SCIENCE

I. Plate Movements
a. Convergent boundary
1. Plates that go in opposite directions however move towards each other.
2. Form collision zones and continental plate/crust
3. Creates trenches, mountains, and volcanic arc/chains
b. Divergent boundary
1. Plates that move away from each other and go in opposite directions creating
oceanic plates.
2. Form extensional boundaries and oceanic plate/crust
3. Creates ocean ridges, lake or seas, rift valleys, and geysers
c. Transform
1. Two plates moving/sliding past one another.
2. Form zigzag margins

II. Plate Tectonics Theory

- Earth’s crust broken into fragments called tectonic plates are moving as they’re carried
along on currents in the upper mantle (slowly flowing layer of rock below the crust)
- Can also be explained as continental and oceanic plates sliding and moving over the
asthenosphere.
- When 2 oceanic plates tear apart from each other at a divergent boundary, the
gap/space fills with magma (:semi molten rocks) which will harden when exposed to
the cold sea water creating mid ocean ridges (earth creating its outer skin).

a. Tracks the movement with millimeter precision in space

b. Subduction occurs when the thinner tectonic plate melts/slides/falls beneath the heavier
tectonic plate or plate bearing a thick crust of continental land mass.

● The more the tectonic plate sinks, the easier and faster it would move.
● Hot mantle rock rises until it becomes cool and heavier causing it to sink back down again
● Some of earth’s plates pull themselves
● Other terms
○ Lithosphere/Geosphere - Outermost shell, solid, coolest part
○ Asthenosphere - In between the lithosphere and the upper mantle
○ Convection - Transmission of heat through the movement of water heated fluid
such as water/air
III. Continental Drift Theory
- Alfred Wegener in 1912 proposed a theory that continents had drifted over time and
were once an enormous unified landmass that we now call Pangea.
- He was not able to provide a mechanism so his theory was ridiculed by scientists.
However, in 1965, plate tectonics theory was published supporting the claim of
Wegner.
- Evidences:
- Both plant and animal fossils that were found only on neighboring continents.
- Stratigraphy of different rocks and mountain ranges.
- “The east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa seem to
fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, and Wegener discovered
their rock layers “fit” just as clearly.”
- Magnetism of rocks
- When rocks solidify (at mid ocean ridges) they become weakly
magnetic in the earth’s magnetic field. It’s magnetic poles flip every few
million years.
- Change is signaled in the rocks scientists found that rocks each side of
the mid ocean ridge were first magnetized in 1 direction and then in
another.
- Magma solidifies locking in the magnetism.

IV. Seafloor Spreading Theory

- Geologic process where tectonic plates split apart from each other
- The theory is a result of the mantle convection
- The oceanic crust becomes thicker and more dense as it moves away from the
spreading center at diverging plate boundaries. This would lead the crust to
eventually crack that would be filled with hot magma fueled by the mantle
convection, which would then be cooled by the seawater forming the magma to
rocks, and making this rock a part of the earth’s crust .

● Mid ocean ridges - Seafloor spreading occurs along mid-ocean ridges—large mountain
ranges rising from the ocean floor. Seafloor spreading is not consistent at all mid-ocean
ridges. Slowly spreading ridges are the sites of tall, narrow underwater cliffs and
mountains. Rapidly spreading ridges have much more gentle slopes. The age, density,
and thickness of oceanic crust increases with distance from the mid-ocean ridge.
● Geomagnetic Reversals - The magnetism of mid-ocean ridges helped scientists first
identify the process of seafloor spreading in the early 20th century. The magnetism of the
ocean floor around mid-ocean ridges was divided into matching “stripes” on either side of
the ridge. The specific magnetism of basalt rock is determined by the Earth’s magnetic
field when the magma is cooling.
 ● Geographic Features - older oceanic crust encounters a tectonic boundary with
continental crust. In some cases, oceanic crust encounters an active plate margin where
oceanic crust and continental crust crash into each other. In other cases, oceanic crust
encounters a passive plate margin where a single tectonic plate transitions from oceanic
lithosphere to continental lithosphere.
● Mid-ocean ridges and seafloor spreading can also influence sea levels. As oceanic crust
moves away from the shallow mid-ocean ridges, it cools and sinks as it becomes more
dense. This increases the volume of the ocean basin and decreases the sea level.

V. Greenhouse Effect
- CO2 traps a portion of the sun’s heat, keeping our planet warm and free from freezing
- The more CO2 in the atmosphere, the warmer earth will be.

a. Carbon Cycle - engine of life

- CO2 enters the atmosphere from volcanoes and many more
- Then, it leaves the atmosphere when they are used by plants (photosynthesis), absorbed
back into the ocean, and stored in soil and sediment
- Heat is also radiated back into space as infrared light.

