ENGLISH CLASS

PART ONE

I / THE BARE ESSENTIALS ( Form A )

A SENTENCE: Subject + Verb

- Sentences are the tools with which we communicate ideas.

- Words enable us to communicate images.

When writing a paragraph, be sure every sentence you write has both a subject and a verb and
expresses a complete thought.

A/ Subject

The subject of a sentence is always a noun (the name of a person, a place, a thing or a concept ) or a
pronoun ( a word such as I, you, he, she, it, we or they used in place of a noun ).

The subject commands the agreement with the verb so far as it’s plural or singular.

e.g. – Peter is ………… / Peter’s friends are …………. / He plays well / They play well.

To find it we ask who or what the sentence is about.

B/ Verb

One way to find the verb in a sentence is to ask what the sentence says about the subject or ask what
the subject is or is doing. There exist two kinds of verbs: Action verbs, which tell you what the subject
is doing; and linking verbs which link or connect a subject to a noun or adjective describing that
subject.

Usually but not always, the subject comes before the verb in a sentence. Occasionally, we find the
subject after the verb:

1- In sentences beginning with: Here + a form of a verb to be or There + a form of to be.

N.B.: here and there are never the subjects of a sentence.
e.g. : - Here are the test results -There is a fly in my soup
2- In sentences that are deliberately inverted for emphases.
e.g. : - Finally, at the end of the long , boring joke came the pathetic punch line

-Out of the stadium and into the pouring rain marched the parade

3- In questions

e.g. : - Are you there yet?

 - Is she the one?

But notice that in questions beginning with who, whose, what, or which, the subject and the verb
are in normal order. (S+V)
e.g.: - Who ate my sandwich?

- What caused the accident?

- Whose horse came first?
- Which car runs best?

N.B.: - No verb preceded by to ( infinitive ) is ever the verb of a sentence. Helping verbs ( auxiliary
verbs)are often added to main verbs. The list below contains the most common helping verbs: be –
can – may- must – shall – will – have.

- Infinitives can act as subjects or objects, but they are never verbs of the sentence.

- A verb ending in “ ing “ must have a helping verb or verbs before it, otherwise it isn’t the verb
of a sentence.

The verb of a sentence must be conjugated. Here are the different tenses with their variations. (cfr
the general board of English tenses ):

THE VERB: TO TEACH ENGLISH (TAUGHT-TAUGHT) / GENERAL BOARD OF ENGLISH TENSES

VARIATIONS VOICE SIMPLE PROGRSSIVE/CONTINUOUS PERFECT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE/ CONTINUOUS

TENSES

PRESENT ACTIVE VOICE He teaches it He is teaching it He has taught it He has been teaching it

PASSIVE VOICE Il is taught It is being taught It has been taught It has been being taught

FUTURE ACTIVE VOICE He will teach it He will be teaching it He will have taught it He will have been teaching it

PASSIVE VOICE It will be taught It will be being taught It will have been taught It will have been being taught

PAST ACTIVE VOICE He taught He was teaching it He had taught it He had been teaching it

PASSIVE VOICE It was taught It was being taught It had been taught It had been being taught

CONDITIONAL ACTIVE VOICE He would teach it He would be teaching it He would have taught it He would have been teaching it

PASSIVE VOICE It would be taught It would be being taught It would have been taught It would have been being taught
 TENSES ANALYSIS

I / PRESENT TENSE

A) SIMPLE
1 – structure
A.F.: - S + simple form of the verb
- Third person singular ( He, she, it, singular noun ):
a) In general , we add “s” to the verb
b) In case the verb ends in: o, x, ss , ch , sh, z, it’ll take “es” instead.
c) If the verb ends in consonant + y, “Y” will change into “ i ” before adding “ es ” .
d) Modal auxiliaries (Can, may, must, ought, need )aren’t taken into account here, except
to need ( ordinary verb )which is always followed by “ to + verb” or a noun/pronoun.
e.g.: - He needn’t stay if he doesn’t want to. // - You needn’t tell Mary, she already knows.
- One needs to have a visa to go to the U.S. // - Did you really need to spend all that
money on one pair of shoes? // - We need enough money to live in this town.
(Infinitive of purpose )

N.F.:- S + don’t / doesn’t + simple form of the verb

- S + auxiliary verbs / helping verbs + not + simple form of the verb

I.F.: -Do / does + S + simple form of the verb

- Auxiliary verbs / + S + simple form of the verb

2 – Usage

The simple present tense is used to express:

a) Habit or everyday activities. (see : the adverbs of frequency and the plural as tense markers)

e.g. - I study for two hours every night

- I go to school (that means I am a student)

- He always eats a sandwich for lunch

b) General truth. It says that something was true in the past, it is true in the present and will be
true in the future.

e.g. - Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.

