DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING
MINI PROJECT- REVIEW

Name of the Guide: Dr. V. Varalakshmi

Name: T.Harshitha
Roll No: 197Y1A0106

TITLE OF THE PROJECT

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF SOIL FERTILITY IN
NARSAMPET MANDAL

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION:

1.1 AN OVERVIEW
Soil is a major component of earth’s ecosystem. The world’s ecosystems are impacted in far-

reaching ways by the process carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming,
to rain forest destruction and water pollution. Soil is the largest global carbon reservoir on

Earth, and it is potentially one of the most susceptible to human disturbance and climate change.

As the planet warms, soil will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to its increased

biological activity at higher temperatures. Thus, soil carbon looses likely have a large positive

feedback response to global warming.

Soils supply plants with mineral nutrients held in placed by the clay and humus content

of soil. For optimum plant growth, the generalized content of soil components by volume

should be roughly 50% solids (45% of minerals and 5% of organic matter), and 50% voids of

which half is occupied water and half by gas. The percent soil mineral and organic content is

typically treated as a constant, while the percent soil water and gas content is considered highly

variable where by a rise in one is simultaneously balanced by a reduction in the other. The pore

space allows for the infiltration and movement of air and water, both of which are critical for

life in soil compaction, a common problem with soils, reduces this space, preventing air and

water from reaching the plant roots and soil organisms.

The most influential factor in stabilizing soil fertility are the soil colloidal particles, clay

and humus, which behave as a repositories nutrients and moisture and so act to buffer the

variation of soil solutions ions and moisture. The contribution of soil collides to soil nutrients

is out of proportion to their part of soi. Collides act to store nutrients that might otherwise be

leached from the soil or to release those ions in response to changes of soil pH, and so, to make

them available to plants.

 The greatest influence on plant nutrient availability is soil pH, which is a measure of the

hydrogen ion concentration (soil reactivity) and is in a turn a function of the soil materials, their

precipitation level, and plant root behavior. Soil pH strongly affects the availability of nutrients.

Most nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, originate from minerals. Some

nitrogenoriginate from rain, but most of the nitrogen available in soil is the result of nitrogen

fixation by bacteria. The action of microbe on organic matters and minerals may be to free

nutrients for use, sequester them, or cause their loss from the soil by their volatilization to

gasses or their leaching from the soil. The nutrients may be stored on soil colloids, and live or

dead organic matter, but they may not be accessible to plants due to extremes of pH.

The organic material of the soil has a powerful effect on its development, fertility, and

available moisture. Following water and soil colloids, organic material is next in importance to

soil’s formation and fertility.

1.2 SOIL NUTRIENTS ESSENTIAL FOR PLANTS

Six teen nutrients are essential for plant growth and reproduction. they are carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, born, manganese, copper, zinc, molybdenum, and chlorine.

Nutrients required for plants to complete their life cycle are considered essential nutrients.

nutrients that enhance the growth of plants but are not necessary to complete the plant’s life

cycle are considered non-essential. with the exception of carbon dioxide and water,the nutrients

derive originally from the mineral components of the soli. Although minerals are the origin of

those nutrients, the majority of component of the soil is the reservoir of the majority of readily

available plant nutrients. For the nutrients to be available to plant’s, they must be in proper

ionic form (with the exception of water and CO2). For example, the application of finely ground

minerals, feldspar and apatite, to soil does not provide the necessary amounts of potassium and
phosphorus for good plant growth. nitrogen is the primary limiting nutrient and phosphorus is

second to nitrogen as the primary nutrient for plants, animals and microorganisms.

The provision of plant nutrient involves chemical, biological processes. Nearly all plant

nutrients are taken up from the soil water solution in the form of ions,either cations or anions.

