originally dated at 615 + 12 Ma (U–Pb
zircon, Ducrot 1979). Yet, the most recent
investigations using U–Pb ID-TIMS zircon
geochronology provided a Concordia age of
579.4 + 1.2 Ma and an overlapping chord
upper intercept age of 578.5 + 1.2 Ma (Inglis
et al. 2004).
Geology of the Bou Azzer window
The Bou Azzer window has been the focus of multi-
disciplinary geological investigations given its dual
interest: (1) the highlight of the major Pan-African
AAMF structure by two ophiolitic complexes at
Bou Azzer and Siroua; (2) its metallogenic impor-
tance with major resources in cobalt, nickel and cop-
per. Within the framework of the national Moroccan
geological mapping project, the lithostratigraphy of
the Bou Azzer window has been refined (Chèvre-
mont et al. 2013; Blein et al. 2014a; Fig. 2):
(1) The Assif N’Bougmmane gneiss complex com-
prises ortho- and paragneisses (including augen
gneisses) and leucogranodiorites. Although this
ensemble was originally thought to be of Palae-
oproterozoic age, recent radiometric dating of
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Co–Ni deposit of Bou Azzer (Anti-Atlas) history and prospects
Fig. 2. Geological map of the Bou Azzer inlier (after Soulaimani et al. 2013), with the location of the main Co–Ni
arsenide-sulfarsenide-sulfide deposits.
the orthogneiss protoliths (755 + 9 Ma and
745 + 5 Ma; zircon U–Pb geochronology)
and the Oumlil leucogranodiorite (695 +
7 Ma; zircon U–Pb geochronology) has
revealed Neoproterozoic ages (Chèvremont
et al. 2013; Blein et al. 2014a). Currently,
there is no age record of Palaeoproterozoic
rocks in this complex.
(2) The Tachdamt-Bleida Group comprises meta-
morphosed limestone and sandstone, intruded
by mafic sills and lava flows. The mafic rocks
caused contact metamorphism of the sedimen-
tary sequence that was dated at 789 + 10 Ma
(whole rock Rb–Sr age; Clauer 1974). The
sedimentary sequence, which has a regional
equivalent in the southwestern domain in the
Anti-Atlas in the form of the Taghdout Group
composed of similar rock types (Leblanc
1981; Hassenforder 1987; Bouougri and
Saquaque 2004), is currently interpreted as
having been deposited on a passive margin on
the northern edge of the West African Craton,
tentatively during the Tonian and/or Cryoge-
nian. However, recent geochronology studies
in the Ighrem window (Ikenne et al. 2017)
and at Zenaga (Ait Lahna et al. 2016) have
brought evidence that the mafic intrusive
rocks might be as old as c. 1.7–1.6 Ga, with
the passive margin sedimentary sequence
being c. 1 Ga older than previously thought.
(3) A 2500 m thick ophiolitic sequence compris-
ing mafic and ultramafic rocks as well as a
dyke complex associated with a volcano-
sedimentary sequence, including pillow lavas
49
and pyroclastic flows (Skouraz and Tichbanine
series; Leblanc 1981). The ultramafic rocks
were serpentinized and include disseminated
chromites as well as podiform chromites
(Ikenne et al. 2005; Ahmed et al. 2009a;
Hodel et al. 2017). The calc-alkaline geochem-
istry of the mafic rocks and the chromite
mineral chemistry are compatible with a supra-
subduction arc setting (Leblanc 1981; Bodinier
et al. 1984; Ikenne et al. 2005; Ahmed et al.
2009a). Serpentinization occurred in two
steps as defined by Hodel et al. (2017): (1)
oceanic-like serpentinization yielding pseudo-
morphic lizardite/chrysotile texture typical of
fresh serpentinites at temperatures between
350 and 200°C, followed by (2) a hydrother-
mal event involving Cl-rich acidic fluids that
significantly altered the fresh serpentinites.
Two alternatives have been proposed for the
origin of these Cl-rich hydrothermal fluids:
(1) a continental hydrothermal system respon-
sible for the Co–Ni–As ores, v. (2) an oceanic
(abyssal setting) black smoker type hydrother-
mal vent field on the Neoproterozoic seafloor
(Hodel et al. 2017). Hodel et al. (2018) demon-
strated that hydrothermalized serpentinites
resulted from black smoker-type (abyssal)
hydrothermalism that generated unique mag-
netite veins in serpentinites. Pan-African de-
formation produced peak greenschist-facies
metamorphism mineral assemblages in serpen-
tinites with remnant primary and preserved
Cr-spinel and some clinopyroxene in wehrlites
and pyroxenites (Ahmed et al. 2005, 2009a).
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50 M. Ikenne et al.
The age of the Bou Azzer ophiolite is a matter
of ongoing debate. El Hadi et al. (2010)
constrained a SHRIMP U–Pb zircon date of
697 + 8 Ma for a garnet-bearing metagabbro
that belongs to the lower crust of the southern
Bougmane arc complex (Triantafyllou et al.
2016). A date of c. 760 Ma, which is seen
probably as a more plausible age for the ophio-
litic rocks (Hodel et al. 2017), comes from a
comparison with the similar ophiolitic com-
plex in the Sirwa window (Samson et al.