- Most animals kill only for food.

 - The sun rises at East and sets at West.

c) Recent state, perception, and feeling. Nonprogressive verbs describe states and are not used
in any of the progressive tenses. The simple present in this case may indicate a recent situation. See
the list of nonprogressive verbs on page 13 of “UNDERSTANDING AND USING ENGLISH GRAMMAR”
Second Edition by Betty Schrampfer AZAR.

e.g. - I don’t recognize that man.

- I understand it now.

- He needs a pen right now.

d) The future meaning in “if-clauses” or clauses introduced by: if, when, as soon as, until / till,
before.

e.g. - I’ll tell you as soon as I know.

- We’ll wait until he arrives.

- Class will start when the teacher gets in.

e) Programs and timetables.

e.g. - The train arrives at 7.45

- When does the train leave for Libreville?

B ) CONTINUOUS / PROGRESSIVE

1 –Structure

(see the board of English tenses)

2 – Usage

The present progressive or continuous is used to express:

a) An activity that is in progress at the moment of speaking.

e.g. - John is sleeping now.
- Hurry up! We’re waiting for you.
- I need an umbrella because it’s raining.

b) Temporary situations. (not permanent situations or habits )

e.g. - My sister’s living at home for the moment

- They’re preparing their exams these days.

 - We’re all trying to concentrate on his wedding celebration.

c) Future happenings. (nearest future)

e.g. - She’s writing another book this year.

- What are you doing this evening?

- Dad’s having dinner with friends tonight.

d) Developing or changing situations .

e.g. - The weather’s getting better and better.

- The Gabonese railway system is gradually being improved

- Things are growing harder and harder at Mbaya.

e) Irritating, annoying things that happen frequently. It’s used in this case with: always,
constantly, continually, forever.

e.g. - I’m always forgetting people’s names.

- My father’s forever losing his keys.

N.B.: The present progressive is not the normal tense for narrative ( story-telling ).So the simple
present is used in present story-telling and commentaries.

e.g.: The goal-keeper throws the ball, Ben passes to Obame, and Obame shoots, and it’s a goal.

f) Planned actions.

e.g.: - She’s arriving tomorrow morning.

- We’re spending next winter in Australia.

- She’s getting married next November.

C) PERFECT ( simple )

1 - Structure

A.F.: S + have / has + past participle

N.F.:- S + have / has not + past participle

 I.F.: - Have / has + S + past participle?

2 - Usage

The present perfect (simple) is used :

a) To express the idea something happened or never happened before now, at an

unspecified time in the past. The exact time it happened is not important. The present
perfect simple deals with finished past actions and events that have some present
importance or are still with us as part of our experience and knowledge.
e.g.: - They have moved into a new apartment.
- The journalist has been assassinated.
- Dad has bought a new computer for me.
- I’ve travelled a lot in Africa. ( I know Africa well )

b) To give news, especially in reports, letters and conversations.

e.g. - Fire has broken out on board an oil tanker in the North Sea

- According to the latest reports, government forces have pushed back the rebels and

retaken the town.

- I’m delighted to tell you that you’ve passed your exam.

- Mary’s had her baby, it’s a boy.

c) With indefinite time-expressions meaning” at any time up to now” such as: ever, never,
yet, already, before.

e.g.: - Have you ever seen an iceberg?

- She’s never been abroad.

- I’m sure we’ve met before.

d) With” since” and” for” to express a situation that began in the past and continues to the
present. We must note that only nonprogressive verbs are concerned here, otherwise the present
perfect progressive will be the suitable one.

e.g. - I’ve been here since seven o’clock.

- I’ve liked Cowboy movies ever since I was a child.

 - I’ve known him for many years.

e) With “just” to express very recent past events

e.g. - Where’s Jane? She’s just gone out.

- I’ve just fallen downstairs.

- He’s just eaten up all his food.

N.B.: In American English, the simple past is used with “just”

e.g. – She just went out.

f) After the following expressions:

- This, that, it is the first / second / third …. Time

- This, that, it is the only …..

- This, that, it is the best / finest / worst / most interesting …..

e.g. - This is the first time I’ve felt really relaxed for months.