In an effort to gain nutrients, plants will release ions to the soil. Bicarbonate (HCO 3) and

hydroxyl (OH) anions released from plant roots enhance the absorption of nutrients anions;

similarly, hydrogen cations are released in exchange for cations forms of nutrients. As a result,

nutrients ions are ushed into the soil water solution from their sequestration on colloids to

become available to plants. Nitrogen, for example, is available in soil organic material but /is

unusable by plants until it is made available to plants. Nitrogen, for example, is available in soil

organic material but is unusable by plants until it is made available by that materials

decomposition by micro-organisms into cation or anion forms. The NH4(ammonium) and NO3-

(nitrate) forms of nitrogen are stored on the soil colloids until forced off those by the presence

of other cations and anions. After that, they will move by physical means to near the plant roots.

Generally, plant roots can readily absorb all of the nutrients from the soil solutions, provide

there is enough oxygen gas in the soil to support root metabolism

The bulk of moist nutrient elements in the soil is held in the form of primary and secondary

minerals, and organic matter. The primary minerals (mostly rock dust in the form of silt) hold

the nutrients too tightly to be readily available; the nutrients adsorbed onto the colloids clay

and humus are moderately available for absorption by plant roots. Gram for gram, the capacity

of hums to hold nutrients and water is far grater than that of clay. All in all, small amounts of

hums may remarkably increase the soils capacity to promote plant growth.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

• To collect the soil samples from the agriculture lands of rajupet village.
 • To analysis the soil nutritions and find the stability for plant growing.

• To compare the fertilizer variations between cultivated soil and crop growing soils.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE:
The scientists who studied the soil in connection with agriculture practices had considered it

mainly as a static substrate. However, soil is the result of evolution from more ancient

geological materials. After studies of the improvement of the soil commenced, others began to

study soil genesis and as a result also soil types and classifications.

In 1860, in Mississippi, Eugene W. Hilgard studied the relationship among rock material,

climate, and vegetation, and the type of soils that were developed. He realized that the soils

were dynamic, and attempted to classify them, Unfortunately his work was not continued. At

the same time VasilyDokuchaev (about 1870) was leading a team of soil scientists in Russia

who conducted an extensive survey of soils, finding that similar basic rocks, climate and

vegetation types lead to similar soil layering and types, and established the concepts for soil

classifications. Due to the language barriers, the work of this team was not communicated to

Western Europe until 1914. Later it became known when it was published in German by K. D.

Glinka, a member of Russian team.

Curtis F. Marbut was influenced by the work of the Russian team, translated Glinka’s

publication into English, and as he was placed in charge of the U. S. National Cooperative Soil

Survey, applied it to a national soil classification system.

Changes in soil properties due to cultivation and management and their consequences

for production capacity have been a concern of research for many years. An uncultivated soil

(or also referred to as a reference soil) gives information on the inherent quality as dictated by

the factors of soil formation. On the other hand, a cultivated soil provides information about

the dynamic quality of the changing nature of soil properties in response to the soil’s continuous

use. Da la land Mayer (1986) found that soils cropped for 20–70 years suffer eda decline in soil

organic matter (SOM) when compared with an adjacent uncropped soil. Comparison of soil

under natural vegetation and adjoining cultivated top soils has revealed that prolonged

agricultural land use alters them magnitude, diversity, and spatial variability of some soil

properties, mostly those related to fertility (Paz-Gonzalezetal.2000). Continuous cultivation

with frequent till age results in a rapid loss of OM through increased microbial activity

(Shepherd et al.). Intensive irrigated rice-based cropping systems provide Food and livelihood

for farmers in south and southeast Asian countries. The major irrigated rice-cropping systems

in the tropics and rice–wheat rotations in the subtropics Together cover a land area of 36Mh a

in Asia and account for about 50% of global rice production (Dobermann and Fairhurst 2000).

Published results have shown yield Stag nation and yield decline from a large number of long-

Term continuous cropping experiments in Asia (Daweetal.2000; Ladhaetal.2003a). Evidence

points to degradation of there source base, including soil quality, causing Negative changes in

crop productivity (Ladhaetal.2003b).