2004). In parallel, Blein et al. (2014a) deter-
mined a SHRIMP U–Pb zircon date of 658 +
8 Ma for aplite that may be related to Pan-
African deformation and obduction of the
ophiolite sequence.
(4) A suite of dioritic intrusions of adakitic com-
position (Ousdrate intrusions; Beraaouz et al.
2004; Blein et al. 2014a) that are thought to
have been emplaced during the major Pan-
African compression (table 1; Saquaque et al.
1989).
(5) The Ediacaran rock record in the Bou Azzer
window comprises volcanic-arc rocks of the
Bou Lbarod Group (625 + 8 Ma), the Bleida
granodiorite (586 + 15 Ma; zircon U–Pb
age), and the post-collisional Ouarzazate
Supergroup (see the section ‘Lithostratigraphy
of the Precambrian domains in the Anti-Atlas’).
The Bou Azzer Co–Ni–Cu deposits
Mining history and current activity at
Bou Azzer
Mining history. Mineral exploration activities for
cobalt in the Bou Azzer El-Graara area started back
in 1928. Exploration was originally conducted by
aiming to find erythrite (Co3(AsO4)2 · 8H2O) in the
field. This mineral was a well-known medium to
kill rodents. This exploration technique was highly
efficient into the discovery of the first arsenide-
sulfarsenide mineralized lodes with historical deposits
such as ‘Filon 7/5’, ‘Filon II’, ‘Aghbar’ and ‘Ightem’.
Industrial-scale mineral exploration was led by the
Société Minière de Bou-Azzer El-Graara (SMAG)
starting from 1934 until it ceased due to the conflicts
of the Second World War. Resuming in 1944, mining
activities were greatly modernized with the addition
of a pneumatic washer for partial treatment of ore on
site. The next technical breakthrough was made by
the Penarroya company (1953–1958) with the con-
struction of a cobalt ore processing plant.
At this stage, mineral exploration was conducted
based on the genetic model that Co–Ni mineraliza-
tion was related to hydrothermal fluid flow channel-
ized into the serpentinite massifs, by SW-striking
faults intersecting the AAMF of possible Hercynian
age. This exploration model was utilized to tailor
geophysical exploration (magnetics and resistivity)
starting from 1956 in order to outline the morphol-
ogy of the serpentinite bodies as well as refining
the structural map undercover. From 1958, the Com-
pagnie de Tifnout Tiranimine (CTT) of the ONA
group took over the mining activities. By 1967 and
1970, ‘Filons 5 & 7’ and the Aghbar deposit, respec-
tively, ran out of ore. With the necessity to identify
more resources, the ONA group contracted Russian
experts between 1969 and 1971 to lead an extensive
exploration campaign including ground geophysics,
geochemical exploration and downhole geophysical
logging. This investment was fruitful and the depos-
its of Tarouni, Tamdrost and Bou Azzer East were
identified mostly relying on soil geochemistry anom-
alies in Co, As, Ag, Bi, Ni, Cu, Zn and Mo. These
findings influenced a revision of the genetic model
considering that the heat source of the hydrothermal
fluids might have been the trachyte-andesite volca-
nism in the Jbel Boho in the southwestern part of
the Bou Azzer El-Graara window. Although the
CTT mine and field geologists progressively discov-
ered the lateral and vertical extensions of those new
deposits, the CTT company pursued extensive col-
laboration with foreign companies/research centres
starting from 1976. As such, through a collaboration
with the French Bureau de la Recherche Géologique
et Minière (BRGM), the deposit ‘F61’ at Ait Ahmane
and the Bouismass deposit were discovered in 1980
and 1981, respectively, based on new geophysical
data.
In 1987, following a new exploration effort for
cobalt and gold, the Mechoui deposit was discovered
by the CTT geologists. Thus, after an interruption of
mining activities in 1983, the Bou Azzer mining dis-
trict has been active continuously since 1987. To this
date, exploration models are built on the commonly
accepted genetic model, which considers that Co–
Ni–Cu arsenide-sulfarsenide-sulfide mineralization
is of hydrothermal origin, of Hercynian age and the
lodes are fault-controlled.
Mining methods. The cut-and-fill stopping method is
most commonly used to mine the Bou Azzer deposits
(Fig. 3). This requires the delineation of the mineral-
ized area at its base, cutting backfill chimneys and
two accesses, one to mine the ore, the other to collect
and transport the ore. With this method, 2.5–3 m
high cuts are mined and backfilled with barren prod-
ucts. The overhand stoping method with horizontal
drilling of mine stops is used and the ore is collected
with microscoops or 1700 scoops depending on the
strike length and thickness of the ore shoots.
Ore processing. At the mine site, the first step of
treatment of the ore is done by using the difference
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Co–Ni deposit of Bou Azzer (Anti-Atlas) history and prospects 51