How these greenhouse gases Effects of Climate change on the

Greenhouse gas
contribute to climate change environment

Water vapor (H2O)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
fluorinated gases
These gasses keep some of the heat
from the sun from escaping like a
greenhouse’s glass walls so the
more of these gasses fill the
atmosphere, the more heat is
trapped, increasing the temperature
of the earth.
Oceans
- Ice is melting in places like
Antarctica and Greenland.
- The melting of these ice sheets
causes a higher sea level leading
to higher floods in coastal
regions.
Weather
- Other than stronger storms,
floods, and snowfall, there are
more frequent droughts.
Food
- Due to the drought hinder crops
from growing, and water supply
reduces.

Health
- The Smog cause asthma, heart
disease, and lung cancer

VI. Life Cycle Analysis

a. 5 stages
1. Material extraction
2. Manufacturing
3. Packaging
 4. Transportation
5. Use and end of life.

VII. Waste Disposal Management

a. 5Rs
1. Reduce - reduction of harmful and non recyclable materials
2. Reuse - diligent reuse of any materials
3. Repurpose - upcycling - taking materials that were meant for one purpose but used
for another purpose
4. Recycle
5. Refuse - minimize waste production

VIII. Carbon Footprint

- Measured by the amount of CO2 your lifestyle adds to the atmosphere.

IX. Reflection and Plane Mirrors

a. Light
1. A stream of photons that travels fast (very small packets of energy)
2. Light travels in straight lines.
3. Light rays reflect once it hits a surface
b. Laws of reflection
1. Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection
a) There are chances of errors that may come about during measurements of
things. These are called human errors.
2. The incident rays, the normal at the point of incidence, and the reflected ray all lie in
the same plane
c. LIGHT BEAM vs RAY
1. Ray is an idealisation of a beam
2. Rays cant be seen
3. Narrow beam = ray

d. Image characteristics (LOST)

1. Location of image - behind/in front of the mirror
2. Orientation of image - upright/inverted
3. Size of image - reduced/enlarged/same
4. Type of image - real/virtual
X. Spherical Mirrors
1. Concave mirror

a) Curves inwards with reflecting surface inside

2. Convex mirror

a) Bulges outward with reflecting surface outside

XI. Refraction and Curved Lenses
- The transmitted light undergoes bending if it approaches the boundary at an angle. This
property of light is known as the refraction of light

a. Converging Lens
 b. Diverging Lens

XII. Voltage, Current, and Resistance

a. Electricity
- Form of energy
- Flow of electrons
- When electrons are flowing through something, electric current is flowing.

- Proton/Nucleus - positively charged,, attract negative electrons

- Electrons - negatively charged,, when too close to each other, they push each other
away.

● Opposite charges attract,, similar charges push each other away

● In metals, the nuclei stay in the same place to preserve the metals
form/structure.
● Power source - produces energy

b. Electric Current
- Unit of measurement: Ampere/Amp
- It is the amount of electrons flowing per second
- 1 amp = 6.24x1018 electrons flowing per second

● Conventional current - false statement where it claims that electrons move

from positive to negative.

c. Voltage
- Pushes charged electrons
- Energy per unit of charge in volts/V

d. Resistance
- Resists flow of electricity/charge

● Electrons will not flow (current) even if there is no power supply (voltage) connected in the circuit.
XIII. Ohm's Law
- introduced by a German physicist and mathematician, Georg Simon Ohm.
- The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance
- 3 formulas

● E (Electromotive Force) is sometimes used instead of V

● The electric current flowing through a circuit is dependent on the voltage of the power source; the
less voltage there is, the slower the flow of charges in a circuit with a certain resistance.
● Current is directly proportional to Voltage
● Current is inversely proportional to resistance (when resistance doubles, current is halved)

XIV. Series and Parallel Circuits

a. Electric Circuit
- Closed loop where current can flow around
- When current flows, all electrons move at the same time.

b. Series Circuit
- has only one or single path for electrons to flow.
- When one load gets busted in a series connection, the whole circuit will not work.

CURRENT IN SC VOLTAGE IN SC RESISTANCE IN SC

Total current Total voltage Total resistance

= = =
individual currents flowing Sum of individual voltage drops Sum of individual resistances
through any component in circuit
● Voltage drop increases when resistance increase
 c. Parallel Circuit
- Has more than one path for electrons to flow
- The other loads can still work because there are other paths for electrons to flow

CURRENT IN PC VOLTAGE IN PC RESISTANCE IN PC

Total current Total voltage Total resistance

= = =
Sum of individual branch current Individual voltage drops Sum of reciprocal of individual
across each load resistances of the loads

1
𝑅𝑡 = −1 −1 −1
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 ...

● Current increases as path increase

● Total resistance < any branch resistance
● To measure the amount of voltage in a parallel circuit, the voltmeter should
be connected in parallel with the component being measured.
● To measure the amount of current in a parallel circuit, the ammeter should be
connected in series with the component being measured.