 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY:
3.1Sampling procedure:
Demarcate the sampling units based on crop growth, appearance of the soil, elevation

etc. and collect soil samples separately from each block /unit. To obtain a composite sample,

small portions of soil are to be collected upto the desired depth by means of suitable sampling

tool form at least 10 to 15 well distributed and random spots (from each sampling unit) after

scrapping off the surface litter, if any. When crops are planted in rows, samples can be drawn

in between the lines, if not recently fertilized. The best time for sample collection in when there

is no crop. If a khurpi or a spade is used, first make a V-shaped cut and then take a thin slice

from one side. Mix the entire quantity of soil thoroughly by hand on a clean surface or sheet.

Spread and quarters. Mix the rest two and continue quarterly until about 500g soil is left. Dry

it in shade and fill in a cloth or polythene bag.

3.2 METHOD OF SOIL TESTING USING PORTABLE SOIL

TEST KIT
3.2.1 pH (soil reaction):
Measure 5g soil with the scoop and transfer it to a clean beaker and pinch of charcoal.

Add 10ml pH reagent 1 and stirfor 10minutes using glass rod and then filter. To the clear filtrate
2 to 3 drops pH reagent 2 and mix well. Wait for few seconds for colour development. Match

the developed colour with the pH colour chart and record the pH of the soil sample.

Alternate method of pH determination with a portable pH

Meter:
Take one completely filled 5 ml scoop of soil, gently tap the soil with spatula and level

off the top edge of the scoop with spatula. Transfer this measured file to a clean beaker and add

a pinch of charcoal. Add 10ml of pH reagent 1 and stir for 10minutes use glass rod. Put on the

portable pH meter and immerse the electrode into the soil water suspension and measure pH of

the sample. Record the pH of soil sample.

Fig-3.1-pH COLOUR CHART

3.2.2 Electrical conductivity:

Keep soil-water suspension used for pH measurement or a fresh one for settling for 1015

minutes. Immersion the electrodes of portable E.C. meter in the standard solution provided in

the E.C. meter box. It should read the E.C. value given on the bottle. Adjust with the help of

the small screw driver if not reading correctly. Wash the electrode with distilled water and then

immerse in the supernatant liquid of the beaker and record the electrical conductivity and record
electrical conductivity dS/m directly. A value of <1.0 is safe, 1-2 marginally unsafe, 23 unsafe

for most plants and >3.0 highly injurious to all plants.

3.2.3 Organic Carbon (O.C.):

Take few grams of soil on the 0.5 mm sieve provided with the kit and sieve it completely

on to a clean paper. Measure 1g soil with the scoop and transfer it to clean test tube and add

2ml of O.C. reagent 1 using dropper teat followed by 2ml of O.C. reagent 2 carefully along the

walls of the test tube. Mix the contents of the test tube slowly and keep aside for 15 minutes.

Match the colour development with the O.C. colour chart and record the value of organic carbon

content.

Fig-3.2-ORGANIC CARBON COLOUR CHART

3.2.4 Available Nitrogen:

Measure 2g soil with scoop and transfer it to a clean soil shaking bottle and add 10ml

of Nitrogen reagent 1 using measuring cylinder, followed by a pinch of charcoal. Close the

bottle with inner and outer lids, shake the contents of the bottle for 10 minutes and filter. To

5ml of clean filtrate add a pinch of Nitrogen reagent 2 (powder) and shake the contents of the

test tube and keep aside for 15 minutes. Match the developed colour with the Nitrogen colour

chart and record the available nitrogen content.

 Fig-3.3-NITROGEN COLOUR CHART

3.2.5 Available Phosphorus (P2O5):

Measure 2g soil with the scoop and transfer it to a clean soil shaking bottle. Add a pinch

of charcoal and add 20ml Phosphorus reagent 1 using measuring cylinder. Close the bottle

with inner and outer lids, shake the contents for 10 minutes and filter into a clean test tube. To

5 ml of clear filtrate add 5-6 drops of Phosphorus reagent 2 and shake well. Add 4 ml of

Phosphorus reagent 3 using measuring cylinderfollowed by a pinch ofPhosphorus reagent 4

(powder) and mix well. Match the developed colour with the phosphorus colour chart and

record the available phosphorus content. Add reagent- 2 drop by gradually in order to avoid

frothing.