Fig. 3. Cut and fill underground mining method at Bou Azzer with manual labour (a) or automatized excavation
(b). (1) Ore deposit, (2) mine working area, (3) embankment, (4) bottom way, (5) highest way, (6) ore passage;
(7) highest way, (8) pass for sterile gangue and ventilation.

in specific gravity of ore minerals, host rocks and
surrounding barren products (Fig. 4). This technique
is applied to fragments larger than 10 mm that are
produced by a jaw crusher and sieved at this specific
size. Prior to entering the gravimetric separation
phase, grains are conveyed on a jig concentrator,
through a spiral and a shaking table in order to opti-
mize the separation of mineralized grains from bar-
ren ones. In the end, c. 1400 metric tons of cobalt
ore are produced on a monthly basis whereas barren
products are stocked in storage halls.
Mineral occurrences, structural controls and
relative chronology
The Co–Ni mineralized lodes in the Bou Azzer min-
ing district are closely associated with serpentinite
bodies (Jouravsky 1952; Leblanc 1981; Maacha
2013). The geometry of the mineralized ore shoots
was characterized in detail based on decades of map-
ping and logs by mine geologists: (1) massive miner-
alized accumulation up to 200 m × 70 m × 10 m in
size that formed at favourable loci, where rheology
contrast at the interface between the serpentinite
massifs and other rock types (e.g. diorite), focused
the mineralizing fluids; (2) as fillings of intersecting
fault networks (fault sets at N70 and conjugate sets
striking at N40, intersecting set at N160) at the con-
tact between serpentinite and other more competent
rock types, with propagation of fracture-type miner-
alization in the more competent rock type (e.g.
diorite); (3) as lenses associated with quartz and car-
bonate gangue minerals in serpentinite or the more
competent rock types. These mineralized rocks are
(1) quartz diorite at ‘Filon 7/5’ in the Bou Azzer
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52 M. Ikenne et al.
Fig. 4. Mineral processing workflow of ore.
mine, ‘Filons 52 & 53’ in Ait Ahmane and in Bouis-
mass (Fig. 5); (2) the felsic volcanic rocks of the
Ouarzazate Supergroup at ‘Filon 2’ in Aghbar
(Fig. 6); (3) gabbros in the ophiolite sequence at
Agoudal (Fig. 7); (4) and, more exceptionally, the
sedimentary rocks of Tiddiline series (Ouarzazate
Supergroup) at Bouismass or Agdal, where feld-
spathic sandstone is fractured and cemented by car-
bonates and Co ore minerals (Fig. 8).
Leblanc’s pioneering work (1981) established
two critical premises: (1) the mineralized tectonic
features (e.g. ‘Filon 7’ at Bou Azzer East and at
Ightem) are spatially associated with west-
northwestwards–east-northeastwards sinistral strike-
slip structures dating back to the B2 phase of Pan-
African deformation (c. 615 Ma); (2) structures
related to the B2 phase of the Pan-African Orogeny
either focus mineralization or cuts/displaces miner-
alization (e.g. ‘Filon 7’ at Bou Azzer centre, Ightem,
Bou Azzer East). Mineralization was also identified
in rare cases (e.g. Aghbar) in the lowermost dolo-
mitic horizons or the lower Cambrian cover
sequence. There, mineralization was interpreted as
resulting from remobilization of a primary minerali-
zation by structures of Hercynian age (Leblanc
1981). The degree of ore remobilization is linked
to the intensity of deformation. Finally, an additional
remobilization stage was identified as being
associated with faults that are filled in by pink dolo-
mite with the uranium–titanium oxide brannerite.
The latter was investigated by using U–Pb isotope
geochemistry with a proposed age of 240 + 10 Ma
(Ledent 1960; Leblanc 1981). This remobilization
stage of possibly Triassic age seems to have injected
Co–Ni mineralization into the cover sequence over
distances of c. tens to hundreds of metres. However,
the clear identification of structures possibly related
to a remobilization stage in the Triassic may be ren-
dered difficult in areas where structures of Hercynian
age dominate and are extensive, all the more where
mineralized.
In conclusion, schematics for the structural con-
trols on mineralization and remobilization can be
drawn as follows:
(1) Mineralization may post-date the B1 stage of
Pan-African deformation, i.e. younger than
685 Ma.
(2) Mineralization may have been remobilized by
Hercynian deformation.
(3) Mineralization is, at least in part, affected by
the B2 stage of Pan-African deformation (c.
615 Ma) and covered by an early Ediacaran
to Cambrian cover sequence. Therefore, the
first stages of mineralization might predate
the B2 deformation stage and be coeval with it.
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Co–Ni deposit of Bou Azzer (Anti-Atlas) history and prospects 53

SSW NNE
(a)

0 25m

366900 366950 367000

(b)
391450

N
391400

0 25m

Serpentinite Quartz diorite Quartz/Carbonate gangue

Orebodies Fault Gallery Level -200

Fig. 5. Sketch maps showing Co–Ni deposits at the contact between serpentinite with Neoproterozoic protoliths and
Cryogenian quartz diorite, Bouismass area. (a) Faulted contact, underground mining level 200 m. (b) Orthogonal
veins in quartz diorite, underground mining level 250 m.

(4) Mineralization is fault-controlled with four
major fault sets striking north-northeastwards–
south-southwestwards (e.g. at ‘Filon 7’), east–
west (e.g. at ‘Filon 2’), north–south (e.g. at
Tamdrost - F1), and west-northwestwards–
east-southeastwards (e.g. at ‘Filon 5’). The
north-northeastwards–south-southwestwards
and west-northwestwards–east-southeast-
wards fault sets might be of B2-stage age (Leb-
lanc 1975). Those faults are displaced by
strike-slip N50 structures of Hercynian age.
Lastly, the presence of mineralization in the
volcanic rocks of the Ouarzazate Supergroup
is testament of a polyphase history for most
fault sets.
Ore mineralogy and texture
In the Bou Azzer district, Co–Ni–Fe mineralization
comprises skutterudite ((Co,Ni)As3-x; Fig. 9a), saf-
florite (CoAs2) and löllingite (FeAs2) as the main
ore mineral phases and cobalt di- and triarsenides
are always in paragenetic association. Nickeline
(NiAs), rammelsbergite (NiAs2) and arsenopyrite
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54 M. Ikenne et al.

364000 364050

(a)

392400

0 25m

363900 364000
(b)
392400

N
392300

0 50m

Serpentinite Ouarzazate Group (volcanic rocks) Gangue

Co-Ni arsenide orebodies Fault Gallery

Fig. 6. Sketch maps showing different type of occurrences of Co–Ni deposits at the contact between serpentinite
massifs with Neoproterozoic protoliths and volcanic rocks of the Ediacaran Ouarzazate group, Aghbar deposit.
(a) Mineralization along the contact between serpentinite and volcanic rocks. (b) Mineralized vein cutting across
and into volcanic rocks.