- That’s the seventeenth beer you’ve drunk this evening.

- It’s one of the most interesting book I’ve read.

D) PERFECT CONTINUOUS / PROGRESSIVE

1 – Structure

A.F.: S + have / has + been + V-ing.

N.F.: S + have / has not + been + V-ing.

I.F.: Have / has + S + been + V-ing?

2 – usage

The present perfect continuous or progressive is used

a) Especially for more temporary actions and situations. Compare:

e.g. - I’ve been living in Sally’s flat for the last month // My parents have lived here all their
lives.
- I have been working very well recently // He hasn’t worked for years.

b) To emphasize the continuation or the duration of the activity. Compare

 e.g. - I’ve been reading your book (= I haven’t finished it) // I’ve read your book ( = I’ve finished
it )

- I’ve been learning irregular verbs (= it isn’t finished) // I’ve learnt irregular
verbs(=concluded)

- Sorry about the mess, I’ve been painting the house ( still going on)

- I’ve painted two rooms since lunchtime ( concluded )

II / PAST TENSE

A) SIMPLE
1 – Structure
A.F.: - S + preterit
N.F.: - S + did not (didn’t) + simple form of the verb
- S + Auxiliary preterit + not
I.F.: - Did + S + simple form of the verb?
- Auxiliary preterit + S?
2 - usage

The simple past is used

a) To express actions or activities that began and stopped in the past with precision on the
past moment they happened. It can refer to short, quickly finished actions and events, to
longer actions and situations, and to repeated happenings.
e.g.: - We always went to the beach on Saturdays when I was a child.
- He lived in London until I was fourteen.
- He walked into the bar and ordered a vodka and tonic.

b) With expressions like: It’s time, It’s high time, I would rather, I wish

e.g.: - It’s time you went home.

- Don’t come to see me today – I’d rather you came tomorrow.

- I wish I had a better memory (a regret in the present moment)

# I wish I would have a new car (a possible wish)

# I wish I had had a better memory ( a regret in the past moment or

impossible wish )

b) In a subordinate clause depending on a condition

e.g.: - If only she would say what she thought, things would be easier.
 - I would always try to help somebody who was in trouble.

- Would you follow me wherever I went?

d) The past modal forms: could, might, would and should, generally have present or future
reference.

e.g.: - Could you help me for a moment?

- I think it might rain soon.

- Would you come this way please?

e) To talk about past situations which still exist. This happens in reported speeches and in
some other cases.

e.g.: - I’m sorry we left Port-Gentil. It was such a nice place.

- I got this job because I was a good driver

- I married you because I wanted a wife who could cook.

B) CONTINUOUS OR PROGRESSIVE

1- Structure

A.F.: - S + was / were + V-ing

N.F.: - S + was / were + not + V-ing

I.F.: - Was / were + S + V-ing

2 – Usage

This tense is used

a) To talk about what was already happening at a particular past moment.

e.g.: - What were you doing yesterday at eight p.m.?

- When I got up this morning the sun was shining and the birds were singing.

- Hilda was dancing, but when she saw me, she stopped.

# We notice that, used with the simple past, the past progressive usually refers to
longer actions or situations; the simple past in one hand refers to shorter actions or events
that happened in the middle of the longer ones or interrupted them .

b) For temporary actions and situations

 e.g. - It happened while I was living in Moanda

- I was studying when I got married

- I was walking down the street when it began to rain

c) We can use the past progressive in the expressions “I was wondering, I was hoping, I was
thinking” to make a request or suggestion sound more polite.

e.g. – I was wondering whether you’d like to come out with me one evening.

- I was thinking if you’d accept this present

N.B. Do not forget the case of nonprogressive verbs.

C ) PERFECT (simple)

1 - Structure

A.F.: - S + had + past participle

N.F.: - S + had not + past participle

I.F.: - Had + S + past participle?

2 - Usage

The past perfect expresses an activity that was completed before another or a time in the
past. This tense carries the idea of anteriority of activities.

e.g. - My parents had already eaten by the time I got home. (by + past date)

-Until yesterday, I had never heard about it.

- The thief simply walked in. Someone had forgotten to lock the door.

Do notice this: - Sam had already left when we got there.

-Sam had already left before we got home.

-We got home after Sam had already left.

N.B.: The simple past may be used if either before or after is used in the sentence because the
time relationship is already clear.

e.g.- Sam left before we got there.

 - After the guests left, I went to bed.