Fig-3.4-PHOSPHORUS COLOUR CHART

3.2.6 Available Potassium (K2O):
Measure 2g soil with the scoop, transfer it to a clean sharking bottle. Add a pinch of

charcoal and add 10 ml of Phosphorus reagent 1 using measuring cylinder. Close the bottle

with inner and outer lids, shake for 5 minutes. Filter the contents into a clean test tube. To 5 ml

of clear filtrate add 3-4 drops of Phosphorus reagent 2 and shake well. Match the white

turbidity so formed with the potassium colour chart and record the available potassium content.

Fig-3.5-POTASSIUM COLOUR CHART

3.2.7 Available Sulphur (SO4):

Measure 2g soil with the scoop, transfer it to a clean sharking bottle. Add a pinch of

charcoal and add 10 ml of Sulphur reagent 1 using measuring cylinder. Close the bottle with

inner and outer lids, shake for 5 minutes. Filter the contents into a clean test tube. To 5ml of

clear filtrate add 4-5 drops of Sulphur reagent 2 and mix well. Match the white turbidity so

formed with the sulphur colour chart and record the available sulphur content.
Fig-3.6-SULPHUR COLOUR CHART
 CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

4.1 INTRODUCTION:

In this project we collected the samples from cultivated soil. One type is from collected

already growing cotton in the land, it is at flowering stage and the second one cultivated soil

before used for growing cotton. To observe the variations of soil nutrition’s due to application

of fertilizer and pesticides, during the crop.

TABLE 1-SOIL TEST RESULTS:

Parameters Values Soil Test Level
pH Cultivated Land 7.2 Neutral

Uncultivated Land 8.68 Moderately Alkaline

Cultivated Land 160

Electrical Uncultivated Land 141

Conductivity

Cultivated Land 250-400 L. Medium

Nitrogen
Uncultivated Land < 250 Low

Cultivated Land 20-40 L. Medium

Phosphorus
Uncultivated Land < 20 Low

Cultivated Land > 340 High

Potassium
Uncultivated Land 145-340 Medium
4.2 DISCUSSION:

pH (soil reaction):

Soil pH is a master variable in soils because it controls many chemical and biochemical

processes operating within the soil. It is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a soil. The

study of soil pH is very important in agriculture due to the fact that soil pH regulates plant

nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and also

influences their chemical reactions. As a result, soil and crop productivities are linked to soil

pH value. Though soil pH generally ranges from 1 to 14, the optimum range for most

agricultural crops is between 5.5 and 7.5. However, some crops have adapted to thrive at soil

pH values outside this optimum range. The United States Department of Agricultural National

Resources Conservation Service groups soil pH values as follows: ultra acidic (<3.5), extremely

acidic (3.5–4.4), very strongly acid (4.5–5.0), strongly acidic (5.1–5.5), moderately acidic (5.6–

6.0), slightly acidic (6.1–6.5), neutral (6.6–7.3), slightly alkaline (7.4–7.8), moderately alkaline

(7.9–8.4), strongly alkaline (8.5–9.0) and very strongly alkaline (>9.0).

Soil pH is affected by the mineral composition of the soil parent material and the

weathering reactions undergone by that parent material. For instance, in humid environments,

soil acidification occurs for a long time as the products of weathering leached by water moving

laterally or downwards through the soil, while in the dry environments, soil weathering and

leaching are less intense, and soil pH is often neutral or alkaline.

Electrical conductivity:

The electrical conductivity is an important parameter used to estimate the level of

dissolved salts in water and soil. Salts include mineral plant nutrients that occur naturally in

soil and water, fertilizers applied and also other dissolved minerals that are not plant nutrients

and might even be harmful to plants. Distilled water does not conduct electricity. When salts

dissolve in water, they dissociate to into ions – positively charged ions, called cations, and

negatively charged ions, called anions. This gives the water the ability to conduct electricity.