(FeAsS) compose the second most abundant group
(Fig. 9b). Clinosafflorite ((Co,Ni,Fe)As2) and the
low-temperature polymorph of rammelsbergite were
both identified (Leblanc 1981; En-Naciri 1995). Sul-
fides are accessories to rare minerals in the
cobaltiferous ores. In contrast, they dominate in the
eastern part of the Bou Azzer inlier, in particular in
the Bleida area where copper sulfides (bornite, chal-
copyrite and chalcocite) comprise a Cu-dominated
mineralization including accessory pyrite, pyrrhotite
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Co–Ni deposit of Bou Azzer (Anti-Atlas) history and prospects 55

389300 381850 381900 381950 382000

N
389250
389200

0 50m

Serpentinite Mafic rocks Co-Ni arsenide orebodies Fault Wadi

Fig. 7. Sketch map showing the Co–Ni deposits at the contact between the serpentinite and the ophiolitic mafic
rocks, Agdal deposit.

380250 380300 380350

81° 72°
48° 68°
N
389350

52°

76°

53°
79°
42°
85°
83°
64° 80°
65° 66°
85° 59°

72° 70°

62° 71°
53°
389300

0 25m

Mafic rocks Siltstones Co-Ni arsenide orebodies Gangue Fault Gallery

Fig. 8. Detail of the contact between serpentinite with Neoproterozoic protoliths and siltstone of the Ediacaran
Tiddline series, Agdal deposit. Mine gallery, level 170 m showing mineralization in veins in siltstones.
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56 M. Ikenne et al.

(a) (c)

(b)
nickéline

skuttérudite

annabergite

calcite

0 2cm
mm

Fig. 9. Representative samples of Co and Ni arsenide ore. (a) Assemblage of skutterudite (polyhedral forms, CoAs3)
and löllingite (FeAs2), the Bou Azzer Est deposit. (b) Mineral assemblage comprising hypogene nickeline (NiAs) and
skutterrudite with carbonate gangue and supergene annabergite (green, Ni3(AsO4)2 · 8H2O), Ait Hmane area.
(c) Supergene erythrite (purple, Co3(AsO4)2 · 8H2O) on field outcrops.