D ) PERFECT CONTINUOUS or PROGRESSIVE

1 – Structure

A.F.: - S + had been + V- ing

N.F.: - S + had not been + V-ing

I.F.: - Had + s + been + V-ing?

2 – Usage

The past perfect progressive emphasizes the duration of an activity that was in progress before
another activity or a time in the past.

e.g. - The police had been looking for the criminal for two years before they caught him.

- The patient had been waiting in the emergency room for almost an hour before a doctor
finally treated her.

- Her eyes were red because she had been crying.

( tense markers: after, before, for, since )

III/ FUTURE TENSE

A) SIMPLE

1 - Structure

A.F.: -S + will/shall + simple form of the verb

N.F.: - S + will not (won’t)/shall not (shan’t) + simple form of the verb

I.F.: - Will/shall + s + simple form of the verb?

2 - Usage

a) When we decide to do something at the moment of speaking, we generally use will, shall
being used only for interrogative forms.

e.g.: - Oh! I’ve left the door open. - I’ll go and shut it
 - What would you like to drink? - I’ll have a coke.

- Did you phone Ann? - Oh no, I forgot. I’ll do it now.

- What shall I do?

b) We often say: - I think I’ll … / I don’t think I’ll … when we decide to do something but there’s
not a great difference between a decision made at the moment of speaking and a decision made a
few moment before.

e.g.: - I think I’ll stay home this evening / I think I’m going to stay home this evening

- I don’t think I’ll go out tonight, I’m too tired. / I don’t think I’m going out tonight.

c) Threats and promises.

Threats and promises are decisions. We usually use will/’ll but going to is also possible.

e.g.: - I promise I won’t get drunk again (I’m not going to get drunk again).

- I swear I’ll pay you back.

- I’ll hit you if you do that again.

d) Offers and Requests.

When we make offers and requests, we are asking for future actions to be decided. We usually
use “shall I” for offers. / “will you” for requests.

e.g.: - Will you give me a hand? (= please decide whether to give me a hand)

- Are you going to give me a hand? (= have you already decided to give me a hand?)

- Will you get me a newspaper when you’re out?

- Shall I carry your bag?

e) When agreeing or refusing to do something

e.g.: - Can I have the book I lent you back? // Of course, I’ll bring it back this afternoon.

- I’ve asked John to help me but he won’t.

f) When we predict a future happening or a future situation, will and going to are used

e.g.:- When you return home, you’ll notice a lot of changes

 - Tom won’t pass his examination. He hasn’t done any work for it.

- Do you think Tom will get a job? // Do you think Tom is going to get a job?

- Oh dear, it’s already four o’clock. We’ll be late. // We’re going to be late.

g) We often use will with these words and expressions: “probably,( I’m) sure,( I) expect,( I) think”

e.g.: - I’ll probably be late this evening

- You must meet Betty, I’m sure you’ll like her.

- I expect Carol will get a job.

- Do you think we’ll win the match?

B ) CONTINUOUS or PROGRESSIVE

1 - Structure

A.F.: - S + will/shall be + V-ing.

N.F.: - S + will not (won’t)/ shall not (shan’t) be + V-ing.

I.F.: - Will/ Shall + S + be + V-ing?

2 - Usage

a) It is used to say that an action will be in progress at a particular moment in the future.

e.g.: - This time tomorrow I’ll be lying on a beach in Port-Gentil.

- Don’t call me after eight, I’ll be having a dinner party with friends.

- I’ll be reading in the library when you arrive next Saturday.

b)It’s also used to express a polite way of asking about somebody’s plans without influencing.

e.g.: - Will you be having dinner with us this evening?

- Will you be using the car tomorrow? If not , I can borrow it.

C ) PERFECT (simple)

1 - Structure

A.F.: - S + will/shall have + past participle

 N.F.: - S + will not (won’t)/ shall not (shan’t) have + past participle.

I.F.: - Will / shall + S + have + past participle?

2 - Usage

We use the future perfect to say that something will have been completed, or finished by a
certain time in the future, or before a particular moment or action in the future.

e.g.: - I’ll have been here for eighteen years next February.

- The painters say they’ll have finished the downstair rooms by Tuesday.

- I’ll have finished my homework by the time I go out.

D ) FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE or CONTINUOUS

1 - STRUCTURE

A.F.: - S + will/shall have been + V-ing

N.F.: - S + will/shall not have been + V-ing

I.F.: - Will/Shall + S + have been + V-ing?