A common parameter used to describe the total amount of the dissolved salts in water

is the total dissolved solids. TDS is the sum of the concentrations of all the dissolved ions,

measured in milligrams per litre or ppm (parts per million), where 1 milligram/litre = 1 ppm.

The electrical conductivity is, therefore, related to the TDS and is used as a measure of total

amount of dissolved salts. Generally speaking, the higher the concentration of dissolved salts

the higher the electrical conductivity.

Organic Carbon (O.C.):

Plants obtain their carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide. A plants weight is fortyfive

percent carbon. Elementally, carbon is 50% of plant material. Plant residues have a carbon to

nitrogen ratio (C/N) of 50:1. As the soil organic material is digested by arthropods and

microorganisms, the C/N decrease as the carbonaceous material is metabolized and carbon

dioxide (CO2) is released as a by product which then finds its way out of the soil and into the

atmosphere.
 In a field of maize on a still day during high light conditions in the growing season, the

CO2 concentration drops very low, but under such conditions the crop could use up to 20 times

the normal concentration.

Available Nitrogen:
Nitrogen is the most critical element obtained by plants from the soil and is a bottleneck

in plant growth. Plants can use the nitrogen as either the ammonium cation (NH 4) or the anion

nitrate (NO3). Nitrogen is seldom missing in the soil, but is often in the form of raw organic

material which cannot be used directly. The total nitrogen content depends on the climate,

vegetation, topography, age and soil management.

Nitrate may also be lost from the soil when bacteria metabolize it to the gases N 2 and

N2O. The loss of gaseous forms of nitrogen to the atmosphere due to microbial action is called

denitrification. Nitrogen may also be leached from the soil if it is in the form of nitrate or lost

to the atmosphere as ammonia due to a chemical reaction of ammonium with alkaline soil by

way of a process called volatilization. Ammonium may also be sequestered in clay

by fixation. A small amount of nitrogen is added to soil by rainfall.

In the process of mineralization, microbes feed on organic matter, releasing ammonia (NH 3).

Which may be reduced to ammonium (NH4+) and other nutrients.

Available Phosphorus (P2O5):

Phosphorus is the second most critical plant nutrient. The soil mineral apatite is the most

common mineral source of phosphorous. While there is on average 1000lb of phosphorus per

acre in the soil, it is generally unavailable in the form of phosphates of low solubility. Total

phosphorus is about 0.1% by weight of the soil, but only1% of that is available. Of the part
available, more than half comes from the mineralization of organic matter. Agricultural fields

may need to be fertilized to make up for the phosphorus that has been removed in the crop.

Available Potassium (K2O):

The amount of potassium in a soil may be as much as 80,000olb per acre-foot, of which

only 150lb is available for plant growth. Common mineral sources of potassium are the mica

biotite and potassium feldspar, KAlSi3O8. When solubilised, half will be held as exchangeable

cations on clay while the other half is in the soil water solution. Potassium fixation often occurs

when soils dry and the potassium is bonded between layers of illite clay. Under certain

conditions, dependent on the soil texture, intensity of drying, and initial amount of

exchangeable potassium, the fixed percentage may be as much as 90 percent within ten minutes.

Potassium may be leached from soils low in clay.

Available Sulphur (SO4):

Sulphur is essential to the formation of proteins and chlorophyll, and essential to plant

vitamin synthesis. Most sulphur is made available to plants, like phosphorus, by its release from

decomposing organic matter. Deficiencies may exist in some soils and if cropped, sulphur needs

to be added. The application of large quantities of nitrogen to fields that have marginal amounts

of sulphur may cause sulphur deficiency in the rapidly growing plants by the plants growth

outpacing the supply of sulphur. A 15-ton crop of onions uses up to 19 lb of sulphur and 4 tons

of alfalfa uses 15 lb per acre.