and sphalerite. Yet, mineralization at Bleida might
be related to a separate event and a discrete mineral-
izing system unrelated to the Bou Azzer-type ores.
The latter occurs in the form of breccias and fracture
fillings; massive arsenide mineralization typically
fills in open-space structures (e.g. veins, tension
gashes). The richest deposits seem to be those that
were interpreted as those in which a primary ore
was remobilized by intense deformation of Hercy-
nian age.
Paragenetic sequence
Ahmed et al. (2009b) defined a five-stage parage-
netic sequence for the Bou Azzer ores in which
quartz and carbonates are the main gangue minerals.
The first mineral phases to precipitate was nickeline
with a ‘leaf-like’ mineral habitus, whereas nickeline
crystals often draw shapes resembling Caesar’s
laurel crown. Following a probable increase in Co
and As contents, rammelsbergite precipitated after
and, in part, replaced nickeline. Following these
Ni-dominated mineral stages and with protracted
input of Co and As with some Fe credits, skutterudite
and a solid solution between safflorite and löllingite
precipitated extensively. It is common to see a sec-
ond generation of skutterudite mineralizing fractures
that affected the first skutterudite generation. In
hand samples and at the scale of a given deposit,
the Ni-dominated mineralization may be separated
from the Co-dominated one. The fourth stage is char-
acterized by precipitation of sulfarsenides, which
tend to dominate over arsenides. Although minor sul-
fides precipitated in stage four, those tend to make up
most of stage five and may replace arsenides and sul-
farsenides from the previous stages. The timing of
gold deposition remains controversial to this day.
Bouabdellah et al. (2016) assigned gold mineraliza-
tion to an early pre-arsenide stage when gold was
deposited together with quartz, calcite and possibly
an early precipitation stage of brannerite, unless
this brannerite results from the alteration of a primary
uranium mineral (see the section ‘Absolute age of
mineralization’). It is possible that gold was remobi-
lized with arsenides, sulfarsenides and sulfides in
the subsequent stages of Ahmed et al. (2009b).
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Co–Ni deposit of Bou Azzer (Anti-Atlas) history and prospects
Absolute age of mineralization
The determination of an absolute age of the Co–Ni
arsenide-sulfarsenide mineralization has been and
remains the most challenging aspect to constrain a
genetic model for the Bou Azzer ores. Together
with the source(s) of metals (see the section
‘Source(s) of metals and arsenic’), it is the most
debated topic when it comes to understanding the
origin of the Bou Azzer ores. Several studies have
used radiogenic isotope systems to propose an age
for the Bou Azzer ores, e.g. (1) U–Pb geochronology
on brannerite; (2) Re–Os isotope geochemistry on
a mixture of molybdenite–skutterudite–carbonate–
brannerite, (3) Sm–Nd geochronology on ‘ore-stage’
carbonates (Dolansky 2007; Oberthür et al. 2009).
The discordance between the radiometric dates
obtained by those isotopic decay systems, which
span the Neoproterozoic to Late Triassic, was inter-
preted as being the result of the superimposition of
several hydrothermal events (Bouabdellah et al.
2016). However, technical pitfalls, and/or, the
improper and poor-quality material analysed may
also explain this discordance and the failure to obtain
reliable ages, e.g. the case of Re–Os isotope geo-
chemistry applied to a mixture of mineral phases.
Here, we summarize current knowledge on the
attempts to date the ores and we address issues that
may be solved by future high-precision and accurate
absolute geochronology studies.
Evidence from relative geochronology and cross-
cutting relationships shows that the early stages of
mineralization may be slightly older than or coeval
with the B2 phase of the Pan-African orogeny at c.
615 Ma in this part of Africa (Leblanc 1981). Bouab-
dellah et al. (2016, p. 240) argue that a Precambrian
age for the Bou Azzer Co–Ni arsenide-sulfarsenide
ores is unlikely given the fact that ‘all mineralized
structures, irrespective of their paragenetic positions’
are younger than ‘trachytic and syenitic sills (Aghbar
trachyte)’ dated by zircon U–Pb geochronology at
533 + 2 Ma (Levresse 2001) and 531 + 5 Ma
(Gasquet et al. 2005). Although important and align-
ing with geological observations and cross-cutting
relationships, a measure of caution should probably
be addressed with those conclusions by Bouabdellah
et al. (2016), given the rarity of those sills of Cam-
brian age, when drawing conclusions at the scale
of the Bou Azzer district.
A connection with Hercynian deformation has
been considered the preferred and most realistic tim-
ing for Co–Ni arsenide-sulfarsenide mineralization
(Bouabdellah et al. 2016). Yet, the proposed radio-
metric dates in support of this premise may be prob-
lematic in part for the reasons that we detail below.
Until new radiometric studies are performed to con-
firm/reject this Hercynian timing for mineralization,
our discussion relates to the currently available
57
radiometric dates. The U–Pb dating of brannerite
laths enclosed in skutterudite by Oberthür et al.
(2009) were produced by in situ laser ablation sector
field inductively coupled mass spectrometry (LA-
SF-ICP-MS), which is adapted for the determination
of the uranium isotopic composition in highly
enriched uranium samples (Marin et al. 2013). The
presentation of the analytical protocol and data by
Oberthür et al. (2009) is transparent and one could
criticize the variable spot sizes that were used, the
challenging common Pb correction and the absence
of a matrix-matched standard for brannerite. Yet,
given the large uncertainties, the Pb–Pb date of c.
310 Ma for brannerite presented by those authors is
probably correct. The main limitation of this tech-
nique would probably be the suitability of the bran-
nerite mineral itself for geochronology, rather than
a technical aspect of the protocol by Oberthür et al.
(2009). Nevertheless, it is known that brannerite
together with coffinite may precipitate as part of late-
stage hydrothermal events that may involve the dis-
solution and/or reprecipitation of an earlier phase of
uraninite (Johnson and Cross 1995; MacMillan et al.
2017). In fact, scanning-electron microscope imag-
ing combined with major- and trace-element micro-
probe analyses of brannerite at Bou Azzer reveals
that this mineral is internally inhomogeneous (Ober-
thür et al. 2009). Such features were interpreted as