2 - USAGE

It emphasizes the duration of an activity that will be in progress before another one or a time
or an event in the future.

e.g.: - I will have been sleeping for two hours by the time he gets home.

- When professor Jones retires next month, he will have been teaching for forty-five years.

PRACTICE: Exercises on pages 53-54 / Understanding and Using English Grammar by Betty
Schrampfer AZAR.

IV/ CONDITIONAL TENSE

A) SIMPLE

1 - STRUCTURE

A.F.: - S + would/should + simple form of the verb

 N.F.: - S + would/should not + simple form of the verb

I.F.: - Would/should + S + simple form of the verb?

2 - USAGE

The simple conditional expresses a past action which didn’t happen or take place. (past
wish).

e.g. - I should/would come to see you the day you made the accident.

- He would do the washing -up yesterday.

- We should/would do our English test last week.

B) CONTINUOUS or PROGRESSIVE

1 - Structure

A.F.: - S + would/should be + V-ing.

N.F.: - S + would/should not be + V-ing.

I.F.: - Would/should + S +be + V-ing?

2 - Usage

The conditional continuous expresses a past action which should be in progress at a

point of time in the past or at the moment of another past action.

e.g.: - He would be working today if he joined the group on time.

- We would/should be travelling yesterday night.

- They would be playing in the garden when their parents arrived.

C) PERFECT (simple)

1) Structure

A.F.: - S + would/should have + past participle.

N.F.: - S + would/should not have + past participle.

I.F.: - Would/should + S + have + past participle?

2) Usage
 a) It expresses a past action which should have stopped before a point of time in the past
or before another past action.

e.g.: -I’d have seen the boss before my brother arrived.

- Andrew would have travelled before last month.

- We should have joined the University before last month

b) It’s also used in subordinate clause going on with “if-clauses” in which the past perfect
is used.

e.g.: - I’d have told you if I’d realized you didn’t know.

- She’d have stayed if they had asked her to.

- He wouldn’t have beaten her wife if he had got a good education.

D) PERFECT CONTINUOUS or PROGRESSIVE

1) Structure

A.F.: - S + would/should have been + V-ing.

N.F.: - S + would/should not have been + V-ing.

I.F.: - Would/should + S + have been + V-ing?

2) Usage

It emphasizes the duration of an activity which should have been completed or stopped
before a point of time in the past or before another past activity.

e.g. - This was the place where I should have been studying for the last three years.

- We should/would have been following courses here for three years if the war hadn’t
broken out.

OTHER USES OF “WOULD and SHOULD”

A / WOULD

1 - Past tense of “will” in reported speech after a past reporting verb

e.g.: - I’ll see you again tomorrow.

R.Sp.: He said that he would see me again the following (next) day.
 2 - Past habits.

e.g.: - Sometimes he would bring me little presents without saying why.

3 - Past refusals.

e.g.: - He was angry because I wouldn’t lend him any money.

4 - Requests are more polite with “would”.

e.g.: - Would you open the window, please?

- Would you mind if I took your blue pen?

5 - It expresses “willingness” after “-I wish // - If only”

e.g.: - I wish you would talk more quietly

- I wish Mary would come at my birthday party.

- If only Mum would come.

- If only Betsy would invite me.

B / SHOULD

1 - Past tense of “shall” in reported speech after a past reporting verb.

e.g.: - I shall attend the meeting. R.Sp.: He said he should attend the meeting.

- Shall I help you? P.Sp. : He asked if he should help me.

2 - In offers, suggestions and requests for instructions and advices.

e.g.: - Should I help you with the washing-up?

- What do you think I should do?

3 - Very often used to talk about duty and obligation. ( = ought to )

e.g.: -People should drive more carefully.

- You really should ring your parents.

- People should/ought to vote even if they don’t agree with any of the candidates.

NB: - With ”should” we give our own subjective opinion whereas “ought to” has got a more objective
force.

4 - “Should” as the equivalent of “Subjonctif francais”

a) With expressions such as: It’s important / natural / incredible / right / a pity / to be
expected … that…
 e.g.: - It’s quite natural that he should try to attract the readers’ attention.

- It’s right that you should give up smoking.

- It’s a pity that he should fail.

- I was astonished that she should do a thing like that.

b) After verbs like: Suggest that / recommend that / ask that / insist that / order that …

e.g.: - He recommends that you should keep yourself informed.

- She insists that you should travel

- They order that all the students should wear uniforms at school .

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