being diagnostic of alteration processes of uranium-
bearing minerals, and these observations call there-
fore for caution when interpreting the c. 310 Ma
date of brannerite associated with skutterudite at
Bou Azzer. In fact, using secondary ion mass spec-
trometry (SIMS), En-Naciri et al. (1995) produced
U–Pb dates of brannerite at c. 550 Ma whereas an
earlier investigation of brannerite by Ledent (1960)
had proposed a total aliquot date of 240 + 10 Ma
(Pb–Pb). The youngest stage of brannerite precipita-
tion could be as young as late hydrothermal fluid
flow that is responsible for the precipitation of adu-
laria in the Late Upper Triassic (218 + 8 Ma,
40
Ar/39Ar date; Levresse 2001). In conclusion,
these brannerite dates, which are inconsistent with
the Hercynian dates determined by Oberthür et al.
(2009), might indicate that either the brannerite zon-
ing translates into cores that might be older than
rims, or none of the above-mentioned brannerite
dates have actual geological meaning.
Oberthür et al. (2009) presented a Sm–Nd iso-
chron date of 308 + 31 Ma (2σ, n = 5) for carbon-
ate from Bouismass, Oumill and Aït Ahmane. The
rare earth elements (REE) and negative europium
anomaly in those ‘ore-related’ carbonates were inter-
preted as being diagnostic of temperatures of precip-
itation above 200°C and a reducing environment, i.e.
redox conditions also compatible with the precipita-
tion of brannerite (Ramdohr 1957, 1959; Oberthür
et al. 2009). Yet, carbonates from Bou Azzer East
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58 M. Ikenne et al.
and Bou Azzer Central might plot on regression lines
with a similar slope as those carbonate aliquots from
the Bou Azzer mine but at much lower initial
143
Nd/144Nd ratio with a trend of decrease from
east to west, i.e. from a possible juvenile source of
Nd in the east to a markedly crustal source in the
west. Oberthür et al. (2009) transparently admitted
that complex mineralizing processes must have
been active to explain the possibly coeval precipita-
tion of carbonates at different initial 143Nd/144Nd
ratio throughout the district. In addition, those
authors recognized that neither the results and inter-
pretation of U–Pb brannerite geochronology nor
Sm–Nd carbonate geochronology, which argue in
favour of a preferred Hercynian age of mineraliza-
tion, preclude the possibility of mineralization at a
much older age from a primitive source, thereby
implying that the Hercynian event relates to remobi-
lization of a pre-existing mineralization.
The Re–Os study by Oberthür et al. (2009) has
produced data that are the most problematic to inter-
pret. This situation arises from the low quality of the
material analysed (i.e. powder obtained by micro-
drilling of sulfide masses) given the complex miner-
alogy of the ore. Indeed, micron-scale molybdenite
occurs in close association with and/or is enclosed
by subhedral to euhedral grains of brannerite (Ober-
thür et al. 2009). Brannerite is unlikely to include Re
and Os in contrast with micron-scale and anhedral
molybdenite. For the remarkable Re–Os geochron-
ometer in molybdenite (Selby and Creaser 2001;
Stein et al. 2001), for which individual model ages
of aliquots are calculated from the contents of
187
Re and isobarically produced radiogenic 187Os
(187Os*) in molybdenite, the accuracy of the age is
a function of the accurate and precise weighing of
the aliquot of pure molybdenite. Therefore, Re–Os
data coming from analyses of a mixture of brannerite
and molybdenite are bound to be difficult to interpret
in terms of Re–Os geochronology. Oberthür et al.
(2009) produced Re–Os isotope geochemistry data
from aliquots corresponding to micro-drilled vol-
umes of a mixture of ‘very fine grained and intri-
cately intergrown’ molybdenite with skutterudite,
brannerite and carbonates (their fig. 3). Molybdenite
virtually does not incorporate common Os, i.e. any
Os isotope available in the media upon mineral pre-
cipitation (Selby and Creaser 2001; Stein et al.
2001). Yet, the erratic and significant common Os
contents (4 ppt to 7.4 ppb) for the ‘molybdenite-rich
sulfide’ (Oberthür et al. 2009) are testament of the
problem of analysing a mixture of sulfide-arsenide-
sulfarsenide minerals when attempting to determine
accurate and precise mineralization ages using the
Re–Os isotopic system. In fact, Saintilan et al.
(2017a) showed that cobaltite (CoAsS) incorporates
common Os whereas arsenopyrite and löllingite may
not only have significant proportions of common Os
but also significant levels of total Re and total Os (up
to 100s of ppb; Morelli et al. 2007; Davies et al.
2010; Saintilan et al. 2017b). These previous studies
thus indicate that not only arsenide and sulfarsenides
may be suitable and reliable for accurate and precise
Re–Os geochronology but also, they may incorpo-
rate significant concentrations of Re and Os, includ-
ing common Os. Therefore, from the Re–Os data
reported by Oberthür et al. (2009), from the perspec-
tive of determining individual model ages from the
187
Re and 187Os* contents as done for molybdenite
aliquots that are lacking common Os, one cannot
determine what proportion of the total 187Re and
187
Os* is actually contributed by molybdenite. This
is why the Re–Os data from those mineral mixtures
yield inconsistent Re–Os dates (even between dupli-
cates of a discrete sample, e.g. BA04-06 & BA04-
06b; Oberthür et al. 2009) that cannot be exploited.
Therefore, any future attempts to use the Re–Os
radiometric system to date with high precision the
Bou Azzer ore should (1) follow the protocol by
Saintilan et al. (2017a, b, 2018) to obtain pure min-
eral separates of individual sulfide/sulfarsenide/
arsenide species to determine reliable Re–Os isotope
data, and (2) produce and interpret Re–Os isotope
data in terms of geochronology for each mineral
phase taken individually (i.e. isochron regression
of data points or weighted mean of modal ages rela-
tive to one single mineral species only).
Source(s) of metals and arsenic
The serpentinite massifs are often suggested to be the
source of Co and Ni for the Bou Azzer mineraliza-
tion (Leblanc 1981; En-Naciri et al. 1995; Maacha
et al. 1998). If serpentinites were the source of met-
als, they still have (present-day) very high Ni (c.
2800 ppm) and moderate Co (c. 176 ppm) contents
(Leblanc and Billaud 1982; Gahlan et al. 2006;
Ahmed et al. 2009a). The dominance of the Co arse-
nide and sulfarsenide mineralization over the Ni-rich
one at Bou Azzer would be related to the fact that the
supply of Ni may have been substantially controlled
by silicate reactions (e.g. alteration of olivine), with
additional contribution through oxidation of mag-
matic sulfides (pentlandite converted to millerite)
and leaching of Ni from millerite (Patten et al.
2016). In contrast, Co would have been mobilized
by metasomatic modification of magmatic sulfides
to pyrite followed by sulfide leaching (Patten et al.
2016). Therefore, the dominance of Co mineraliza-
tion over Ni mineralization would be explained by
high to moderate temperature hydrothermal fluids
that would facilitate sulfide leaching more readily
and extensively than alteration of silicate minerals
in serpentinites.
Commonly accepted genetic models rely on
microthermometry data acquired from fluid
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Co–Ni deposit of Bou Azzer (Anti-Atlas) history and prospects
inclusions in quartz interpreted as coeval with
mineralization. The model invokes the role of high
salinity, Ca-rich (36–45 wt% NaCl + CaCl2 eq.),
moderate temperature (,320°C) hydrothermal flu-
ids responsible for the arsenide-sulfarsenide mineral-
ization stage (En-Naciri et al. 1996; Essaraj et al.
2005; El Ghorfi et al. 2006), with decreasing temper-
atures and salinities with advancing paragenetic
sequence (Dolansky 2007; Bouabdellah et al.
2016). When discussing the origin of those high sal-
inity hydrothermal fluids, the paragenetic signifi-
cance of erratic barite, which is associated with the
arsenide ores and has a sulfur isotopic composition
of +25.7‰ interpreted as being derived from basinal
brines (Maacha et al. 1998), should be addressed in
order to put constraints on the evolution of the redox
conditions in the mineralizing fluids upon mineral
precipitation.
In light of this evidence, two schools of thought
exist regarding the timing of fluid flow: (1) Essaraj
et al. (2005) advocate regional large-scale circula-
tion of basinal brines post-Triassic in connection
with the early stages of rifting leading to the opening
of the Atlantic Ocean; (2) El Ghorfi et al. (2008) sug-
gested that those fluids were basinal brines that might
have penetrated into the Neoproterozoic rocks along
major faults in the Bou Azzer window at the time of
greenschist metamorphism during the Pan-African
B1 stage at c. 685 Ma. These authors suggested
that leaching of olivine through (tectonic?) serpenti-
nization would have provided Ni whereas As and S
might have been supplied by metasediments at the
contact point of the ophiolite sequence. In contrast,
Ahmed et al. (2009a) consider that serpentinites
are the primary source of As (see below).
If a model invoking basinal brines is correct, the
metal endowment of the Bou Azzer ores, i.e. richer in
Co than in Ni, might be explained in part as follows.
The solubility of Co increases with the Cl content of
hydrothermal fluids, in which Co is primarily trans-
ported as CoCl42− (Liu et al. 2011). Similarly, Ni
is readily mobilized in acidic Cl-bearing hydrother-
mal fluids (Scholten et al. 2018). Yet, even if the sol-
ubility of Ni as aqueous NiCl2(aq) in hydrothermal
solutions is significantly higher than previously
thought, the solubility of Ni as chloride complexes
is significantly lower than that of Co (Liu et al.
2012). These thermodynamic properties, the nature
of the proposed mineralizing fluids, and the resi-
dency of Ni and Co in serpentinites as described
above, may explain why the Bou Azzer ores are sig-
nificantly richer in Co than in Ni.
The source of As has also been the matter of a
long-lasting debate, and many rock types in the
Bou Azzer windows have been considered as poten-
tial sources of As: (1) serpentinites (Ahmed et al.
2009a) for which Leblanc and Billaud (1982) con-
strained erratic As contents, when above the
59
unreported detection limit, to a maximum 400 ppm;
(2) Late Neoproterozoic igneous and volcano-
sedimentary rock sequences; (3) Silurian organic-
rich shale (Dolansky 2007); (4) Neoproterozoic
organic-rich black shales of the Imiter Group with
As contents up to 6180 ppm (Pašava 1994 in Bouab-
dellah et al. 2016). In fact, Bouabdellah et al. (2016)
suggested that the most viable source of As, Co, Ni,
Au and Ag in the Bou Azzer ores could be those
organic-rich shales rather than serpentinites. On the
other hand, given the fact that arsenic, which is the
most soluble chalcophile element, can be leached
at low temperatures from ultramafic rocks that typi-
cally contain c. 10–450 ppm As (Smedley and Kin-
niburgh 2002; Hattori et al. 2005; Patten et al.
2016), it remains rather unconstrained if serpentin-
ites could be a sensible source of arsenic. More
work is necessary to discriminate the actual source
of metals and semi-metals between those two poten-
tial sources.
Mineral chemistry and deposit-scale zonation
Jouravsky (1952) and Leblanc (1981) reported the
first microscopic observations of zoned skutterudite
with possible growth zones related to variations in
mineral composition, whereby the core of the min-
eral would have higher Ni contents and sulfur con-
tent would increase outward. In fact, at the scale of
the Bou Azzer mining district, the deposits from Bou
Azzer East (i.e. Agdal, Bou Issmas, Ait Hmane) are
significantly enriched in Ni due to a higher propor-
tion of nickeline, rammelsbergite and gersdorffite
(NiAsS), in comparison to those deposits from Bou
Azzer Centre and West. Building on the early find-
ings of Jouravsky (1952) and Leblanc (1981),
En-Naciri et al. (1995) showed that those higher Ni
credits are also related to the chemistry of skutteru-
dite, which is significantly richer in Ni and Fe in
the deposits from Bou Azzer East. This enrichment
in Fe in skutterudite is also accompanied by a signif-
icant precipitation of löllingite in the deposits of the
eastern district. In comparison, it was shown that all
growth zones in diarsenides that are enriched in Ni
are also poorer in Fe and Co. Within the Bou
Azzer district, significant enrichment in Fe is accom-
panied by higher content in S.
Based on major- and trace-element chemistry on
arsenides and sulfarsenides at Aghbar and experi-
mental data, Gervilla et al. (2012) showed that the
paragenetic sequence of the Ni ores is diagnostic of
an increase of the fugacity in As up to a level at
which Ni-rich skutterudite precipitates at tempera-
tures experimentally established between 650° and
625°C. In contrast, those authors proposed that the
Co-rich and Fe-bearing ores formed at lower temper-
atures at c. 500° to 400°C. Those temperatures of
precipitation, which have been determined from
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on July 10, 2021

60 M. Ikenne et al.

phase diagrams for Ni–Co–Fe arsenides at Aghbar,
are significantly higher than the homogenization
temperatures for supposedly ore-stage fluid inclu-
sion assemblages in quartz associated with mineral-
ization (En-Naciri 1995; En-Naciri et al. 1997;
Dolansky 2007). Yet, the very definition of a tempo-
ral relationship between fluid inclusion assemblages
in gangue minerals and the genetic processes
involved in the precipitation of sulfides, arsenides,
or sulfarsenides (i.e. opaque minerals) is recognized
as challenging (Roedder and Bodnar 1997; Wilkin-
son 2001; Casanova et al. 2018). Indeed, in fluid
inclusion assemblages and microthermometry stud-
ies, one uses textural relationships and paragenetic
studies aiming at establishing that a transparent min-
eral is cogenetic with the opaque minerals. This is
a sine qua non requirement to be able to use micro-
thermometry data from fluid inclusion assemblages

Fig. 10. Proposed genetic model of the Bou Azzer Co–Ni deposits by Maacha (1994, 2013).
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on July 10, 2021
Co–Ni deposit of Bou Azzer (Anti-Atlas) history and prospects
in transparent minerals, and, down the line, try to
decipher the origin of the opaque minerals (e.g.
Casanova et al. 2018; Ortelli et al. 2018).
However, one must remember that fluid inclusion
homogenization temperatures give the minimum
temperature of entrapment of a fluid in the studied
mineral, and entrapment and post-entrapment con-
ditions may disturb primary fluids. Thus, currently
we know that the temperatures of precipitation for
Ni–Co–Fe arsenides and sulfarsenides as estab-
lished by Gervilla et al. (2012) from thermody-
namic properties may be possible temperatures of
ore mineral precipitation, whereas those homogeni-
zation temperatures in quartz might record the
cooling of the mineralizing fluids down to a tem-
perature at which quartz precipitated and entrapped
a ‘post-arsenide-sulfarsenide-precipitation’ mineral-
izing fluid.
Conclusions
For a consensus to be reached around a genetic
model explaining the origin of the Bou Azzer ores,
two pivotal points remain to be addressed: (1)
whether there might be several ages for possibly dis-
crete events of polyphase mineralization/remobili-
zation; and (2) identification of the source(s) of
metals and arsenic. Using knowledge based on the
current state of research, we here summarize the
multi-disciplinary evidence that should be discussed
and serve as a springboard when building a robust
genetic model for the Bou Azzer ores in light of new
evidence. The following conclusions were drawn by
Maacha et al. (1998), complemented by stable isotope
geochemistry studies by Levresse (2001), Dolansky
(2007) and Maacha (2013) (Fig. 10):
(1) A primary stage of Co–Ni arsenide-sulfarse-
nide mineralization may be slightly older
than or coeval with the B2 phase of the Pan-
African orogeny at c. 615 Ma in this part of
Africa. At Aghbar, Ightem and in ‘Filon 7’ at
Bou Azzer, mineralization is hosted by east–
west- and eastnortheastward-striking faults.
(2) Those tectonic features may have accompa-
nied extensive deformation at the root of
basin opening in the early Ediacaran when
the Tidilline series was deposited.
(3) Those structures would have been reactivated
during the Pan-African B2 compressive tecton-
ics starting from c. 615 Ma.
(4) A second mineralization stage in the model by
Maacha et al. (1998, 2015) could be related to
extensive tectonics at the Ediacaran–Cambrian
transition upon deposition of the Ouarzazate
Group in discordance with the Tidilline series.
(5) Extensive tectonics would have favoured the
upward movement of serpentinite domes
61
through the reactivation of the mineralized
east–west- and eastnortheastward-striking
faults.
(6) The involvement of high salinity basinal
brines with high chloride contents is agreed
upon by all working groups (Leblanc and
Lbouabi 1988; En-Naciri 1995; En-Naciri
et al. 1995; Lebedev et al. 1999; Essaraj
et al. 2005; Dolansky 2007). As evidenced in
the present contribution, such high salinity flu-
ids are ideal media to leach and mobilize met-
als (e.g. Co, Ni), possibly from serpentinites.
Maacha (1994), Maacha et al. (1998) and Maa-
cha (2013) have proposed the mixing of this
fluid with a serpentinite-derived fluid that
could contribute As and S. A ‘primary mag-
matic source’ of some fluids with crustal inter-
action might explain the δ 18O composition in
ore-stage quartz (11.5 to 17.0‰; Dolansky
2007). Yet, Bouabdellah et al. (2016) have
argued that black shale of the Imiter Group
could be the source of all metals and As.
(7) The sequence of mineral precipitation with
decreasing temperatures and salinities with
advancing paragenetic sequence could also
have been steered by the redox-dependent sol-
ubility of Co and Ni (Liu et al. 2011, 2012;
Scholten et al. 2018). A reducing environment
of mineral precipitation was proposed given
the existence of brannerite and the negative
Eu anomalies in carbonates associated with
the Co–Ni arsenide-sulfarsenide ores (Ober-
thür et al. 2009).
(8) The sulfur isotopic composition of sulfides
(pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite), which precip-
itated after arsenides and sulfarsenides, is cen-
tred on c. 3‰ with outliers down to −32.2‰
(Maacha et al. 1998; Levresse 2001; Dolansky
2007). Although most values might be com-
patible with H2S being leached and derived
from magmatic sulfides, the outliers could be
explained by H2S being supplied and derived
from the leaching of sulfides of biogenic ori-
gin, i.e. a source of sulfur that may be ubiqui-
tous in the organic-rich shales advocated as
metal sources by Bouabdellah et al. (2016).
To help with constraining the source H2S
available for mineralization, studies of the sul-
fur isotopic composition of sulfarsenides at
Bou Azzer are recommended.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the
support of the Bou Azzer and Bleida mining Compagnies
(CTT and SOMIFER). The authors acknowledge the con-
structive comments by two anonymous reviewers and
Editor T. Aïfa that were the source of improvements to
this contribution to the GSL special issue.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on July 10, 2021
62 M. Ikenne et al.
Funding This work was funded by the project ‘Contexte
géodynamique et potentiel métallifère en cuivre et or de la
série néoprotérozoique Bleida (Bou Azzer, Anti-Atlas)’
supported by the Ibn Zohr University. Funding was also
supplied by ‘Le patrimoine géologique des provinces
sahariennes et régions limitrophes: Bas Draa, Ifni’ from
Hassan II Academy of Science and Technology,
ID0EV1BG1293, awarded to M. Ikenne and collaborators.
Author contributions MI: conceptualization (lead),
software (equal), writing – original draft (lead), writing –
review & editing (equal); MS: conceptualization (lead),
software (equal), writing – original draft (lead), writing –
review & editing (lead); NJS: conceptualization (lead),
writing – original draft (lead), writing – review & editing
(lead); AK: conceptualization (equal), funding acquisition
(equal), investigation (equal), validation (equal); AEH:
methodology (equal), supervision (equal), validation
(equal); YM: investigation (equal), methodology (equal),
supervision (equal), validation (lead); MO: investigation
(equal), software (lead); ME: investigation (equal),
software (equal); MZ: investigation (equal), methodology
(equal), resources (equal), supervision (equal), validation
(equal); LM: conceptualization (equal), investigation
(equal), supervision (equal), validation (equal).
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